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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I’d like to take this opportunity to acknowledge the efforts of my brothers Aravind Sankar,
Jino Mathews Raju, Varun M Nair, Nihal Sahu and Adarsh Vijayakumar for staying up all
night with me to help in drafting these notes.I also thank the creators of Sting Energy Drink,
without whom we would not have been awake all night. I also thank Giri Aravind and
Amitabh Sankar for their consultancy drafting help. Special Thanks to Mahathi for separating
the quotes from the online notes and to her team who prepared the online lecture notes. I also
acknowledge the contributions and guidance of our profesor Dr.G.Sadanandan. Last but not
the least I thank God and seek his blessings to whoever is writing the exams.

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PREFACE
These notes have been prepared with reference to the Calicut University PDFs. We also
cross-referenced it with Mahathi’s Notes, Quotes, and also added relevant portions from
Politics Among Nations by Hans J Morgenthau, Global Politics by Andrew Heywood and
International Relations by Palmer and Perkins. We also added internet materials . This time,
we truly tried our best to make it an ‘Ultimate’ Notebook. We tried to simply every concept
as much as possible with the limited time we had. The notes are not perfect, but their
definitely enough to pass with decent marks. All the Best

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To the “so called” Batch of 2023, NUALS, Kochi

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SYLLABUS
● Module I :
○ International Relations - Meaning, Nature, Scope and Importance -
International Relations and International Politics - World Community in
Transition
○ Approaches to Study of International Relations - Realism, Systems
Theory, Game Theory, Dependency Theory, Communication Theory and
Integration Theory.
● Module II :
○ National Power - Elements of National Power - Geography, Natural
Resources and Raw Materials, Population, Economic Development,
Technological Development, Leadership, Ideology, Morale, National
Character, etc.. - A Critical Appraisal, Limitations of National Power.
○ Balance of Power - Meaning and Types - Assumptions and Postulates -
Role of Balancer - Nature of Balance of Power during the Classical Period -
Methods of Maintaining Balance of Power - Relevance of Balance of Power
in the Modern Nuclear Age
● Module III : Methods of Maintaining International Peace and Security
○ Pacific Settlement of Disputes - An Analysis
○ Collective Security - Meaning, Nature and Assumptions - Conditions
Necessary for the successful operation of Collective Security
○ International Law - Meaning, Nature and Sources - Limitations of
International Law in Contemporary Global Politics
○ Disarmament and Arms Control - Meaning, Interrelationship - A Review
of the Disarmament Initiatives during the Cold War and Post- Cold War
Periods - Obstacles to Nuclear Disarmament.
● Module IV : International Organizations (Evolution : An Overview) and Global
Peace
○ League of Nations - Structure and Functions - Achievements and Failures
of the League of Nations : A Critical Analysis
○ The United Nations Organization - The UN Charter - Principles and
Objectives of UNO - The General Assembly, The Security Council, The
Economic and Social Council, Secretariat, Trusteeship Council and
International Court of Justice. Role of Secretary General - Achievements of
UNO.
● Module V : National Interest and Foreign Policy - Meaning and Interrelationship
- Vital Interest and Secondary Interest. Determinants of Foreign Policy. Objectives
and Principles of India’s Foreign Policy. India’s Relations with Pakistan, China,
USA, Russia, Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka : A Review

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MODULE I

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

International Relations is an important branch of Social Science. The Scope of International

relations is the complex relations existing among the sovereign states of the world. It is mainly
concerned, among other things, with the study in depth of all events and situations affecting
more than one state.

The great Greek Philosopher Aristotle, said that man by nature is a social animal. Being a social
animal, man can’t live in isolation. His basic nature and his basic needs make him to satisfy his
numerous needs in association with others. Moreover no man is self sufficient even in his daily
needs and therefore, he has to depend upon his fellow man for existences. Just as no individual
can live in isolation, no state can afford to live in isolation. Like the individual no state is self
sufficient. Naturally, it has to cultivate relations between states. These relations are the subject
matter of International Politics.

MEANING

According to Hartman “International Relations as a field of study is focused upon the process
by which states adjust their national interest to those of other states”.

Padelford and Lincoln define it as the “Interactions of state policies within the changing
patterns of power relationships”. According to Quincy Wright “International Relations is the
relations between groups of major importance in the life of the world at any period of history
and particularly relations among territorially organized nation states which today are of such
importance. We will also use the term to designate the studies of discipline, describing,
explaining or assisting in the context of these relations. With the assistance of these definitions
it can be understood that nations try to protect their incompatible interest by means of power.

Padelford and Lincoln define it as the “Interactions of state policies within the changing
patterns of power relationships”. According to Morgenthau. “It is the struggle for and use of
power among nations.”

Palmer and Perkins opine that International politics is essentially concerned with state system.
Sprout and Sprout also defined international politics as those aspects of the interactions and
relations of independent political communities in which some element of opposition, resistance
and conflict

NATURE

International Politics constitute relations and interactions among nations. As in politics, so in

international politics, there are sovereign states whose interests are not identical. Those
interests of the sovereign states are called national interest. The sovereign states in order to
achieve their interest come into conflict with one another and as a means to achieve the ends,

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power is generally used. Thus INP is that aspect of interactions and relations of sovereign states
in which the element of conflict or interest is present. It is a process in which nations try to
protect their incompatible interest by means of power.

But international relations are not merely state to state political relations but it is something
more than this. As Hartmann says “INRS include all intercourse among states and all
movements of peoples, goods and ideas across national frontiers. Thus it is clear that
international Relations covers a wider meaning than mere political relations. No doubt political
factors dominate over other factors in international Relations namely economic, cultural and
religious factors. Therefore it studies it studies the totality of all relations of all those factors
between, and among the states of the world.

SCOPE

International Politics is an important branch, of social science and it is interdisciplinary in

nature. Scope means areas of study. The scope of International Relations is not yet well settled.
In 1954 the UNESCO published a booklet edited by C.A W Manning. In this book IR has been
recognised as an independent discipline. During the last 40 years this discipline has evolved all
the traits of an independent study and it can be understood from its progress that it is well on
its way to becoming and Independent academic discipline. Most of the scholars of international
Relations describe the following aspects in the study of this discipline.

1. State system
2. National Interest
3. National Power
4. Foreign Policy
5. Instruments of international politics – Diplomacy. Foreign policy, international trade,
Economic and Military assistance etc.
6. Nationalism, Colonialism and imperialism.
7. Control of interstate Relations – Balance of power-International law and international
organizations.
8. Dynamic elements and new Dimensions-Rivalry between superpowers and different
blocs of Nations.
9. World government.
10. War and peace ideologies.
11. Ethnic groups – Races of mankind and Terrorist groups.
12. International Regionalism.
13. Nuclear weapons and its use.
14. International organization and its role in maintaining world order.

International Relations is a developing subject it has to keep pace with the highly dynamic, and
developing nature of relations among nations. Hence its scope is bound to be ever expanding
in content.

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IMPORTANCE

In this increasingly interdependent world its study is essential for human survival and human
progress. It reveals how men and nations tend to act in given circumstances and so tells us what
conditions should be encouraged and what conditions should be discouraged if we are to
promote international harmony and well being.

In international relations we deal with nations and human beings. The states are sovereign in
nature and sovereign nation states have not yet learned to live in peace. War is the most
important problem facing the world community. Today a war cannot be fought with the nuclear
weapons, since it would destroy the whole civilization that mankind has built up. The students
of international relations should bear in mind this cold reality. Attempts may be made to put an
end to this ugly phenomenon of war.

Again,. no community can live in isolation. What is being witnessed is increasing global
interdependence, both political and economic. A war anywhere or fluctuations in prices of
commodities like oil will affect all countries. Under such conditions the study of international
relations will help people to know each other and understand the problems which confront
them.

Our aim is to create a world state. Every people should have consciousness about the
brotherhood of man. A basic knowledge of the cultural or linguistic or racial peculiarities of
the people of the world would help us to create more understanding and tolerance.

The objects can be summed up as follows:

1. To find out ways and means leading to the establishment of peace.
2. To avoid conflict among nations and to seek the areas of cooperation.
3. To give less and less importance to the external sovereignty and to perpetuate the idea
of world brotherhood.
4. To help the underdeveloped and undeveloped countries by pooling the resources of
economically advanced countries.
5. Liquidation of imperialism and colonialism.
6. To balance the power among nations.
7. To establish collective security for maintaining peace and avoid aggression.
8. To give respect and obey the international law.
9. To respect and strengthen the working of international organization.
10. To maintain a high standard of International morality.
11. To assure the proper enjoyment of Human rights and fundamental freedoms.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND INTERNATIONAL POLITICS

Many writers have shown their inability in drawing a line of demarcation between International
Relations and international Politics. Kenneth Thompson and Morgenthau consider

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International Politics as an inalienable part of International Relations. This superfluous

resemblance does not make International Politics the core of International Relations. Both are
different from each other as shown below:

1. International Relations includes all sorts of relations ie. political, economic, cultural,
geographical, legal and non official. So it embraces the totality of relations among
people. But International Politics includes only the political aspects of the overall
relations. In other words only those relations which arouse actions and reactions are the
subjects of International Politics. Thus it can be said that international politics is the
political aspects of international Relations.
2. International Relations is a wider concept whereas international politics is a narrower
concept.
3. The methodology of the study of international relations is descriptive while that of
international politics is purely analytical. In international relations the factors are
studied chronologically while in international politics the basis of study is what, when
and how of the present with a relationship between the past and future.

It is established beyond doubt that international politics derives its strength from international
relations. The former uses the latter as the basis and subject matter of study and hence both are
one and the same thing. Modern international politics aims at the establishment of peace
through the international organization and international relations too are based on this very
principle. Thus, concern for peace is the common denominator between international politics
and international relations.

APPROACHES TO STUDY OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

The History of modern political thought is the story of a contest between two schools that differ
fundamentally in their conception of the nature of man, society and politics. Realism and
idealism are the two main competitors for recognitions as the sound approach to the study of
international politics. One believes that a rational and moral political order derived from
universally valid abstract principles achieved. It assumes the essential goodness and
changeability of human nature. It trusts in education, reform and the periodic use of force to
remedy these defects. This is the idealistic school. The basic assumption underlying realist
approach is rivalry and strife among nations in some form or other. It is contest for power or
influence always goes on in international society, and this contest cannot be controlled by
International law or Government. Therefore, the prime function of Diplomacy and
Statesmanship is to check the contest for power and the means to be adopted, for its new
balance of power.

REALISM

The Philosophy as realism which flourished almost throughout the 18th and 19th centuries has
been revived after the Second World War. E.H .Carr, George Kennan, Thompson, Schuman
and H.J.Morgenthau are the leading realists.

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Morgenthau's is generally recognised as the main exponent of this theory, hence Realism is
also called Morganthauism. It was he who gave theoretical orientation to realism. He is the first
to develop a realistic model. According to him, the central focus of realism is power. Other
realists who follow Morgenthau have only carried forward the tradition established by him.
Since Morgenthau is the chief advocate of the realist school it is proper to discuss in detail his
realist theory of International politics. In his famous book ‘Politics Among Nations, published
in 1948, Morgenthau propounded the theory. He has developed his theory in the form of six
principles of political realism.

(Six)Principles of Political Realism

1.Politics is governed by objective laws which have their roots in human nature.

“Politics like society in general is governed by certain objective laws which have their roots
in human nature. In order to improve society it is necessary to understand the laws by which it
operates. Political laws emanate from social laws which have a bearing on human nature.
Human nature from time immemorial has not changed.”

Universal principle - whatever be the change taking place in the global scenario, the attitude of
the people has not changed. He closely connected political laws to social laws and social laws
to human nature.

“Contradiction is the moving principle of the world” - Hegel

Changes will definitely take place in every society. It is a ceaseless …..

2.The main element of Political realism is the concept of national interest which
Morgenthau defines in terms of power.
It (power) infuses rational order into the subject matter of politics, and thus makes the
theoretical understanding of politics possible. “The concept of national interest is defined in
terms of power” while economists define interest in terms of wealth. HJM believes that the
concept of national interest is defined in terms of power. It is the most basic and fundamental
principle around which political realism revolves.
“The best state should always be based on the consent of the governed” - John Locke.

3.Realism assumes that interest defined as power is an objective category which is

universally valid but not with a meaning that is fixed once and for all.
Interest and power are no doubt the key concept in Morgenthau’s Theory, but the meaning
attached to them is not static and fixed once and for all. The state's interests are fluid and change
with the ever changing situation in the world at large.
Power is the control of man over man. “Political realism does not take either a fixed or
determined meaning of interest which is defined in terms of power” at the global level, the
action of the state is determined by various factors and it does not take a fixed form of action

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against all other states. It varies from state to state. Environmental factors, natural calamities,
trade relations, religion, domestic compulsions are other factors influencing international
relations.

