BUILDING PATHOLOGY & INSPECTION

Unit 1
Inspection Preliminaries

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1.1 Learning Outcomes

Understand the differences between synchronic and diachronic appraisals

of buildings.

Appreciate the requirements and responsibilities of undertaking a building
investigation.

Understand the uses and limitations of the main types of building surveying
equipment for undertaking property surveys.

Appreciate the main non-invasive and non-destructive testing techniques
used in building investigations.

Identify and approximately date the main forms of residential building
constructions.

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1.2 Synchronic Assessments
 Provide an assessment of a building or a comparison of a group of
buildings and their performance or condition at a particular moment or
period in time.

 Typically preferred by building surveyors, planners and architects

interested in comparing current condition or looking for current design
specifications and fashion.

 Building surveys, condition surveys and dilapidation surveys are typical

examples of synchronic assessments.

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1.2 Diachronic Assessment

Provides an indication of how buildings change or evolve over time.

Typically the process deployed by architectural historians and building

maintenance surveyors who wish to appraise condition or performance
over a measured period of time.

Maintenance surveys, heritage or conservation plan inspections and

historical surveys of older properties are typical methods of diachronic
assessments.

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1.2 Distinction: Synchronic and Diachronic Assessment

Synchronic assessments do not necessarily need to be undertaken within

the present timeframe. Can be taken anytime in the past. Historical studies
e.g. energy, maintenance and running cost.

Diachronic assessments can be undertaken at discreet periods in the past

where trends or patterns over time are being studied.

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1.3 Appointment- Requirements and Responsibilities

Procurement of a surveyor services will involve some form of contract with

the associated legal implications.

Surveyor should have working knowledge of the law relating to their

profession to enable them to perform their duties adequately.

Surveyor should not assume the role of legal advisor and when confronted
with a legal or contractual issue he/she should consult with or employ the
services of a solicitor.

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1.3.1 Appointment and Letter of Confirmation

Client’s needs are discussed fully at the briefing stage to ensure the
surveyor clearly understands the client’s need and the client is aware of the
extent or limitations of the report being requested.

The letter of confirmation should indicate the level of fee, method of

assessing fee, i.e. hourly or unit rates.

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Limitations or Qualifications:

 Type of survey e.g. structural, condition, measured.

 Extent of survey, e.g. whole or partial building and whether outbuildings
or grounds are included.
 Any limitations to inspection e.g. below carpets or behind large pieces
of furniture are included.
 Extent for arrangements need to be made for moving of furniture,
machinery or plants items.
 Extent of any testing of internal and external services, e.g. electrical,
water pressure, heating appliances or drainage.
 Extent to which enquires or research will be undertaken with 3rd parties,
e.g. local authorities, mining or land agencies.
 Possible valuations, costs of remedial works or re-building costs are
included.
 Timescales, fees and method of calculation.

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1.3.2 Surveyors Responsibilities

‘Duty of Care’- the surveyor shall have taken reasonable care to avoid acts
or omissions, which could reasonably foreseen and which are likely to
cause loss, injury or impairment to the client or 3rd party.

It is a standard of care and skill to be displayed by the surveyor and that a

reasonable level of competence and knowledge as would be associated
with a member of the surveying profession is demonstrated.

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1.3.2 Surveyors Responsibilities

Professional negligence relating to surveying:
 Failure to comply with instruction- by not fully or completing the client’s
requirements which would have been summarized within the letter of
confirmation.

 Failure to complete 3rd party enquiries- by not undertaking a full or

comprehensive desk study of, e.g. mining or contaminated land
records, or failure to confirm boundaries or ownership.

 Inadequate knowledge, skill or experience- no knowledge or

experience in completing the survey work.

 Failure to inspect properly- incomplete survey, e.g. not taking due care
and attention or omitting key elements; or making wrong or incomplete
analysis and subsequent conclusions of the observed data.