4.Political realism, though aware of the moral significance of political action, maintains
that universal moral principles should not be applied to the action of states in their
abstract universal formulation
It is also aware of the tension between the moral command and the requirements of successful
political action. Realism maintains that “universal moral principles cannot be applied to the
actions of states in their abstract universal formulation, but that they must be filtered
through the concrete circumstances of time and place.” There exist dual types of moral
principles at the global level. Nations as players are following their own selfish moral
principles of national interest. All national actors should not be insisted/compelled to strictly
follow moral principles of universal interest, in toto. He took note of the realities of the
contemporary national politics before coming to this conclusion. At the global level two types
of divergent moral principles exist, those are, national principles and universal principles.
“Politics devoid of religion is meaningless.”(gandhi) Marx as a humanist who pleads for the
equality among human beings. Reasonable amount of modification or change. General will (JJ
Rousseau) is based on reason.

5.As political realism does not identify national interests with universal morality and
defeats its own purpose, it does not treat what is right and justifiable for certain nation
as good for all countries.
Political realism refuses to identify the moral aspirations of a particular nation with the
moral laws that govern the universe. It is the concept of interest defined in terms of power
that saves us from moral excess and political folly. “As a body of thought political realism
refuses to accept any identification between moral aspirations of a particular country and
the moral aspirations governing the universe.” Recognises the diversity of moral principles.

6.The political realist maintains the autonomy of the political sphere

1
Political realism is based on a pluralistic conception of human nature. A man who was nothing
but "political man" would be a beast, for he would be completely lacking in moral restraints.
But, in order to develop an autonomous theory of political behavior, "political man" must be
abstracted from other aspects of human nature. “Political realism believes in the autonomy of
the political sphere.”

Assumptions of Political Realism:

1. Statesmen decide to pursue their national interest
2. The interest of every nation lies in the expansion of its influence (political, military,
economic, territorial expansion).

1
“How does this policy affect the power of the nation?”

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3. State use or seek force for the protection of their national interest.States can make use
of non-peaceful methods if peaceful methods fail.
Criticism of Political Realism
Like any other general theory, Morgenthau’s realist theory appears vague and abstract when
subjected to detailed examination. Although he has termed his theory as realist, the rational
statesman he has envisaged to exist more in theory than in reality. As Stanley Hoffman has
pointed out, irrational factors to influence Statesmen’s decisions as it would be unrealistic to
brush them aside as irrelevant intrusions or pathological deviations. History is replete with
fanatic rulers who saw no other social good and morality except the one that they had cherished.
To say that such fantasy was not rational is to admit the limitations of his realist model.
In conclusion we may say that Morgenthau made the study of international politics scientific.
His two messages are (1) adopt that policy which enhances the power of a nation. (2) Know
other’s interest to avoid conflicts. So his approach is less open to risk.
SYSTEMS THEORY

Besides the idealist and realist approaches there are some other approaches which are more
reasonable and realistic. The systems approach is one among them. Among the political
scientists who made a significant contribution to this theory mention must be made of David
Easton, Gabriel Almond and Morton A Kaplan (Systems and Processes in International
Politics).

Mortan Kaplan is one of the best representative of the system approach Kaplan believes that a
system is most inclusive if it has such recognizable interest as are neither completely identical
not necessarily opposed to each other. A political system should have specific areas of
jurisdiction and should provide methods for settling conflicts of jurisdiction. To him, force is
necessary as a last resort to keep the political system intact. He believes that the most important
system is the international system. But he does not regard international system as apolitical
system is subordinate to their role of decision making with international system is subordinate
to their role in the national actor system.Kaplan tries to analyse the past international relations
and current practices and tries to predict future events2. He thinks that the behaviour of national
actors in the field of international affairs is always governed by the basic consideration of
national interests. In other words to Kaplan actors on international scene belong to two
categories: national actors and Supranational actors. National actors are the nation states like
Soviet Russia, U.S. India, Saudi Arabia etc. The Supranational actors are such international
actors as the NATO, Warsaw pact, the U.N. etc.

Morton Kaplan suggests that six international systems may be identified:

1. The Balance of Power System:

This model of international system refers to the balance of power system that operated in
the18th and 19th century Europe. - golden age

2
Example:- In late 50s, it was used to prove hegemony of the US on other nations of the world

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Great britain and france played a very important role in the balance of power and acted as the
two major national actors in 19th century.

Features of a Balance of Power System:

(1) It is constituted by 5 or 6 major powers/actors. Only national actors (USA) dominated the
balance of power and not supranational actors (collection of important countries - NATO) or
Universal actor -(UN) or Non-member actor (NAM)
(2) Each actor seeks to increase its capabilities through negotiations and not through resort to
war.
(3) Each actor is prepared to fight (non-peaceful methods) rather than pass on an opportunity
to increase capabilities for protecting its national interest. 1st point
(4) The actors maintain a balance in their power positions, and no actor is permitted to become
unduly powerful.
(5) An actor or a group of actors in such a system can resort to war for maintaining the balance
of power in their relations.
(6) No actor is to be eliminated from the system. The actor terminates the war before the
opponent is eliminated. 3rd point
(7) An actor or a group of actors acts for opposing any other group or single actor that tends to
[assume unduly powerful position and dominance with respect to the rest of the system.
(8) Attempts are made to check the actors who try to follow supranational organizing
principles.
(9) The defeated or constrained essential actors are permitted to re-enter the system as
acceptable role partners. 4th point - the defeated country will no longer be treated as a major
national actor
(10) Actors act to bring some previously inessential actor within the essential actor
classification and treat all essential actors as acceptable role partners.

Alliance is not encouraged. Alliances will undermine the very essence/ existence of the system.
2nd point These ten features keep intact the ‘balance’ in relations. The failure to keep up these
leads to disturbances and finally to an end of the balance. The end of the balance leads to an
end of the system. In the early years of the 20th century these rules were not followed by major
international actors and the Balance of Power system suffered a breakdown. It led to the
outbreak of First World War in 1914. Great britain acted like a balancer in this game.

2. The Loose Bipolar Model:

The Loose Bipolar System comes into existence when two powerful nations are successful in
organizing the other nations into their two respective competing blocs or groups. However, the
organisation of the blocs is loose and internal differences prevail among the members of each
bloc. There are also present several other supra-national and regional actors.

In other words, the Loose Bipolar System is constituted by two major bloc-actors, non- member
bloc-actors (like the group of Non-aligned), and universal actor/actors, like the UN. In it, blocs

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try to increase their relative capabilities as well as to limit or weaken their rival bloc. Each bloc
strives to use the universal actor for increasing its own power. The non-bloc actors tend to
support the universal actor for reducing the danger of war between rival blocs. Blocs attempt
to extend membership but along with it tends to tolerate the status of non-bloc actors. Presence
and activation of non-member actors makes the world a loose bipolar system.

3. The Tight Bipolar System:

The Loose Bipolar System easily gets transformed into a Tight Bipolar System. It is a bipolar
system in which the two major powers lead their respective blocs of allied powers. Each bloc
is dominated by a major power. The international organisations are very weak and there are no
neutral blocs or nations. International relations take the form of interactions between the two
blocs. There will be a virtual disappearance of the non-member actors, hence the system
would be a tight bipolar one.

4. The Universal Actor System:

The fourth model is the Universal System in which the nations get organised in a federal
system. It is a hypothetical model in which the world gets transformed into a Federal World
State based upon the principle of mutual toleration and universal rule of law. It works through
a universal actor—an international organisation. The universal actor is powerful enough to
check war and preserve peace or a balance in international relations. A lot of comprehensive
functions performed by universal actors in this system.
UN Charter Imposing political action - if nations as actors adhere to the charter then the national
interests can be protected.
In this system, one nation is left out and this nation is strong enough to threaten the security of
others. One nation will be controlling the destiny of peace and war. He was in favour of the
revival of imperialism and the traditional form of colonialism. He was trying to establish the
hegemony of the US in the global system.

5. The Hierarchical (International) System:

As a result of Imperialism / democracy(federal / unified)
Such a model can come into existence when a single powerful super power may bring, either
through a conquest or a treaty, all other nations under its control. The states as territorial units
are then transformed into functional units. The super-power becomes the universal actor and
absorbs all other nations. In case this system comes into existence through conquest, it is a
directive system, and when it comes through democratic means, it is a non-directive system.
He was for the revival of colonialism and imperialism.

6. The Unit Veto System:

This is very similar to the state of nature as given by Thomas Hobbes - “nasty,brutish and
short” The sixth model projected by Kaplan is the Unit Veto System. It involves the conception
of a situation of multi-polarity in which each state is equally powerful. Each possesses such
weapons (nuclear weapons) as can be used by it for destroying any other state. It becomes
stable when each state can resist and retaliate threats from every other state. On the basis of

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these six models, Morton Kaplan believes that international relations can be analyzed as
international system.

GAME THEORY
The approach suggested by the theory of game has also been used in the study of international
politics. The theory of game has been developed mainly by mathematicians and economists.
Martin Shubik, Oskar Morgenstern and Karl Deutsch were among the first to recognize the
importance of game theory. It is a method of analysis and also of selecting the best course of
action. International politics is a game played by sovereign nations and not by individual actors

The theory has been defined as body of thought dealing with rational decision strategies in
situations of conflicts and competition when each participant or player seeks to maximize gains
and minimize losses. It is a mathematical model in which the player is placed in a certain fixed
situation and tries to make maximum gains from his opponents.

Three principal kinds of game have been identified in the framework of game theory. The
first is called games with identical interests, the second games with opposite interests and
the third games with mixed interests. The model which the game theory employs is that of a
game strategy and not the game of chance.

Game theory envisages several types of games

(1) Zero-Sum Two persons games

(2) Non-Zero Sum Two persons games

(3) Zero-Sum N persons games

(4) Non-Zero-Sum N persons games

(In) (N) (1) the gain of one is equal to the loss of another. In 2nd and 3 the outcome is shared
and the losses of one are not necessarily equal to the gain of another. In 4 the situation is
extremely complex and gains and losses are shared by both sides to some extent.

The game theory has five important concepts. They are strategy, opponent, pay-off, rules and
information. The strategy takes into account the potential behavior of opponents. It is overall
program of action which a player adopts in order to win in a game under adverse or reverse
conditions. The Game theory assumes as opponent and this is the second important concept of
game theory. The Third is pay off which refers what the game is worth at the end. The fourth
is rules that govern a game. The fifth significant concept in Game theory is information.

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With the help of game theory , coalition partners’ behaviour3 can be monitored , whether they
are playing according to the rules, the dharma, etc.. William Riker’s Chicken Game4 and
Prisoner’s Dilemma5 are good examples.

The theory is highly abstract and works only under assumed conditions. The players are rarely
as rational as presented by this theory. It can be applied with some success only to cases of two
person Zero sum games; but as Morton Kaplan has pointed out, there are few such situations
in reality and the theory has only limited applicability to most problems of international
politics. Limitations include 1) increase in difficulty as the number of players increases in the
actual business 2) lack of providing winning strategy but only a general rule of logic 3)
uncertainty in actual field of business which cannot be considered in game theory.

DEPENDENCY THEORY

The dependency theory also known as the ‘theory of underdevelopment’ was formulated after
the Cold War. Samir Amin6 was one of the advocates of the dependency theory. His celebrated
work ‘Capitalism in the Age of Globalization’(1997) and AG Frank’s celebrated work
‘Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America: Historical Studies of Chile and Brazil’
(1967) are the main works on the dependency theory.

Samir Amin expressed his view on the world order and international relations: “Yes, I do want
to see the construction of a multipolar world, and that obviously means the defeat of
Washington’s hegemonic project for military control of the planet.”

“Capitalism contains its own seeds of destruction. Imperialism is the highest stage of
capitalism.” - Vladimir Lenin

AG Frank, Samir Amin, Vladimir Lenin who were economists began to develop the thoery.It
stated that the economic backwardness of the newly emerged third-world countries after the

3
Example :- France in 50s,60s; UPA-NDA
4
The game of chicken, also known as the hawk–dove game or snowdrift game, is a model of conflict for two
players in game theory. The principle of the game is that while it is to both players’ benefit if one player yields,
the other player's optimal choice depends on what their opponent is doing: if the player opponent yields, they
should not, but if the opponent fails to yield, the player should.
5
In the traditional version of the game, the police have arrested two suspects and are interrogating them in separate
rooms. Each can either confess, thereby implicating the other, or keep silent. No matter what the other suspect
does, each can improve his own position by confessing. If the other confesses, then one had better do the same to
avoid the especially harsh sentence that awaits a recalcitrant holdout. If the other keeps silent, then one can obtain
the favorable treatment accorded a state’s witness by confessing. Thus, confession is the dominant strategy for
each. But when both confess, the outcome is worse for both than when both keep silent.
6
Egyptian-French Marxian Economist

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cold war is the result of the wrong rigid orthodox discriminatory and conservative economic
policies spearheaded by USA and her allies .

It is explained through the Centre-Periphery Theory which state that the raw materials, food
etc.. flow from the periphery to the centre and their wealth is
drained even more when they import the goods and services
from the centre to the periphery. The role UNCTAD7 is also
relevant. The Bretton Woods Institutions8(1944) are also
playing a role in providing aid to third-world countries.

COMMUNICATION THEORY

Norbert Weiner, the chief exponent of the cybernetics theory

developed the concept in his famous work ‘Cybernetics’, to
signify the control of communication in political system. The Communications Theory also
known as the Cybernetics and Engineering Model9 has been developed mainly by Karl W
Deutsch for understanding the national scene and has been applied to international politics by
Charles. A. McClelland and others. Deutsch’s concern was to reduce the importance of the
notion of power and consequences of the decisions in Politics and highlight the importance of
the flow of information and the operation of the structures in government decisions. The
communications theory treats the Government as decision making system based on various
information flows that is transparent, accessible and functions in accordance the rules and
regulations. This approach in international relations was developed by Deutsch in his
celebrated work The Nerves of Government: Model of Political Communication and
Control. In this book, Deutsch applies the concept of the theory of information,
communication and control to problems of political science borrowing from Weiner’s
concepts of ‘feedback’, ‘channel capacity’ and ‘memory’. From these, Deutsch developed
his concept of “consciousness”, “will” and “social learning”

Communications has indeed transformed human relation as well as relations between states to
much greater extent than any other development. It has increased people's exposition to official
and non-official and non-official propaganda and strengthened both totalitarian and regimes
and democracies. Communication is treated as the cement that makes organizations. It alone
enables a group to think together, to see together and to act together. All social sciences require
the understanding of communication.The communication system has undoubtedly increased
interdependence of international community. It has made functioning or an international
agency like the U.N much easier.

7
The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development was established in 1964 as a permanent
intergovernmental body.It divided the world economies into groups - Group B - Advanced Economies, Group D
-Western Economies, Group 77- Opposed Western Economies
8
IMF and World Bank
9
It was inspired from the Informations Theory by Claude Shannon.

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DECISION MAKING THEORY

The first major attempt at introducing the decision making analysis in the study of foreign
policy was made by Richard Snyder and others after the II World War and is specially
developed in the area of foreign policy making.

“Decision making is the process of identifying and selecting a course of action

to solve a specific problem.” - James Stoner

“Decision making is a social process that selects a problem for decision.” -

James Robinson

The decision making approach has two fundamental purpose. The first is the identification
of the crucial structure in the political realm where change takes place, decisions are taken and
actions are indicated and carried out. The second is the systematic analysis of the decision
making behaviour which leads to action. This approach focuses in query on action called
decision makers and on the state defined as decisional units. The action of the state are seen
through the action of decision makers.

Analysing the factor that operate on decision makers, Snyder divides them into three main sets
of stimuli, the internal setting, the external setting10 and the technical process (decision
making process). He studies the personality factor of the decision maker based on the
personality theory by Erich Fromm11 (the idiosyncratic variable, ie, the personal likes and
dislikes of the decision maker) and the various agencies and processes involved in decision
making. The theory takes the study of international politics to the real actor from the abstract
states and collective situation. The decision making theory has contributed a great deal to the
understanding of the process of foreign policy making which all other theories has rejected.
Snyder’s scheme is most impressive as a detailed approach to the whole of international
relations.

INTEGRATION THEORY

Functionalism is a theory of international relations that arose principally from the experience
of the Second World War and a strong concern about the obsolescence of the State as a form
of social organization.Rather than the self interest of nation states that realist see as a motivating
factor, functionalists focus on common interests and needs shared by states but also by non
state actors in a process of global integration triggered by the erosion of state sovereignty and
the increasing weight of knowledge and hence of scientists and experts in the process of
policymaking In the functionalism theory, international integration the collective governance

10
“The actions and reactions of other nations play an important role in influencing the decisions of the nation.”
- Richard Snyder
11
Erich Fromm was a neo-Freudian psychoanalyst who suggested a theory of personality based on two primary
needs: the need for freedom and the need for belonging.

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and interdependence between states develops its own internal dynamic as states integrate in
limited functional, technical, and/or economic areas. International agencies would meet human
needs, The benefits rendered by the functional agencies would attract the loyalty of the
populations and stimulate their participation and expand the area of integration.

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MODULE II

NATIONAL POWER

Like sovereignty and nationalism, national power is a vital and inseparable feature of the state
system. The status of state in the International sphere is determined not by its civilization or
culture but by its physical force, with which states implement their policies, domestic as well
as foreign.
“When we speak of power, we mean man’s control over the minds and actions
of other men”. - Morgenthau
“The strength of capacity that a sovereign state can use to achieve its nation as
interests.” - Hartmann
“The capacity to impose one’s will on others by reliance on effective sanctions
in case of non compliance” - Georg Schwarzenberger
“To the totality of a states effectiveness in world politics, we apply the term
power”. - Palmer and Perkins

Though power is considered to be an integral aspect of international politics and as Morgenthau

puts it, “struggle for power is universal in time and space and is an undeniable fact of
experience.”, some thinkers consider the power aspects of international politics to be evil which
is to be minimised if international cooperation and world peace is to be achieved.

ELEMENTS OF NATIONAL POWER

There are various views when it comes to the classification of elements of national power.
Morgenthau applies a permanent – temporary approach whereas palmer and Perkins goes for
tangible and intangible. Organski analyses the natural and social determinants of power. But in
essence, all determinants of national power are interlinked to each other. Also all determinants
cannot be measured with high accuracy. They are undergoing a constant structural and relative
changes due to natural changes and technological advancements. National power is never based
on any of the one determinant but is constituted by the combination of all or many of them.

1. GEOGRAPHY
“The foreign policy of a country is determined by its geography” - Napoleon
Geography is the most stable, tangible, permanent and natural element and it greatly influence
modern geopolitics.

1.1 Size
The large size of a country can accommodate a large population, offer better natural
resources and raw materials, and can be more helpful in the defence of the country. It
is definitely more, rather very difficult for a state to defeat a big country. It was also the
large size of the erstwhile Soviet Union that helped it to defeat the forces of Hitler.
Large area also makes it possible for a country to establish vital industrial complexes
far away from the borders and thereby, to organdie effective defence. The Himalayas
in the North and a long sea-coast in the South have made the defence of India a complex

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and difficult problem. But size alone isn’t a decisive element of national power as was
evident with Japan, which even with its small size, scored a victory over Russia in 1905.
The USA has a relatively smaller territory than Russia yet it has more power than the
latter. Israel offers another striking example of a small sized country that has a
disproportionately large amount of power. On the other hand, some large sized
countries such as, Brazil, Canada, Zaire, Australia and Sudan, and now Russia are not
as powerful as their sizes might indicate.

1.2 Location
Diplomacy and war strategy has its impact on location. Nearness to sea will provide for
good harbours and it will increase chance of trade. Insular position has its impact on its
diplomacy. Great obstacles in the form of mountains etc. will decrease the chance of
trade. England could become a big naval power and thereby an imperial power because
of its location. The location of Japan has helped it to be a major ship- building nation.
Location of Germany in the heart of Europe has been a sources of strength for it. The
location of the US helped it to adopt (1823-1945) and follow the policy of isolationism.
Hence location as well is a major determinant of national power and geopolitics.

1.3 Climate
Location, attitudes, rainfall and winds determine climate. Climate has an indirect effect
on culture, economy natural resources, political organizations religion and direct on
health and energy of people. Extreme heat and cold are unfavourable for strength. The
cold climate of Arctic zone and Antarctic and the excessive heat of the Tropical zone,
and Sahara have kept the development of life backward in these areas.

1.4 Topography
Topography gives certain advantages and disadvantages to a country. The rivers many
provide ports, harbours and advantageous transport system. At the same time they may
create obstacles in building road, play havoc through floods etc. Mountains cause
rainfall, stops enemies etc. Russia is denied by topography access to the open seas.

1.5 National Boundaries

Boundaries of the states are of two types – natural and artificial. Sea, mountains etc
are natural boundaries. The contemporary tension in International relations is due to the
boundary disputes Boundaries often decide the fate of nations. Undefined and disputed
boundaries are potent sources of conflict which weakens national power e.g. the
boundary disputes between India and China, Israel and Arab states can be quoted as
examples. Natural boundaries are helpful to national power and conversely artificial
boundaries are a source of weakness and conflict.

2. NATURAL RESOURCES

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Natural resources are the permanent factors of National power. Palmer and Perkins termed it
as the Gift of Nature Perhaps the natural resources are the most important elements of national
power: The following elements constitute natural resources.

a) Food –Stuffs and Agriculture Products :-The countries self-sufficient in food

stuffs have an advantage over other nations which lack it in times of war, it will become
more clear, Scarcity of agriculture products limits the of power of a nation.

b) Minerals: For military strength, it is necessary to have highly developed industry,

for which minerals are necessary. Possession of minerals will strengthen the industrial
capacity of a nation. For example, Petroleum, an important mineral has created ‘Oil
Diplomacy’ in the middle East.

3. POPULATION
Prior to 20th century a large population was undoubtedly a significant and important source of
national power. But in the 20th century, large population is a source of strength and weakness.
It will be strength, if the state has the means to utilize its talent, energy and maintain a proper
standard of living. A large population, has nothing to do with National power. For example
China, and India are the most populated states; but they are not the superpowers. The age group,
sex etc also must be taken into account. Too young and too old are not useful. Likewise if
females outnumber males, it is also not useful for increasing power position.

4. TECHNOLOGY
Technology is the application of physical and biological sciences to engineering industry and
other human activities. The technological advancement is a tremendous element of national
power which has influenced the world affairs of recent times by increasing the technique of
communications and interdependence of states. Technology influenced strategic factors. Seas
are now no barriers and hence the states separated by the seas do not remain attached to each
other in any matter whatsoever. Technology has affected matter of foreign policy. Now Foreign
policy includes the technological assistance. Increased emphasis on arms control, technological
intelligence and communication satellites. Technology has sophisticated war methods. New
inventions prove that the more technologically advanced is a nation the more is its capacity to
influence other nations.

5. MILITARY PREPAREDNESS
Military Preparedness require a military establishment capable of supporting the foreign
policies pursued. The significant factors that make military preparedness one are follows.

1. War technology: The fate of nations and civilization have always been determined
by superior armies using sophisticated technology. The less sophisticated technology
always has to face defeat.

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2. Leadership: A military leader is the person, who makes best use of available
resources in the appropriate time to reap the maximum fruits. Victory and defeat in war
is associated with its leader.

3. Espionage: Today the success of military depends upon affective Espionage. Prior
knowledge of enemies move, location and capacity of forces etc will open the way for
easy success. The Radar and artificial satellites have played an important role in these
filed.

4. Quality of armed force: Military power is dependent upon the quality of men and
arms. Modern developed arms will make the victory sure, Israel’s victory over the Arab
states can be cited as an example.

6. IDEOLOGIES
Ideology is a body of ideas concerning economic social and political values and goals with
positive actions and programme for attaining these goals. The impact of Ideology in
International relations is very wide. It has produced a new cohesiveness within nations and
group of nations. Even the geographical boundaries fail to limit the extension of ideologies.
However, it can be said that the role of ideology as an element of national power is not so
powerful as in the past. 7. National Morale: Morale is a healthy frame of mind characterized
by fidelity to a cause. In the worlds of Palmer and Perkins, “Morale is a thing of spirit, made
up of loyalty, courage faith and the impulse to the preservation of personality and dignity”
National morale is an important aspect of national power, In the absence of which, the other
factors will not work National morale is not static. There is a point where it breaks. National
morale can be manufactured or stimulated by various factors. Factors like National character,
culture, popular leadership popular government and circumstances make national morals

7. LEADERSHIP
Leadership is the most important element of national power. Without leadership people can’t
even constitute a state. Without it there can be no well-developed technology and without it
morale is totally useless. The functions of leadership are two fold, firstly it coordinates other
elements of national power and secondly, use all the resources for the maximum benefit of the
state. The ups and downs in the history of a state can be related to its leaders. Leadership
includes the fact of handling foreign affairs. A leader must be capable of conducting diplomacy
successfully. A weak and underdeveloped nation can become a powerful nation under an
effective leadership.

8. DIPLOMACY
Another effective factor of national power is the quality of diplomacy. According to
Morgenthau “Diplomacy of high quality will bring the ends and means of foreign policy with
harmony with the available resources of national power. It will tap the hidden sources of
national strength and transform them fully and securely. The quality of diplomacy is the most
important of all the elements that influence the power base of a state as also its foreign policy.

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9. ECONOMY
Economic power is a vitally important part of national power of a nation because it is the means
for military power and the basis for welfare, prosperity and development of its people. A nation
with developed, healthy and growing economy alone can be a great power in world politics.
Effective economic organisation and planning are essential qualities of a powerful nation.
Poverty is always a source of limitation of power. It is this factor which has been largely forcing
most of the developing countries of the Third World to live with neo-colonialism.

10. NATIONAL CHARACTER

An important but intangible element of national power is national character. National character
is a collective name for referring to the traits of the people, their attitude and aptitude towards
work and national needs. National character undoubtedly influences national power as it
manifests qualitative makeup of the people in their actual behaviour.

Scholars tell us that Russians are known for their sturdiness, elementary force and persistence.
Americans for their inventiveness, initiative and spirit of adventure. Britishers for their un-
dogmatic common sense, and Germans for discipline and industriousness, Japanese for their
nationalism, Indians for their tolerance, idealism and faith in rich cultural traditions and
Chinese for their cosmic un-changeability. Traits of national character definitely influence the
national power of a nation.