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1.3.3 Impartiality and Indemnity
To protect the clients interest the surveyor should:

Remain impartial- show no bias based on knowledge and skill and not on
emotive bias or ‘gut’ feeling.

Retains proper insurance- it is a mandatory requirement that a chartered

surveyor must obtain, and maintain for a specific time period, professional
indemnity insurance.

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1.4 Basic Inspection Procedures
Systematic approach to the process for inspection.

Assimilate client’s instructions.

Establish type and extent of survey

Undertake survey preparations (access & equipment).

Undertake desk top survey (3rd party documentation).

Undertake preliminary reconnaissance survey.

Undertake survey (external & internal).

Assimilate findings and analyze results.

Prepare report and conclusions.

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1.4.1 Desk-Top Investigation

Documentation that may require communication with a range of

organizations and bodies.

Investigation best undertaken prior to any physical survey for well

prepared briefed.

May require 3rd party permission for access.

May have deleterious materials within building or ground that require the
skills of a specialist contractor for site survey.

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1.4.2 On-Site Survey
The on-site survey consists of 3 key components:

Exterior survey- survey from external fabric, viewed from top to bottom
and note any defects.

Interior survey- survey of the internal fabric starting on upper levels, in a

clockwise direction to cover every rooms and correlation between defects
noted externally on the impact they are having internally.

Review surrounding area- identifies any elements externally which may

result in issues within the building fabrics. Ex. Trees, evidence of local
subsidence caused by mine workings.

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1.4.3 Assimilate Findings, Analyze and Report
On site procedural check list to provide systematic and structured approach
to capturing, interpreting and reporting on findings are as follows:

Gather evidence- record findings e.g. sketches, detailed notes or as digital

photos.

Marshall facts- assemble information and data in a prioritized manner,

eliminate erroneous or doubtful data. Significance , details should be
verified (by re-visit or re-assessment) before elimination.

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1.4.3 Assimilate Findings, Analyze and Report

Interpret & validate evidence- explain findings and details implications to
client, e.g. risks involved (costs or uncertainty).
 Major areas for concern should be confirmed.
 Risks perceived as high verification could be undertaken by a 2nd
professional or specialist.

Review findings- critically appraise findings and proposed conclusions and

compare with initial instruction to ensure accuracy and that there is no
exposure to risks or charges of negligence.

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1.4.3 Assimilate Findings, Analyze and Report

Refer to figure 1.2 for Good Quality, annotated sketches are an effective
way of recording information and can save time in preparing report.

Example of Poor Quality Sketch

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1.5 Testing Techniques

Types of tests:

Destructive- where some form of intrusive inspection or preparation is
undertaken prior to the test. E.g. taking sample for internal plasterworks
for moisture content determination, restoration to original condition shall
be repair by pre-mixed plaster.

Non-destructive – where no intrusive works are undertaken, e.g.

measurements or tests are done without disturbing the building fabrics like
using electric resistance moisture meter.

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1.5 Testing Techniques

Field/in-situ tests: Undertaken on site, these are typically more accurate and
representative of performance as the materials or products are undisturbed
and have not been altered or contaminated by removal. E.g. infra-red
thermography and air tightness testing.

Laboratory tests: involves the removal of a sample of materials for

subsequent testing at the test house. Laboratory conducted tests provide
extremely accurate representation of the sample. Whereas site measuring
can be open to interpretation.

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1.5 Testing Techniques

Infra-red thermography.

Air tightness testing - Air tightness testing is the procedure to trace any
unwanted drafts and uncontrolled airflow through the house. Too much air
leakage leads to heat loss resulting in higher C02 emissions. Reducing C02
emissions is the purpose of ‘Part L’ of the new building regulations through
air tightness testing, air leakage testing and air permeability testing

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1.6 Building Surveying Equipment

A basic tool kit required by the surveyor. The following list has been categorized
by function as follows:

Access and safety- safe access to areas above ground level requiring the
use of ladders, steps, mobile scaffolding towers and in extreme situations
mobile elevated work platforms. To adhere to HSE with proper and adequate
PPE as well.