LIMITATION OF NATIONAL POWER

National power is a relative one. The power of one state is to be measured in comparison with
the power of other states. National power is also changing. A nation may be strong today, but
tomorrow it may become weak. And the factors of power are interdependent. This make the
measurement of power impossible. We shall conclude with the words of Palmer and Perkins”
National power, like nearly everything else in this world of ours, is relative. A man with a
million dollars is not rich in a group of multi-millionaires, a man of forty is old to child of few
and youthful to an octogenarian. Similarly, In the matter of power absolute has little meaning.
50 divisions, 300 war vessels 2000 planes all these may represent overwhelming might against
one opponent one miserable inadequate against another”.

Exercise of national power by every nation is an accepted reality of international relations.

Power and its individual distribution is one of the major determinants of the behaviour of a
state in international relations. However, an unlimited use of power by the states can be a source
of war, anarchy and chaos in international relations.

The humankind fully realizes the dangers of an unregulated use of national power by each state.
The states now themselves realize their increased international interdependence and the need
for exercising restraint in the use of power.

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In this nuclear age, the danger resulting from an unlimited use of power involves the possibility
of a total destruction of the humankind by a nuclear war. The new need for sustainable all round
development has again compelled all nations to accept the need for controlling and regulating
the use of power by all states in the interest of preventing war and anarchy in the international
relations. This objective, is sought to be realized with the help of several devices which act as
limitations on national power.

BALANCE OF POWER

“Whenever the term Balance of Power is used without qualification, it refers to an actual
state of affairs in which power is distributed among nations with approximately equality”
- Hans. J. Morgenthau
“Balance of power is just an equilibrium in power among the members of the family of
nations as would prevent any one of them form becoming sufficiently strong to enforce
its will upon others” - Sidney .B.Fay
“An equilibrium or a certain amount of stability in international relations that under
favourable conditions is produced by an alliance of states or by other devices.” - George
Schwarzenegger

Balance of Power has been traditionally an important fact of international relations. Balance
of power has been defined differently by different authors.
Innis L. Claude Jr. hence stated that “The trouble with Balance of Power is not that it has
no meaning, but that it has too many meanings.”
Some writers define it in terms of equilibrium whereas others in terms of “preponderance”
or “disequilibrium”. Some define it as a principle of action while others define it as a policy
or system.

It is widely accepted that maintenance of balance of power is necessary for international peace
and security. Palmer and Perkins suggest that the assumption of the theory of balance of power
is that “the power alone can limit power”.

TYPES

1. Simple balance: If power is concentrated in two states or in two opposing camps, the balance
or distribution of power is said to be simple. The important feature of the simple balance is that
states or group of state are also divided into two camps like the two scales of the balance. In
simple balance the power distribution between two opposing camps approximately equal.
America and Russia individually and the western bloc and communist bloc collectively, are
examples of the simple balance. Such pattern of balance is called “Bi-polarization”, which
has resulted in the cold war between the communist and the western bloc.

2. Complex or multiple balance: When there is a wide dispersal of power among states and
a number of states or groups of states, balance each other, the balance is said to be ‘Multiple

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of complex”. A complex balance needs not have a balance. A simple balance may turn into a
multiple or complex balance. Polycentrism has become a marked feature of politics. Within
the communist as well as western block many new centre of power have come into existence.
The uncommitted bloc is one of them. Balance may in terms of their geographical coverage be
spoken of as local, regional or worldwide. The balance of power is local if it operates between
two neighboring states for example India and Pakistan. The balance of power is regional if it
involves in a number of states within a particular geographical area. The balance of power is
worldwide if most of the countries of the world participate in the balance of power. The so
called war between the communist and western bloc is the example of a global balance of
power.

ASSUMPTIONS

(1) Balance of Power assumes that states are determined to protect their vital rights and
interests by all means, including war.
(2) Vital interests of the states are threatened.
(3) The relative power position of states can be measured with a degree of accuracy.
(4) Balance of Power assumes that “balance” will either deter the threatening state from
launching an attack or permit the victim to avoid defeat if an attack should occur.
(5) The statesmen can, and they do make foreign policy decisions intelligently on basis of
power considerations.

POSTULATES

(1) A nation following balance of power is prepared to change its alliances or treaties if the
circumstances may so demand.
(2) When a nation finds that a particular preponderance of power is increasing menacingly, it
gets prepared to go to war for maintaining the balance.
(3) Balance of Power postulates that no nation is to be totally eliminated in war. War is aimed
only at the weakening of power of the violator of the balance. After war a new balance of
power system is achieved. The basic principle of Balance of Power is that excessive power
anywhere in the system is a threat to the existence of others and that the most effective
antidote to power is power.

In this process states maintain a sort of equilibrium in their power relations and do not permit
any state to violate the Balance. In case any state tries to disturb or violate the balance of
power, the other states individually or collectively or is a group can take action, including
war, for weakening the power of the violator as well as for restoring the balance.

METHODS OF MAINTAINING BALANCE OF POWER

Alliances and Counter Alliances:
Alliance-making are regarded as a principal method of balance of power. Alliance is a device
by which a combination of nations creates a favourable balance of power by entering into

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military or security pacts aimed at augmenting their own strength vis-a-vis the power of their
opponents. However, an alliance among a group of nations, almost always, leads to the
establishment of a counter alliance by the opponents. History is full of examples of such
alliances and counter alliances.

In post-1945 period, alliances like NATO, SEATO, Warsaw Pact emerged as devices of
Balance of Power. The first two were established by the USA and the third one was organised
by the erstwhile USSR for strengthening their respective power positions in the era of cold
war.

Compensation:
It is also known as territorial compensation. It usually entails the annexation or division of the
territory of the state whose power is considered dangerous for the balance. In the 17th and
18th centuries this device was regularly used for maintaining a balance of power which used
to get disturbed by the territorial acquisitions of any nation.

For examples the three partitions of Poland in 1772, 1793 and 1795 were based upon the
principle of compensation. Austria, Prussia and Russia agreed to divide Polish territory in
such a way that the distribution of power among them would be approximately the same.

In the latter part of the 19th century, and after each of the two world wars of the 20th century,
territorial compensation was used as a device for weakening the powers of the states whose
actions had led to a violation of the balance. It was applied by the colonial powers for
justifying their actions aimed at maintaining their imperial possessions.

Intervention and Non-intervention:

“Intervention is a dictatorial interference in the internal affairs of another state/states with a
view to change or maintain a particular desired situation which is considered to be harmful or
useful to the competing opponents. Some times during a war between two states no attempt is
made by other states to intervene. This is done for making the two warring states weaker.

As such intervention and non-intervention are used as devices of Balance of Power. Mostly it
is used by a major power for regaining an old ally or for picking up a new ally or for
imposing a desired situation on other states. British intervention in Greece, the US
intervention is Grenada, Nicaragua, Cuba, Korea, Vietnam, and USSR’s interventions in
Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Afghanistan can be quoted as examples of
interventions carried out by the big powers.

Divide and Rule:

The policy of divide and rule has also been a method of balance of power. It has been a time
honored policy of weakening the opponents. It is resorted to be all such nations who try to
make or keep their competitors weak by keeping them divided or by dividing them.

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The French policy towards Germany and the British policy towards the European continent
can be cited as the outstanding examples. The rich and powerful states now do not refrain
from using divide and rule for controlling the policies of the new states of Asia, Africa and
Latin America.

Buffer States or Zones:

Another method of balance of power is to set up a buffer state between two rivals or
opponents. Buffers, observes V.V. Dyke, “are areas which are weak, which possess
considerable strategic importance to two or more strong powers, Buffer is a small state
created or maintained as a separating state i.e. as a buffer state for keeping two competing
states physically separate each stronger power then tries to bring the buffer within its sphere
of influence but regards it as important, if not vital, that no other strong power be permitted to
do so. The major function of a buffer is to keep the two powerful nations apart and thus
minimise the chances of clash and hence to help the maintenance of balance.”

Armaments and Disarmaments

All nations, particularly very powerful nations, place great emphasis on armaments as the
means for maintaining or securing a favourable position in power relations in the world. It is
also used as a means to keep away a possible aggressor or enemy.

However, armament race between two competitors or opponents can lead to a highly
dangerous situation which cans accidently cause a war. In this way armament race can act as
a danger to world peace and security. Consequently, now-a-days, Disarmaments and Arms
Control are regarded as better devices for maintaining and strengthening world peace and
security. A comprehensive disarmament plan/exercise involving nuclear disarmament can go
a long way in strengthening the balance (peace) that exists in international relations.

ROLE OF BALANCER
The system of balance of power may consist of two scales plus a third element ‘holder’ of the
balance or the balancer. The balancer is a nation or a group of nations, which remains aloof
from the policies of the two rivals or opponents and plays the role of, “the laughing third
party.”

It poses temptations to both parties to the balance, and each contending party tries to win over
the support of the laughing third party—the balancer. Normally, the balancer remains away
from both the parties but if any party to the balance becomes unduly weak resulting into a
threat to the balance, the balancer joins it and helps the restoration of balance.

After that the balancer again becomes aloof. Traditionally Britain used to play the role of a
balancer in Europe. However in the era cold war no state could perform the role of a balancer
in international relations. The rise of unipolarity after 1991, involving the presence of only
one super power has now further reduced the chances for the emergence of a balancer in

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international relations. These are the seven major methods or devices of Balance of Power.
These have been traditionally used by nations pursuing the policy of a balance of power.

BALANCE OF POWER IN MODERN NUCLEAR ERA

Although the concept of the balance of power has lost much its validity in the present day
conditions, its operation is still meaningful. As long as the multi –nation state system exists,
balance of power will remain as a relevant concept. The changes brought about in the
international society have removed many of the conditions in which the balance of power.
Since the balance of power is a device of the management power it will remain relevant till
some other devices of managing power has not been found out. If balance of power survives
even today it is because of the fact that an effective substitute has not yet been possible such
a substitute can probably be found out in the effective world organization, world public opinion
and worldwide acceptance of the obligations of international law. But this prospect is very
remote.
However, Palmer and Perkins believe that balance of power will continue to operate,
even if super- national world origination is formed . Anyhow that idea of balance of power is
still the central theoretical concept in international relations. But we cannot shut our eyes to
realities. The rise of non- aligned countries on a large scale has adversely affected the
importance of the principle of balance of power in the late twentieth century. The non- aligned
countries have became the largest group in the United Nations General Assembly and
consequently have enhanced their position in world affairs. Since the non-aligned countries
represent a force without a military power they have affected the principle of balance of power
in its traditional sense. With the increasing non- use of physical force against each other by the
major nuclear power, the phenomenon global or world wars might vanish. But wars may persist
at regional levels among non- nuclear powers or among the nuclear and non- nuclear powers
with conventional weapons, and the concept may prove its validity also in the changes
circumstance in regional affairs. All these local and regional wards have affected the balance
of power position at the regional level. It would be safer, therefore to conclude that the balance
of terror situation has reduced the validity of the principle of balance of power on a global scale
but has retained it at regional level where wars are fought with conventional weapons. At the
global level balance of power has lost much of its reference but it continues to hold good at
regional level relations among nations. In this way it continues to be an important controlling
mechanism of international politics.
MODULE III

METHODS OF MAINTAINING INTERNATIONAL PEACE AND SECURITY

PACIFIC SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES

One of the ways to avoid war is the pacific settlement of disputes, which is regarded as one of
the important principles of international relations. Quest for peace has been one of the major
factors responsible for the formation of international organisations. Before the dawn of the 20th

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century, the problem of peace and security was mainly tackled through conventional diplomatic
techniques or through occasional conferences convened to techniques or through occasional
conferences convened to settle specific disputes which posed a threat to peace. With the
creation of the League of Nations, this world body was specifically entrusted with the
responsibility of maintaining international peace by encouraging the settlement of disputes.

According to Claude, the peaceful settlement helps ‘to inject into the dispute a disinterested
party, with who negotiation may be conducted by states and to whom concessions can be made
which either state would refrain, as a point of honour from making directly to the other”. Cohen
regards “pacific settlement and collective measures are inseperable part of the collective
security”. The first paragraph in the very first article of the UN charter says that the aim of the
United Nations is “to bring about a peaceful settlement” of disputes among nations in order to
maintain international peace and security. Whenever a dispute arises between nations, it may
lead to war. To prevent war the concerned parties may follow peaceful methods to settle the
dispute.

METHODS

The important methods of peaceful settlement of disputes provided by the UN

Charter are as follows.
1. Negotiation;
2. Good officers and mediation;
3. Enquiry;
4. Conciliation;
5. Arbitration, and;
6. Judicial settlement.

The above methods may be classified into two main groups: (a) those based on persuasion with
no binding character for and (b) those which have a binding character. Good- office and
mediation, negotiation. enquiry and conciliation come with in the first category. Disputes with
political nature come under this category. They are considered as political methods. Arbitration
and Judicial settlement come under the second category. They are legal methods and are
concerned with legal disputes.

1. Negotiation

Direct negotiation is the simple and common method of settling disputes.

“Negotiation is the legal and orderly administrative process by which governments, in the
exercise of their unquestionable powers conduct their relations with one another and discuss,
adjust and settle their difference”

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Negotiations are conducted through diplomatic representatives, foreign ministers or head of

states or through conferences. The Indo-Pak negotiation after the Indo-Pak war is an
outstanding example of this method. The conduct of negotiation is a bargaining process. It is
an attempt on the part of the contesting parties to settle the disputes by mutual discussions and
deliberations.
In negotiation, the claims of one party may be recognised by the other party and the dispute is
settled. Another advantage of negotiation is that the period of negotiation allows an interval to
let the tempers of the concerned parties cool down.

2. Good offices and Mediation

When the parties in the dispute are unable to reach an agreement through negotiation, a third
country may offer its “good offices” or services to facilitate a settlement. If the disputing parties
accept the offer of good offices of a third country, then the third country simply acts as a
transmitting agency. If the third country offers its suggestions to settle a dispute, then it
becomes a mediator. Good office implies that the third country tried to bring the disputant
parties together and suggest a settlement without violence. “A tender of good office is a polite
inquiry as to whether the third state can be of any service preserving or restoring peace”. The
Tashkent Agreement entered into by India and Pakistan in 1965 is cited as an example. Russia
offered her good office and the agreement known as Tashkent Agreement was reached by
President Ayub Khan of Pakistan and Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri of India.

Mediation on the other hand, is a method under which the third state whose good office is
accepted, makes suggestion and assumes the responsibility to settle the dispute. The mediating
state assume the role of a middle man. The mediator makes every attempt to reconcile the
opposite claims of the disputing parties. However, the suggestions of the mediator are not
binding on the contesting parties.

The main difference between good offices and mediation is that under the former
the third country tries to call negotiations and enter the latter the mediating party takes
under an active part in negotiations.

3. Enquiry

Enquiry and conciliation are more effective than good offices and mediation. The First Hague
Conference of 1899 recommended the use of commissions of enquiry. It was renewed by the
Second Hague Conference. Many treaties have made provisos for it . Even the covenant of the
League supported this principle.

The duty of the commission of enquiry is to investigate the facts so as to clarify the issues and
elucidate facts . It can hear both sides of the dispute, call witness and experts and on that basis
presents its conclusions and recommendations. But it has no power to make the award binding

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on the disputant parties. Therefore, it investigates and makes suggestions when requested by
the disputant parties.

3. Conciliation

Oppenheim defines conciliation as follows: “Conciliation is the process of setting a dispute by

referring it to a commission of person whose task is to elucidate the facts and to make a report
containing proposals for a settlement, but which does not have the binding character of award
or judgment”

Conciliation is a method under which an outside party promotes an agreement between

disputant states. The Conciliation Commission hear and ascertains facts and it may ask for
compromises or concessions before advancing its proposals for settling a dispute.

Conciliation differ from enquiry and mediation. The main object of enquiry is to clarify the
issues and elucidate the facts leaving the parties to settle a dispute. Conciliation on the other
hand aims at bringing the parties to an agreement oftering suggestions and recommendations.
Conciliation differ from mediation because under it parties refer the issue to a committee or a
council which ascertains the facts and makes suggestions for settling the dispute. Mediation,
on the other hand, is a method under which the mediator assumes responsibility for the
settlement of a dispute. Mediation is perfomed by an individual. Whereas conciliation is
effected by a council, board, committee or commission. Conciliation is constructive method
and UNO use these method frequently Eg: The UN conciliation commission on Pakistan.

4. Arbitration and Judicial Settlement.

Both arbitration and judicial settlement are legal or judicial in nature. Arbitration is a sort of
semi-judicial process and therefore a dispute is determined through a legal decision of one
individual or of a tribunal chosen by the parties. The disputant parties bound to respect the
award of the arbiter. Arbitration involves four important elements.

They are:
(1) settlement of disputes between nations through their voluntary action.
(2) by judges of their own choice.
(3) on the basis of respect for law
(4) obligation to accept the award as binding. Disputant parties can demand reconsideration of
the award. If the tribunal exceeds the authority given to them then their will be nothing like
strikes.

Since time immemorial, arbitration has been employed as an effective force for settling
disputes. The League allowed a permanent court of arbitration set up under the first Hague
Conference. Even UNO has many arbitration commissions.

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Arbitration and conciliation differ from each other in the following respects.
1. Arbitration is judicial process.
2. Arbitration is legal in nature. So the decisions are binding, conciliation is only
recommendatory.
3. Arbitration is binding but conciliation is a friendly advise.
5. Judicial Settlement: Judicial settlement, on the other hand is a form of arbitration. It is
known as adjudication. Arbitration and adjudication differ from each other in the following
respects.
a) Arbitration is more cheaper and simple than adjudication.
b) Arbitration is more elastic than adjudication.
c) Through adjudication, only legal disputes are settled. While arbitration tribunal
settles both legal and politics issued.
d) Arbitration is performed by person or states while in adjudication the agency is
a permanent body of court.
e) Arbitration has a character of voluntary Jurisdiction but there is no such thing
in adjudication.

Adjudication of disputes obviously require the prior creation of a court to which disputes may
be submitted. The central American Court of Justice (1907-17) was the first International court
to handle legal dispute. League of Nations set up a permanent court of International Justice. It
is continuing in the present UNO. The International Court now decides all cases referred to it
by the disputant parties.

COLLECTIVE SECURITY

Collective security is commonly regarded as most effective method of maintaining peace and
deterring aggression. Collective security was supposed not noly to be the basis of the League
of Nations but is also supposed to be the basis of the United Nations. Collective security is a
device by which the security of all the nations in assessed. Under the system of collective
security, aggression or war would no longer be the concern of any individual nation, but would
be the concern of all nations

MEANING

Collective security is a collective measure for security. The basic principle of collective
security is that an attack on one state will be regarded as an attack on all states.

According to Morgenthau “one for all and all for one is the watchword of collective security.”

On collective security Palmer and Perkins observe “It clearly implies collective measure for
dealing with threat to peace”.

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George Schwarzenegger has defined collective security as “machinery for joint action in order
to prevent or counter any attack against an established international Order”.

According to F.H Hartmann, collective security in basically a mutual insurance plan against
aggression anywhere and everywhere.

NATURE

(1) Security is the chief goal of all the nations. Presently the security of each nation stands
inseparably linked up with the security of all other nations. National security is a part of the
international security. Any attack on the security of a nation is in fact an attack on the security
of all the nations. Hence, it is the responsibility of all the nations to defend the security of the
victim nation.

(2) The term ‘collective’, as a part of the concept of collective security, refers to the method by
which security is to be defended in the event of any war or aggression against the security of
any nation. The power of the aggressor has to be met with by the collective power of all the
nations. All the nations are required to create an international preponderance of power for
negating the aggression or for ending a war.

The underlying principle of Collective Security has been ‘One for All and All for One’.
Aggression or war against any one nation is a war against all the nations. Therefore all the
nations are to act collectively against every War/Aggression.

Main Features/Characteristics of Collective Security:

(1) A Device of Power Management:

Collective Security is a device of power management or crisis management. It seeks to preserve

international peace through crisis management in the event of any war or aggression in the
world.

(2) It accepts Universality of Aggression:

Collective Security accepts that violations of the security of a nation are bound to occur and
that wars and aggressions cannot be totally eliminated from international relations.

(3) All Nations are committed to pool their power for ending Aggression:

Collective Security believes that in the event of a violation of international peace by any
aggression in any part of the world, all the nations are committed to pool their power and
resources for taking effective steps against every aggression for restoring international peace.

(4) Global Preponderance of Power:

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Collective Security stands for the creation of a universal or global preponderance of power
involving all the nations for the maintenance of international peace and security. Under it all
the nations are ready to defend international peace and security through collective military
action against aggression.

(5) Admits the presence of an International Organisation:

Collective Security presupposes the existence of an international organisation under whose flag
a global preponderance of power is created for ending the aggression.

(6) Collective Security System is a Deterrent against War:

Collective Security can be an effective deterrent against a state with aggressive designs. Under
this system each nation knows that any aggression against another nation shall be met by the
collective power of all other nations. As such no nation tries to commit aggression and war
because it knows that such an action will invite collective security action against it. This
realization acts as a deterrent against any war or aggression.

(7) Aggression/war is the enemy and not the State which commits it:

Finally, Collective Security regards ‘aggression’ or ‘war’ as the enemy and not the state which
may resort to war or aggression. A collective security action is limited to the elimination of
war, aggression or threat of war or aggression. It does not stand for the elimination of the state
which commits aggression. Its sole concern is to get the aggression vacated, to prevent the
aggressor to gain out of its aggression, to restore the health of the victim of aggression, and to
restore international peace and security.

As such Collective Security stands for securing international peace and security through
collective efforts of all the nations. Security is the common objective of all the nations and it
has to be secured through collective efforts of all.

ASSUMPTIONS

Organski (1960) lists five basic assumptions underlying the theory of collective security:
● In an armed conflict, member nation-states will be able to agree on which nation is
the aggressor.
● All member nation-states are equally committed to contain and constrain the
aggression, irrespective of its source or origin.
● All member nation-states have identical freedom of action and ability to join in
proceedings against the aggressor.
● The cumulative power of the cooperating members of the alliance for collective
security will be adequate and sufficient to overpower the might of the aggressor.

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● In the light of the threat posed by the collective might of the nations of a collective
security coalition, the aggressor nation will modify its policies, or if unwilling to do
so, will be defeated.

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR THE SUCCESSFUL OPERATION OF

COLLECTIVE SECURITY

1. The basic requirement of collective security is that it should function impartially. If

collective security is to operate impartially government and people must exhibit
flexibility of policy and sentiments
2. The system of collective security must be able to muster at all time such overwhelming
strength against the potential aggressor that the later should not repeat the aggression.
The collective system must be able to meet any situation.
3. The nations which offer the combined strength to meet the threat of aggression under
collective security system must have identical conception of security.
4. The nations must be willing to subordinate their political differences to the service of
the world community by whole heartedly supporting collective action against the
aggressor.
5. In the event of any aggression there should be unanimity among states in determining
the aggressor.
6. Collective security must not be directed against any specific states group of states, but
against aggression in general, that is against any aggression anywhere.
7. Collective security is incompatible with the traditional doctrine of neutrality in war.
Neutrality strikes at the very root of collective security.
8. Collective security system necessitates the willingness of the nations to fight for the
status- quo. Collective security does not accept a forcible change in the international
order.

INTERNATIONAL LAW

MEANING

The term international law was coined by Bentham in 1780. International law has been defined
in different ways by different writers.

Oppenheim define international law as “the body of customary and conventional rules which
are considered legally binding by civilized states in their intercourse with each other”.
Brierly defines it “as the body of rules and principles of action which are binding upon civilized
states in their relations with one another”.
Lawerence defines International law as “the rules which determine the conduct of the general
body of civilized states in their mutual dealings”.

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NATURE

It is a law among nations. International law is the most important factor to preserve order and
to prevent abuse of power in international area. Among the controls of interstate relations, the
more general and continuous one is the international law. As Robert A Tatt observes, “peace
in this world is impossible unless nations agree on a definite law to govern their relations with
each other”.
Today international law is given great importance and it is regarded as the law in the true sense
of the term. But during the 19th century John Austin said that international law is not true law
but only positive international morality. According to Austin every law must be backed by the
authority of the state and if that element is lacking it cannot be called law. In that sense there
is no political authority over and above the states of the world to implement international law
in the true sense. Another jurist Holland calls international law as law only by courtesy. Kelson
is also of the view that the so called international law cannot be classed law in the same sense
as state law, because it is not supported by the coercive authority of the state.

SOURCES

1. Roman Law

Roman law formed a complete and general code of dealings called “the jus gentium”. The jus
gentium was applied to the dealings of citizens belonging to different nations. From this general
code most of the continental countries in Europe derived their legal
principles. Roman law provided a positive basis for international law in two ways:
1) By the idea of the law of nations,
2) By contributing the nation of equality of citizens before the law. This notion got extended
to the equality of sovereign states into nation law.

2) Customs

This is another source of international law. As a matter of fact international law is customary.
Certain customs and conventions which particular states adopted have been accepted and
followed so generally that they have come to constitute a definite body of rules. Customs may
be defined as “the rules evolved after a long historical process which in due course find place
in their recognition by international community. Many rules of international law relating to
maritime warfare the right of aliens freedom of the seas etc. have been greatly determined by
international customs.

3) Decisions of League of Nations and UNO.

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League of nations and UNO have been very important international institutions of 20th century.
The UNO lays stress on direct legislation, Mediation, Arbitration and International Court of
Justice at Hague. Decisions of the court at Hague and the resolutions passed by UNO proved
very fruitful in the growth and development of International law.

4) Opinions of Diplomats and Statesman

The written opinions of statement and lawyers and diplomatic correspondence have helped
much in the growth and development of international law, These opinion are often confidential
but in democracy there is greater tendency to publish them. The important portions of these
opinions are published in England and USA. States also issue instructions for the guidance of
their foreign service representatives and commanders of armed forces. These play a great role
in the growth and development of international law.