Measurement and inspection- a range of distance and length measuring
devices should be carried, e.g. tape measure, ruler, graduated probe. Spirit
level, plumb line, torch, hand mirror and binoculars.

Recording- traditionally the surveyor recorded findings and sketches in pen
or pencil. PDA, Digital camera. Avoid over doing photography.

Hand tools- screwdrivers, hammers, bolsters, paintbrush, saws, chisels and
etc. caution to be taken as not to damage building unnecessary.

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1.6 Building Surveying Equipment

Specialists tools- they include:

 Moisture reading meter,

 Endoscope- an optical fibre device used to

inspect cavities and small voids, require a
drill to prepare an entry hole.

 Metal detector- hand held for detecting

wall ties fixings, hidden structural members.

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1.6 Building Surveying Equipment

Specialists tools- they include:

Decay-detecting micro drill- low voltage,

hand held drill which can be used to detect
for decay in structural timbers.

Infra-red photography– used to detect thermal

bridging in building elements. Used to detect
moisture where increased heat loss arises due
to wetted building fabric.

Impulse radar or ultrasonic— used to

determine the extent of voids in structural decks,
can also be utilized to determine the
presence of moisture in building elements.
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1.7 Moisture Detecting and Measuring Techniques
Moisture is one of the key factors in the deterioration of building materials,
its detection and measurement are one of the key elements of a detailed
building survey. The techniques available are as follows:

Electric resistance or ‘Pin’ type- operates by

the application of a voltage across the
two penetrating pins; the subsequent measurement
of current (or resistance)across the pins provides a
measure of moisture content.

Electrical capacitance (Radio Frequency)- a small

electric field is created in the material directly
below the meter’s transmitter/receiver. The
response from the substrate is measured
and a moisture content indicated.
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1.7 Moisture Detecting and Measuring Techniques

Infra-red thermography- this is not a technique

for measuring moisture content, rather it is a IR image of a flat roof. (Light areas are
technique for detecting moisture. It does provide entrained moisture.)

a cost effective means by which large areas of walling or roofing.

Calcium carbide ‘Speedy’- a small drilled sample of (masonry) material is mixed with
weighted quantity of calcium carbide inside a pressure vessel. The technique can be
adapted to provide samples through thickness of wall or floor, therefore providing an
accurate moisture profile across the construction. The calcium carbide provides a low cost,
portable and accurate method for determining moisture content. However, care needs to
be taken in handling the potentially explosive calcium carbide!

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1.8 Identification of Building Types
The categorization can take a number of forms including the following:

Use/function- domestic dwelling: commercial or industrial building; utility;

educational; banking; retail and etc. Useful when undertaking general,
comparative condition surveys of a stock of buildings, however may be
limited as the constructional detail or ages of the building may vary.

Type/size- single storey bank; 200 bedroom hotel and etc. Useful when
undertaking comparative surveys but may be limiting when assessing
specific details, defects or issues which may be constructional or age
related.

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1.8 Identification of Building Types

Era- buildings ordered in chronological order, this can be a useful
identification tool as it also provides a general indication of constructional
form.
The following are common categories:
 Pre-Georgian: Prior to early 1700’s.
 Georgian: 1714-1830.
 Victorian: 1837-1901.
 Inter-war: 1919-1939.
 Post war: 1945 to current time.

Construction- masonry cavity; timber frame ; steel frame; composite panel;

prefabricated; slip-form etc. Probably the most useful categorization of
buildings. From the constructional information it is possible to generate an
indicative date of construction; possible function and likely defects.

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1.8.1 Traditional Forms of Construction
Construction techniques have changed and developed considerably over time as
materials were developed and technology and skills improved. The forms of
construction are as follows:

Primitive: early constructional forms relied heavily on

indigenous materials and skills, and vary depending
upon geographical area.
 Crux frame- typically, trees or samplings formed into
a crude truss or cruck which provides the principal support
to the roof or walling.