5) Works of Eminent Jurists

The views of greet jurists are taken into consideration while deciding international cases. For
example Hugo Grotius’s famous book “on the law of war and peace” published in 1625 is
regarded as the Chief source of international law. Kent, Wheaton, Manning, Woolsey,
Westlake, Lawerence and Hall are known as modern authorities on international law.

6) Treaties and Alliances.

Treaties, alliances and conventions for commercial or for political purspose are important
sources of international law. When most of the states become parties to such a treaty,
convention or alliance they tend to create an international law.

7) State Laws

Municipal law or slate law also form a source of international law. For example the rules and
regulations of citizenship, nationalization etc. are some of the rules and regulations which have
international bearings. These rules and regulations have helped a lot in the development of
international law.

LIMITATIONS OF INTERNATIONAL LAW IN CONTEMPORARY GLOBAL

POLITICS

1. No legislative machinery:
International law is not the product of any sovereign international legislative, where as state
laws are the product of a sovereign legislature.

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2. No Executive Machinery:
International society has no central executive machinery for enforcement of international law.

3. No effective Judicial machinery

International law and international judicial system lack compulsory jurisdiction. International
Court of Justice has no compelling jurisdiction over the states and the states, are not obliged,
to submit their disputes to the court.

4. Uncertainty of International law:

The main instrument through which international law is created are international treaties. They
are so vague and uncertain that they can be interpreted by the states in the manner they like to
suit their interest. The UN charter itself is vague and uncertain. For example the word’self
defence’ can be defined differently in different circumstances and each stat is its own judge in
the matter.

5. Domestic affairs outside the jurisdiction of international law.

Domestic affairs of a state lies outside the jurisdiction of international law. UNO cannot
interfere in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction are brought under the
purview of international law, it would fail in performing its effective role.

DISARMAMENT AND ARMS CONTROL

President Eisenhower has said, “There is no alternative to peace. War in our time has been an
anachronism. Whatever the case in the past, war in future can serve no useful purpose.” Dr.
Albert Einstein once remarked, “I do not know the weapons with which World War III will be
fought, but I can assure you that World War IV will be fought with sticks and stones.” The
supporters of the armament theory argue that the more frightful war became “the less likelihood
there was of its becoming a reality.” But this theory lands in very dangerous situation as “ the
creation of cast armament in itself calls for a condition midway between war and peace.
“Moving in the direction of armaments will be going a long way on the path towards war.
Morgenthu remarks, “Of the attempts to achieve peace through limitation, the most persistent
has been that of disarmament.”

MEANING

Disarmament literally means the reduction or elimination of armaments. The term ‘

Disarmament’ is used in very general sense and as such it connotes the idea of limitation, or
control, or reduction, or elimination of armaments. According to Morgenthau, “Disarmament
is the reduction or elimination of certain or all armaments for the purpose of ending the
armament race.” Disarmament has become such a wide word that any matter relating to the
regulation of armaments comes within its meaning.

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INTER-RELATIONSHIP
Disarmament is concerned with the reduction or elimination of armament, but this applies only
to the control of existing weapons. Arms control is concerned with regulating the armaments
race in the future. As such, disarmament is concerned with the control of existing weapons and
arms control with that of future weapons. Disarmament seeks to control armaments and arms
control tries to check the armaments race.

A REVIEW OF THE DISARMAMENT INITIATIVES DURING THE COLD WAR

AND POST- COLD WAR PERIODS

History of disarmament is a story of few successes and many failures.14 points were put forth
by Woodrow Wilson and one of them talks about disarmament as a viable option to ensure
lasting peace. Disarmament became a major topic of discussion after the cuban missile crisis.
Control, limitation and then elimination of the weapons.The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI)
was a proposed missile defense system intended to protect the United States from attack by
ballistic strategic nuclear weapons (intercontinental ballistic missiles and submarine-launched
ballistic missiles). The concept was first announced publicly by President Ronald Reagan on
23 March 1983.Reagan was a vocal critic of the doctrine of mutual assured destruction (MAD),
which he described as a "suicide pact", and he called upon the scientists and engineers of the
The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) was a proposed missile defense system intended to
protect the United States from attack by ballistic strategic nuclear weapons (intercontinental
ballistic missiles and submarine-launched ballistic missiles). The concept was first announced
publicly by President Ronald Reagan on 23 March 1983. Reagan was a vocal critic of the
doctrine of mutual assured destruction (MAD), which he described as a "suicide pact", and he
called upon the scientists and engineers of the United States to develop a system that would
render nuclear weapons obsolete. Star wars program - militarising outer space - star-peace
program . Arms control aims at the commencement of a tension free world free from arms.
Russia, USA and China possess the most number of nuclear weapons in the world

OBSTACLES TO NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT

1.The problem of security.

According to Palmer and Perkins, there has long been a consciousness of an inverse
relationship between disarmament and security. Unless some system can be evolved whereby
nations will actually be more secure with less armed strength, disarmament will indeed remain
a ‘pipe dream’. International tension and the mutual fear among the nations develop in them a
feeling of insecurity. So long as the nation are not assured of their security, any effort for
disarmament would meet with failure. No guarantee can be provided to nations in view of the
nature of the present international society. In the conditions like this, every nation is bound to
depend upon its own power for its security.

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2.Fear and mutual distrust.

As a result, every nation views with suspicion the disarmament proposals put forth by others.
Every nation feels suspicious about the intentions of others nations that while it way effect a
reduction in it’s armaments, other may not do so. This mistrust functions in two ways, “ it
hampers initial agreement and it might lead to the breakdown should a disarmament scheme
be put into operation.” But as Prof. Schleicher observes. “If there were perfect trust between
nations, arms would be unnecessary and disarmament would but be the problem.” So the
basic problem of disarmament is that there is lack of mutual trust among the nations.

3. No nation express itself against disarmament as such, but it views any disarmament plan
from the point of view of its national interest.
During disarmament negotiations such conditions are placed by some of the participants, which
are not acceptable to others. As a result, the disarmament conferences fail. In fact, the nations
lack the real desire for disarmament and that is why they put such condition which may not be
acceptable to others. As a result the disarmament conferences fail. In fact, the nations lack the
real desire for disarmament and that is why they put such conditions which may not be
acceptable to others.

4.The developments after the seconds world war divided the world into two blocs and that gave
birth to so- called cold war.
Every nation is concerned about its security because of unstable balance of power. Armaments
are the result of certain psychological factors. So long as these factors persist, disarmament
seems to be a distant possibility. And disarmament proposal is, therefore, considered by the
nations only in the contest of present international system.

5.In the realm of armaments, the superpowers have achieved the maximum limit.
In other words, they have gained such a potential capacity in armaments that it would not be
worthwhile to go any further. Today both the U.S.A and the U.S.S.R are in the possession of
overkill capacity. It is now in their interest to put a halt to arms \race. But the nations which
are much behind in the arms race want disarmament only when they have reached a rough
parity in arms with the super powers. They consider the power- equality as the ideal situation
for disbarment.Since this situation is highly improbable, disarmament also appears improbable
in the near future.

6.Ratio among the armaments of different nations after a reduction in the armaments has been
effected.
Every nation wants to be superior of disarmament to others. This questions is always the first
on the agenda of disarmament to others. This question is always the first on the agenda of
disarmament conference and commissions as so what should be the nation among the
armaments of different nations and within that ration how different types and quantities of
armaments are to be allotted to different nations.

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7.Terrorism
The threat of terrorism always hinders the prostpects of disarmament because of the sovereign
nations’ concern for safety.

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MODULE IV

LEAGUE OF NATIONS
Covenant of the League (Exerpt)
“THE HIGH CONTRACTING PARTIES,
In order to promote international co-operation and to achieve international peace and
security
by the acceptance of obligations not to resort to war,
by the prescription of open, just and honourable relations between nations,
by the firm establishment of the understandings of international law as the actual
rule of conduct among Governments, and
by the maintenance of justice and a scrupulous respect for all treaty obligations in
the dealings of organised peoples with one another,
Agree to this Covenant of the League of Nations.”

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

The main constitutional organs of the League were the Assembly, the Council, and the
Permanent Secretariat. It also had two essential wings: the Permanent Court of International
Justice and the International Labour Organization. In addition, there were several auxiliary
agencies and commissions.Each organ's budget was allocated by the Assembly (the League
was supported financially by its member states).

The relations between the Assembly and the Council and the competencies of each were for
the most part not explicitly defined. Each body could deal with any matter within the sphere of
competence of the League or affecting peace in the world. Particular questions or tasks might
be referred to either.

Unanimity was required for the decisions of both the Assembly and the Council, except in
matters of procedure and some other specific cases such as the admission of new members.
This requirement was a reflection of the League's belief in the sovereignty of its component
nations; the League sought solution by consent, not by dictation. In case of a dispute, the
consent of the parties to the dispute was not required for unanimity.

The Permanent Secretariat, established at the seat of the League at Geneva, comprised a body
of experts in various spheres under the direction of the general secretary. Its principal sections
were Political, Financial and Economics, Transit, Minorities and Administration
(administering the Saar and Danzig), Mandates, Disarmament, Health, Social (Opium and
Traffic in Women and Children), Intellectual Cooperation and International Bureaux, Legal,
and Information. The staff of the Secretariat was responsible for preparing the agenda for the
Council and the Assembly and publishing reports of the meetings and other routine matters,
effectively acting as the League's civil service. In 1931 the staff numbered 707.

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The Assembly consisted of representatives of all members of the League, with each state
allowed up to three representatives and one vote. It met in Geneva and, after its initial sessions
in 1920, it convened once a year in September.The special functions of the Assembly included
the admission of new members, the periodical election of non-permanent members to the
Council, the election with the Council of the judges of the Permanent Court, and control of the
budget. In practice, the Assembly was the general directing force of League activities.

The League Council acted as a type of executive body directing the Assembly's business.It
began with four permanent members (Great Britain, France, Italy, and Japan) and four non-
permanent members that were elected by the Assembly for a three-year term. The first non-
permanent members were Belgium, Brazil, Greece, and Spain.

The composition of the Council was changed several times. The number of non-permanent
members was first increased to six on 22 September 1922 and to nine on 8 September 1926.
Werner Dankwort of Germany pushed for his country to join the League; joining in 1926,
Germany became the fifth permanent member of the Council. Later, after Germany and Japan
both left the League, the number of non-permanent seats was increased from nine to eleven,
and the Soviet Union was made a permanent member giving the Council a total of fifteen
members.The Council met, on average, five times a year and in extraordinary sessions when
required. In total, 107 sessions were held between 1920 and 1939.

ACHIEVEMENTS AND FAILURES OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS : A CRITICAL

ANALYSIS 12
The League of Nations prevented no major war, and it was ineffective in maintaining
international order. The reasons for this failure are threefold:

(i) Constitutional Weaknesses

A. War was not outlawed per se.
B. Jean Ray: “As a matter of fact, since the contrary opinion was not clearly expressed, it
remained tacitly admitted that war is a solution, the normal solution, of international
conflicts. These obligations, as a matter of law, are presented only as exceptions; the
implicit rule is the recourse to war.”
C. Even if the members had lived up to the provisions of the Covenant, they would have
found in the fundamental law of the League an instrument for the prevention of some
wars and for the legalization of others.

(ii) Structural Weaknesses

A. Structure was predominantly European while the rest of the world was not. The only
non-European great power Member was Japan. The US was never a member. Soviet
Union was only a member during the League’s declining years from 1934-1939.

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B. An International Organization whose main purpose is the maintenance of international

order and the preservation of international peace does not need to be universal inn the
sense that all powerful nations, which are most likely to disturb the peace of the world,
are under its jurisdiction. The membership of some great powers and the non-
membership of others rendered the League powerless to preserve peace on a world-
wide scale.

(iii) Political Weaknesses

A. The ability of the League of Nations to prevent war was predicated upon the unity of
its members and especially of the great powers. By virtue of the principle of unanimity,
any member of the League, except parties to a dispute, could veto a decision by voting
against the motion to take action. Given the antagonistic policies pursued by the leading
members of the League, the very likelihood of a veto impeded even attempts at decisive
collective action. Only an overriding principle of justice could have made such action
possible. As we have seen, such principles of justice did exist in the abstract as
collective self defense of the status quo against the nations vanquished in the First
World War and as national self-determination.
B. Confronted with a political situation demanding concrete action, these abstract
principles transformed themselves into ideological justifications for the separate
policies pursued by the individual nations. Thus these abstract principles of justice, far
from providing common standards of judgment and guides for common action, actually
strengthened international anarchy by strengthening the antagonistic policies of
individual nations. The inability of the League of Nations to maintain international
order and peace, then, was the inevitable result of the ascendancy which the ethics and
policies of sovereign nations were able to maintain over the moral and political
objectives of the International Government of the League of Nations.

THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANIZATION

PRINCIPLES AND OBJECTIVES OF UNO - THE UN CHARTER 13

“The Charter of the United Nations clearly reveals the purposes and general nature of the new
organization. This remarkable document contains more than ten thousand words, 111 Articles
divided into 19 chapters. Article I states the broad purposes of the UN: “to maintain
international peace and security,” “to develop friendly relations among nations,” “to achieve
international cooperation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or
humanitarian character, and in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for
fundamental freedoms for all,” and “to be a center for harmonizing the actions of nations.”
Article 2 declares the UN to be “based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all its
members,” a statement well worth remembering. The bulk of the Charter is devoted to the

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provisions creating and controlling the principal organs. These are the General Assembly, the
Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, thee Trusteeship Council, the International
Court of Justice, and the UN Secretariat. The original members of the UN were the states
represented at San Francisco, plus Poland, a total of fifty-one; but according to Article 5 of the
Charter, membership was “open to all other peace-loving states… able and willing to carry out
these obligations”, a provision which has evoked sharp differences in interpretations.”

THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY

This is the main deliberative organ of the UN, sometimes dubbed the ‘parliament of nations.’
The Assembly consists of all members of the UN, each of which has a single vote. The
Assembly can debate and pass resolutions on any matter covered by the Charter, and has a
specific responsibility to examine and approve the UN’s budget, determine the members’
contributions, and elect, in conjunction with the Security Council, the UN Secretary-General
and the judges of the International Court of Justice. Important decisions in the Assembly must
be carried by a two thirds majority, but, crucially, these decisions are recommendations rather
than enforceable international law. The Assembly neither has a legislative role nor does it
oversee or scrutinize, in any meaningful sense, the Security Council or the Secretariat.14

This body consists of all members of the UN, with each state having one vote and a maximum
of five representatives. Its duties are to “discuss,” “make recommendations,” “consider,” “call
the attention,” “notify,” “initiate studies,” and “receive and consider.” Except in a limited field,
it works largely through recommendations and advice to member states and to the Security
Council; and it may not even make recommendations on matters already before the Security
Council unless that body so requests. The Assembly, however, was given broad supervisory
and investigative responsibilities. It possesses authority in respect to UN finances, certain
matters relating to non-self-governing territories, the election of members of the Security
Council, the Economic and Social Council, and the Trusteeship Council; on the
recommendation of the Security Council it admits states to membership in the UN; and it shares
with the Security Council the duty of electing judges to the International Court of Justice.
Decisions on important questions are made “by two-thirds majority of the members present
and voting” and on all other matters by a majority vote.15

THE SECURITY COUNCIL 16

This body originally consisted of eleven members of the UN, each having one representative.
In 1965, the Council was expanded to fifteen, five permanent members – China, France, the

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USSR, the UK, and the US – and ten non-permanent members elected by the General Assembly
for two-year terms, without eligiblity for immediate reelection.
The Security Council was designed to be the UN’s only action agency; it was therefore charged
with primary responsibility for the “maintenance of international peace and security.” If parties
to a dispute fail to exhaust the procedures for pacific settlement, the Security Council may call
upon them “to seek a solution by negotiation, inquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration,
judicial settlement, resort to regional agencies or arragements, or other peaceful means of their
own choice.” The Council may also ask the members of the United nations to apply such
measures as “complete or partial interruption of economic relations and of rail, sea, air postal,
telegraphic, radio, and other means of communication, and the severance of diplomatic
relations”; and it may even “take such action by air, sea or land forces as may be necessary,”
using the “armed forces, assistance, and facilities” that UN member states are pledged to
provide.
Articles 51-54 in a sense qualify the authority of the Security Council. Article 51 states that
“nothing in the present Charter shall impair the inherent right of individual or collective self-
defense if an armed attack occurs against a member of the UN, until the Security Council has
taken the measures necessary to maintain international peace and security.” This article has
figured prominently in debates on the North Atlantic Pact, the Rio Treaty, and other regional
arrangements for self-defense.

Its powers include the establishment of peacekeeping operations and international sanctions as
well as the authorization of military actions through resolutions – it is the only body of the
United Nations with the authority to issue binding resolutions to member states. The council
held its first session on 17 January 1946. Under Article 27 of the UN Charter, Security Council
decisions on all substantive matters require the affirmative votes of nine members. A negative
vote or "veto" by a permanent member prevents adoption of a proposal, even if it has received
the required votes.[63] Abstention is not regarded as a veto in most cases, though all five
permanent members must actively concur to amend the UN Charter or to recommend the
admission of a new UN member state. Procedural matters are not subject to a veto, so the veto
cannot be used to avoid discussion of an issue. The same holds for certain decisions that directly
regard permanent members. A majority of vetoes are used not in critical international security
situations, but for purposes such as blocking a candidate for Secretary-General or the admission
of a member state. In the negotiations building up to the creation of the UN, the veto power
was resented by many small countries, and in fact was forced on them by the veto nations –
US, UK, China, France and the Soviet Union – through a threat that without the veto there will
be no UN. 17

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THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL18

ECOSOC has been enlarged from the original eighteen to fifty-four member states, each of
which has one representative with one vote. It has been established as the chief coordinating
agency of the UN in promoting the following important objectives:
(a) Higher standards of living, full employment, and conditions of economic and social
progress and development;
(b) Solutions of international economic, social, health, and its related problems; and
international cultural and educations cooperation; and
(c) Universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for
all without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion.
The Council’s instruments are studies, recommendations, conferences, and coordination
activities, carried out by special committees and by regional and functional commissions. It is
charged with coordinating the activities of the specialized agencies “through consultation with
and recommendations to such agencies and through recommendations to the General Assembly
and to the Members of the United nations.” It is authorized to deal directly with
nongovernmental organizations.

SECRETARIAT
Articles 97-101 of the Charter establish a Secretariat resembling that of the League of Nations.
Its administrative head, the Secretary-General, is aided by several Deputy Secretaries- in his
direction of a staff of about 38,000 advisers, experts, administrators, and clerks. Many of these
are assigned to other organs and organizations of the UN. The Secretary-General is authorized
to “bring to the attention of the Security Council any matter which in his opinion may threaten
the maintenance of international peace and security.” He and his staff are required to take an
oath of loyalty to the principles of the UN, and they are enjoined from seeking or receiving
instructions from any state or from any authority “external to the Organization.”

TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL19

Chapter XI of the Charter – “Declaration Regarding Non-Self-Governing Territories” – opens

with these words: “Members of the United Nations which have or assume responsibilities for
the administration of territories whose people haave not yet attained a full measure of self-
government recognize the principle that the interests of the inhabitants of these territories are
paramount.” These words constitute the most specific recognition of the rights of native
peoples that has ever been incorporated into a major international document.

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Chapter XII provides for an international trusteeship system, to apply to territories, which come
within the following categories:
(a) Territories now held under mandate;
(b) Territories which may be detached from enemy states as a result of the Second World
War; and
(c) Territories voluntarily placed under the system by states responsible for their
administration
These objectives of the system are declared to be: the furtherance of international peace and
security; the promotion of all the interests of the inhabitants of trust territories, including
progress towards self-government or independence; the encouragement of respect for human
rights and for fundamental freedoms without distinction of race, sex, language or religion; and
the insurance of equal treatment for UN members and their nationals in all respects in the trust
areas.
Except for certain strategic areas, which are the direct concern of the Security Council, the
functions of the United Nations with regard to trust territories are performed by the General
Assembly and, more immediately, by the Trusteeship Council.

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE20

The Statute of the Court adopted at the San Francisco Conference was similar to the Statute off
the earlier Permanent Court of International Justice. The changes were “comparatively trivial,
and mostly for adaption to the United Nations system.” The ICJ is an integral part of the UN,
while the PCIJ had been associated only indirectly with the League of Nations.
Members of the UN are ipso facto parties to the Statute of the Court, and other states may
become parties to it. UN Members pledge themselves to comply with the decisions of the Court,
although they retain the right to use other tribunals. The GA and the SC and the other organs
and specialized agencies, if authorized by the Assembly, may request advisory opinions. The
Court itself consists of fifteen permanent judges, representing the major legal systems of the
world. Its seat, like that of the earlier Court, is at the Hague.

ROLE OF SECRETARY GENERAL

Equal parts diplomat and advocate, civil servant and CEO, the Secretary-General is a symbol
of United Nations ideals and a spokesman for the interests of the world's peoples, in particular
the poor and vulnerable among them. The current Secretary-General, and the ninth occupant
of the post, is Mr. António Guterres of Portugal, who took office on 1 January 2017.
The Charter describes the Secretary-General as "chief administrative officer" of the
Organization, who shall act in that capacity and perform "such other functions as are entrusted"

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to him or her by the Security Council, General Assembly, Economic and Social Council and
other United Nations organs. The Charter also empowers the Secretary-General to "bring to the
attention of the Security Council any matter which in his opinion may threaten the maintenance
of international peace and security". These guidelines both define the powers of the office and
grant it considerable scope for action. The Secretary-General would fail if he did not take
careful account of the concerns of Member States, but he must also uphold the values and moral
authority of the United Nations, and speak and act for peace, even at the risk, from time to time,
of challenging or disagreeing with those same Member States.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF UNO
Since its inception back in 1945, the United Nations (UN) has accomplished innumerable
successes across the world, especially through coordination with its agencies and other similar
organizations. Some of its notable achievements include:

PTBT, NPT, SALT 1, SALT II, Peacekeeping Operations etc.

Maintaining Peace and Security

Through peacekeeping and conflict resolution initiatives across the world, UN has managed to
restore peace and stability as well as reduce the casualties of war. One such case is that of Sierra
Leone where UN peacekeepers between 1999 and 2005 contributed greatly to the end of the
decade-long civil war.

Global Food Security and Aid

In addition to changing climate and weather patterns that affect food production, an ever-
increasing global population faces the threat of food shortage. The World Food Program (WFP)
has however been on the forefront with global food security initiatives. It is estimated that the
UN feeds approximately 104 million people from 80 nations annually due to natural disasters,
war, poverty, or health emergencies.

Fight against AIDS

Even though it cannot receive full credit for the strides made in the fight against this epidemic,
the UN has played a critical role in the achievements made. The World Health Organization,
Global Fund to Fight AIDS, and UNAIDS have initiated awareness, prevention, and treatment
programs which have significantly reduced the number of deaths from AIDS and related
opportunistic diseases. Between 2010 and 2016, the number of new infections in adults and
children reduced by 11% and 47% respectively. Also, the number of HIV related deaths since
the peak of the epidemic in 2005 had reduced by 48% by 2016.

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UN’s achievements span across all the facets of humanity whether politics, economy, health,
environment, protection of children, women empowerment or human rights.

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MODULE V

NATIONAL INTEREST

Hans Morgenthau defines national interest as synonymous with power and, as such, both the
proper object of a state’s foreign policy and the best measure of its capacity to achieve its aims.
What constitutes national interest, how it is determined and ultimately implemented are crucial
to understanding the choices and responses pursued by states in international affairs.

FOREIGN POLICY

Foreign policy is not separate from national policy, instead, it is a part of it. It consists of
national interests that are to be furthered in relation to other furthering national interests
in their foreign policies within the limits of their strength and the realities of the external
environment. In recent years, the term foreign policy has become so wide that it covers almost
all sorts of relations of one government with the other. Obviously, then political relations also
fall in the scope of foreign policy.

George Modelski defines it as, “The system of activities evolved by communities for changing
the behaviour of other states and for adjusting their own activities to the international
environment.”

C.C Rodee defines foreign policy as a group of principles which are adopted by the states to
protect the national interests and to change the behaviour of others.

In his own words, “Foreign policy involves the formulation and implementation of a group of
principles which shape the behaviour pattern of a state while negotiating with (contacting) other
states to protect or further its vital interests”

The above definition makes it clear that foreign policy is the group of principles determined by
the states. These principles involve those interests which influence the behaviour of the states,
intending to establish their relations to further and promote them. This includes not only the
general principles but also those means necessary to implement them. Thus, these principles
are those broader interests which states strive to achieve in international relations.

DETERMINANTS OF FOREIGN POLICY

ELEMENTS OF FOREIGN POLICY

(1) The sovereignty of the states

The first element is the sovereignty of the state which determines the principle of safeguarding
the territorial integrity of the states

(2) Their interdependence,

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.The element of interdependence necessitates the principle of bargaining in foreign policy as

the states endeavour to achieve the maximum possible advantage under all circumstances.

(3) Their domestic and international circumstances

The third element the domestic and intermediate circumstances add the factor of realism.

PRINCIPLES/THEORIES OF FORGN POLICY

The foreign policy of all states is based on these three principles.

1) Principles of Safeguarding the territorial integrity

The primary duty of a state is to protect the property of its citizens and to safeguard their
interests wherever they are. This duty also involves the concept of security of national
boundaries and if necessary to occupy other alien parts of the territory.
The states, aiming at the protection of their own territory, pursue the policy of “status quo”.
The American policy of Isolation (Monroe Doctrine) and Stimson doctrine of 1932, may be
cited as the best examples of policy of status quo. The states, aiming at subjugating occupied
or non-occupied territory, may be names as pursuing the revisionist policy. The policy of
safeguarding the interests of the citizens inside or outside the state, is known as policy of
“prestige”;

2) Theory of Bargaining
Interdependence of the states is an important phenomenon in international politics. All the
states, big or small, are dependent on one another for one or the other reasons. This
interdependence may result in conflict or cooperation. So the states under these stresses
endeavour to create a situation under which international behaviour may not be broken
completely. Foreign policy strives to create such a balance with bargaining.