 Earth/cob walling- a mix of clay or earth and

chopped straw, either rammed into formwork to from self
supporting walling or applied like plaster to a lattice work
of light twigs and branches.

 Thatch roofing- straws, reeds, tough grasses

and seaweed have been utilized to provide the
weatherproofing layer to the roof.

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1.8.1 Traditional Forms of Construction

Vernacular: concerned with domestic and functional building
rather than public and normally pertaining to a particular location.

Conventional: building techniques with which we would be familiar today, although not
necessarily ‘modern’ techniques they tend to be viewed as ‘traditional’ forms of
construction, and would typically include the following:

 Solid load bearing masonry- discrete units of

natural stone, clay brick or concrete block formed into a
solid mass by laying in a bed of lime or cement based
mortar. Solid walls are typically 225-1500mm wide.

 Cavity wall construction- 2 leaves of stone, clay brick

or concrete blocks separated by a clear cavity. The masonry
units are laid in a bed of mortar and the 2 leaves are tied
together using galavanised or stainless steel (wall) ties.
Cavity walls are typically 250-45- mm wide. The cavity
can be fully or partially filled thermal insulation material to
reduce thermal heat losses. 29
1.8.2 Modern Forms of Construction
Developed for faster construction times, a key feature of these modern forms
of construction was the introduction of logistics, fabrication and assembly
techniques from the electronics and engineering industries.

Non-traditional: building is constructed by different assembly or erection techniques with

modified site practice and operative training or specialist application.

 Industrialized- depend on mechanical plant

on site and the assembly of off-site prefabricated units.

 System- system building techniques typically involve the design, specification,

fabrication and assembly or erection by a single organization. Proprietary examples
include: Clasp, Airey, Bison.

 Modular- modular systems are prefabricated

assemblies which are transported to site. They can
range in scale from door and windows sets which
have modular or standardized dimensions to completed
rooms or pods which are fully serviced, furnished and
decorated and simply assembled on site. 30

Contemporary:
 Framed- buildings which incorporate a
separate structural frame, e.g. timber,
steel or concrete which safely transfers the
dead and live loads to ground level.

 Unframed- buildings which rely on the

structural integrity or mass of the walling
or floor materials to transfer loads to ground
level. Traditional solid wall to non-traditional
large concrete panel system.

 Always seek specialist structural advice to

determine whether the building is framed or unframed.
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1.8.3 Dating of Buildings

The age of the building can be determine by a number of factors:

Construction- age of building can provide some
indication as to the construction of the building.

Deleterious materials- some materials commonly used

in the past are now considered hazardous, e.g. asbestos,
lead base paint, high alumina cement, etc.

Service life- all building materials have an

effective service life, this is typically reflected in
their use within the construction. With age
of the building , it should be possible to determine
the residual life of key components which allow better
accuracy in analysis.
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Determine the Age of A Building.

Direct methods:

Building marks- some building are dated,
cravings or detailing can indicate specific dating.

OS Plans- highlight individuals buildings

and accurate dates can be established.
Local libraries carry historical copies of OS maps.

Documentary evidence – original architectural

drawings, on title deeds

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Determine the Age of A Building.
Indirect methods:

Architectural style- the form and
style of a building can often be used to
date a building within a few years of original construction.

Form of construction- the construction techniques of a

building can also indicate approximate dates.

Dendrochronology- a technique to age timber

by counting and comparing the annual growth rings
relate date of construction as well.

Local place names- where local

place or place or street names were
chosen to reflect local history can provide
an approximation of a building’s age.
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Conclusion

The surveyor has a legal obligation to his client to provide a professional

and impartial service based on knowledge and experience of wide range of
buildings.

In undertaking survey the surveyor requires to have access to a range of

tools and equipment which must be used safely and appropriately.

In preparing for the survey a considerable amount of data may already

exist and it is the responsibility of the surveyor to capture, prioritize and
confirm the reliability of this data.

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