3) Theory of the promotion of National interest

It is the pious duty of all sovereign states to promote and further their national interests through
their foreign policies. There may be a little bit of difference between the interests on one state
with that of another as they naturally vary according to time, place and location, but the interests
as self preservation, security and well-being of its citizens are the common interests on the
basis of which foreign policy is generally formulated.

SPECIFIC DETERMINANTS OF FOREIGN POLICY

The foreign policy of a country is determined by a number of factors.These elements may be

classified as objective and subjective.
The objective or environmental factors determine the general framework within which the
foreign policy is to operate.
The subjective factors determine the specific response to a particular situation and indicate the
direction of foreign policy.

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Another band of classification would be on the basis of the externality of factors.

External factors are of two types – flexible and rigid.
In flexible factors we include international organizations and world public opinion. These are
dynamic elements as the international organizations, international law and the treaties create
international environment. This international environment influences world public opinion.
These are dynamic elements as the international organizations, international law and the
treaties create international environment. This international environment influences world
public opinion.
The states, while formulating foreign policy, have to keep in mind this dynamics of
international politics. The reactions of state, on the other hand, is not dynamic. We may term
it as rigid factor. The states have some area of agreement and disagreement. They have some
allies, some neighbours and some foes.

i) Historical and National Values

The foreign policy is shaped and conditioned by the history of a nation. From history alone the
nation inherits a style and culture which in their turn influence and decide the course of actions
the nation is to follow in relation to other sovereign states. History is the record of the doings
of a community, of its failures and successes. These successes and failures guide the course of
foreign policy.

ii) Geography
Geography is the factor that directly determines the national goals and aspirations and hence is
one of the most potent factors in influencing the formulation of the foreign policy. An analysis
of the foreign policy goals of different nations will reveal the strong influence of geography.21

iii) Industrial Development

Great industrial powers like U.S, U.K, Japan etc. have been able to use foreign aid as an
instrument of foreign policy. The industrially backward countries have to be content with a
secondary role.

iv) Public opinion

The establishment of democratic institutions, the increase in the standard of living, the scourge
of First World War and expansion of education have made the world public opinion a
significant factor in foreign policy. The states never dare pursue the interest contrary to world
public opinion. At least they will pursue only those interests which are not opposed to world
public opinion.

21
The foreign policy of Britain in pre-Second World War period was centered on the principles of balance of
power, superiority on the seas and expansion of empire;three aspects of the policy were the natural corollary of
geography.

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Public opinion shapes the foreign policy provided it is clear and well shaped. It could be
significant factor only in developed states. In developing or underdeveloped states either it is
not reflected in foreign policy issued or it is too native to play a significant role.

v) National Capacity
National capacity means the military preparedness of a state, its technological advancement
and modern means of communication. The economic development and enlightened political
institutions are also associated with the national capacity. A policy is doomed if it does not
strike a balance with the national capacity, the change in American foreign policy in post
Second World War period explains this. From 1823 the U.S had been pursuing the policy of
isolation but the tremendous rate of economic growth in twentieth century compelled it to
follow the policy of involvement in place of isolation. The increase in national capacity of India
after 1971 brought diversions in the traditional policy of non-alignment.

Foreign policy is directly associated with the national capacity. If the state increases its national
capacity, its foreign policy will need a big change. It will strive to achieve a status of distinction
in international relations, if it decreases, the state will have to compromise with its poor status.
For example, at the end of Second World War Britain became a less powerful state in Europe
as well as in the world. This change in national capacity has brought overwhelming diversions
in British foreign policy.

vi) Ideologies
Ideology is the basis as well as the goal of foreign policy. The states establish their political
and economic institutions on the basis of ideology and endeavour to translate those very
principles in the sphere of foreign policy. As is obvious, a particular ideology has a goal which
the state strives to achieve in international relation. The ideological division of the world
between the Soviet bloc and American bloc has focused two types of foreign policies. One is
communist oriented and the other non communist. A sort of affinity can be traced among the
states of identical ideologies while there is a feeling of animosity among the states adhering to
contradictory ideologies. This is the root cause of cold war and post war tensions.

vii) National Interests and Nation Values

National interest is the key concept in foreign policy. These are the aspirations of the state to
be achieved through foreign policy. The policy makers are governed by their respective
national interests. If they agree on certain points it is because they view that the interests they
are piously pursuing are not jeopardized. If they agree to concessions, they do only when they
are convinced that this brings advantage if their states. national interests are the governing
factors which loom large in diplomatic conferences-bilateral or multilateral. The success and
failure of all these conferences depend upon the national interests involved. A conference
cannot see the light of success of its conditions affect them and the area of cooperation stretches
to the horizons of national interest. Lord Palmerston was too right to say that friendship or

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enmity is never permanent in foreign policy, it is the national interests that are permanent and
it was the pious duty of the states to follow them.

viii)International Organization
The international organizations have started playing important role in foreign policy
formulation. The states have to take a not of international law, treaties and contracts so that
their violation may not jeopardize the policies. The Communist China, for a login time, showed
utter disregard to these factors and consequently could not secure its due position in the field
of international relations. Only after 1971, she recognised their importance and that move on
the part of Communist China have introduced new dimensions in international politics.

ix) World Public Opinion

World public opinion is very dynamic element. Like a flicker of light it influences the foreign
policies only too occasionally. In other words, the element of consistency is totally absent in
it. Only if the domestic public opinion supports the world public opinion it becomes an
important determinant of foreign policy .

The opinion is a factor which faces many obstacles in crystallization. The first and foremost is
the ideological division of the world in which the actions good or bad of one part become
naturally adverse to other part. The role of propaganda, absence of free press and economic
backwardness of a larger number of states towards the evolution of a real public opinion.

x) Reactions of the States

The states have to take notice of the interests of other states while formulating their policies.
They will never endeavour to pursue those interests which are totally opposed to the
fundamental interests of other states. If a policy fails to apprehend the reactions of other in this
light, it will come to apprehend the reactions of other in this light, it will come tod a disastrous
end.

Hitler in 1939 committed a blunder when he refused to be guided by the British reactions and
went ahead with his Polish invasion. The result is well known. Japan’s failure in assessing the
American reactions in Pearl Harbour incident against brought disaster to Japanese policy which
had intelligently avoided offending the U.S.A upto that period.

(xi) Decision Makers

i) Head of the Government and Foreign Minister

In a totalitarian state foreign policy depends upon the whims of a dictator. In a democracy the
general public is not competent enough to participate in it effectively. This phenomenon
centralizes the powers of formulating the policy in the hands of a few, termed in modern
parlance, as elites. The American President Truman used to say that the president is the maker

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of foreign policy. In a parliamentary democracy it is the Prime Minister who wields this
authority.

Personality equation plays a very significant part in politics and administration. This
sometimes, makes the foreign minister more important than the President, or Prime Minister.
During Attlee’s Premiership Sir Ernest Bevin was the prime mover and so was John Foster
Dulles under Eisenhower. Dr. Henry Kissinger virtually became the symbol of American
foreign policy in Nixon and Ford period.

ii) Legislature: The legislature is generally a clumsy house. It is very strong word unfit to be
wielded properly. Nevertheless, it is the last authority in decision making and the strings of
purse are under its control. These factors make it a strong determinant of foreign policy. The
post Second World War period has seen anew aspect of foreign policy, ie. the economic aid
and assistance to promote the national interests. For that matter, the executives of foreign policy
depend upon the legislature of sanctions of huge amounts. The U.S.A is the chief donor of
economic assistance. This has made the Senate a powerful concluded by the executives- Prime
Minister or President by they must be ratified by the legislatures before they are applied. This
against makes the legislature, important determinants.

iii) Foreign office and other services: In theory the ministers make the policy and the
permanent officials merely execute it, but in practice the officials formulate the policy and the
ministers only render advice. It is equally true that if the minister is bent upon carrying out his
own impressions then the bureaucracy has no alternative but to give way. Neville Chamberlain
clashed with the foreign office over his policy of Appeasement. He removed Lord Vansittart
from his policies are less firm and clashes less pronounced, the advice of the officials carries
much weight?

OBJECTIVES OF FOREIGN POLICY

If all the objectives of foreign policy are to be explained by one single word, that word
undoubtedly is the national interest, but this word is too ambiguous to lead us to any clear
understanding. Paul Seabury opined that the national interest can indicate such ideal objectives
which the states pursue through their foreign policy or it can simply be the interpretation of the
policy makers or its meaning may be different individuals and group.”

K.J Holsti holds that the national interests are ‘an image of a future state of affairs and future
set of conditions which governments through individual policy makes aspire to bring about by
wielding influence abroad and by changing or sustaining the behaviour of states.
In principle the foreign policy is always formulated on the basis of national interests but in
practice the policy may drift far-ff from these goals under the pressure of International
environment and power pattern. The policy of the Soviet Union aims at the world revolution
for spreading communism. The U.S.A since 1930 had specifically declared the support for
democracies in the world. Both the countries have drifted from these aspired goals of their

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polities. The Soviet Union has been supporting governments of Iraq and Iran where a campaign
of witch hunting for communists is official policy. It gives many surprises when the Soviet
Union fails to reach a compromise with the communist regimes of China and Albania. The
U.S.A in post War period found itself in awkward position of supporting the totalitarian
regimes and fascist governments, which was least convincing inview of the old policy of
supporting the democracies.

The objectives of foreign policy are divided in three categories namely.

i) Core values and interests.
ii) Middle range objectives, and
iii) Universal long range objectives.

i) Core values and interests

Core values and interests determine the foreign policy of a nation. The basis of these objectives
are those necessities and beliefs on which depends the existence of the state. These necessities
and beliefs are as follows.

a) National security: National security is the primary goal of a foreign policy. This is the article
of faith society generally consents to without any dissent. The treaties, contracts and alliances
which the states conclude with other states rest on this objective. In 1823, the then president of
the U.S.A declared the famous Monroe doctrine which aimed at checking the interference of
European powers in the affairs of America.

The deep involvement of Soviet Union in East European affairs, its historic concern to find to
find a route through Dardanelles and Bosporus, and its efforts to defend its eastern borders
from any possible aggression are the Soviet interests related with the question of national
security. The complexion of the government in Moscow would not bring any significant change
in the Soviet Union’s stand on these highly sensitive issues. The policy of status quo; This may
include the protection of rights and property of the nationals living in foreign lands. This policy
is known as ‘policy of prestige’;

The concept of national security is not confined to territorial integrity or security of national
border. It may include the security of cultural and political institutions and beliefs and values.

b) Economic development: The promotion of economic interests of a nation is the fundamental

goal in foreign policy as this is directly associated with state’s existence. The status of a state
in international relations is always determined by the economic standard. So the state would
always strive to adopt a course of action which brings economic prosperity thereby making its
armed forces well equipped, citizens much relaxed and state a mention that the national
interests are more economic than political and foreign policy more guided by economic factors
than by political ones. War, imperialism and colonialism, treaties, alliances and contracts are
totally based on the idea of economic property.

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In post Second World War period, European states adopted the American line as American
economic aid was more than necessary of economic recovery of Europe. India, at the dawn of
its independence, shrewdly opted or a policy of non- alignment to seek the help of both the
blocs for its economic prosperity. The Sino – American détente is again the confirmation of
economic interests dominating the politics than the vice versa.

ii) Middle range objective

The middle range objective include international co-operation, prestige and protection of the
interests of the nationals. These objectives can be illustrated as follows:

a) The interests of Pressure Groups: The existence of pressure groups with global interests, is
a new phenomenon in politics which has a significant influence in foreign policy also. The
pressure groups wield a considerable influence on their respective governments which have to
include the interests of these pressure groups in foreign policy to bring stability in national
politics or to assure the support of these groups in dominating the domestic political scene.
This makes it clear that no government can get a smooth sailing without the support or these
interest groups. That is why, to placate them, the governments have to deviate from political
norms. The pro-Israel policy the U.S.A in the past was due to the considerable influence of the
American Jews in American politics. India’s repeated assurance to the Arab world to support
them against Israel is because of the pressure of Muslim factor in India politics.

b) Non-Political Cooperation: In the field of international relations mutual cooperation is more

than necessary today. So the objectives of a foreign policy inevitably include economic cultural
and social cooperation. The economic aid to the developing states and the facilities the states
give to the foreign students to pursue higher and technical education well explains this.

c) Promotion of National Prestige: The objective of this type includes those policies of states
which are meant to focus an impressive image of the states abroad. The states generally resort
to propaganda through mass media to create the desired effect. The competition between two
superpowers to reach the planets is motivated by this desire. The success of any of them in its
mission would certainly prove the scientific and technological superiority of one over the other.

d)Territorial expansion: The policy of territorial expansion includes imperialism, colonialism

which the states adhere to meet their economic and political aspirations. From 18th to 20th
century the European states had adopted the policy of imperialism to capture the markets. Raw
materials and to claim superiority in European affairs. In modern times the traditional
imperialistic policy has undergone a change and this can be explained by illustrating its two
prevalent forms. The first is a policy which aims at the increase of areas of influence, while the
other seeks to capture the economic resources reducing the other state to the status of
dependency. The economic or dollar imperialism of the West European countries and of the

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U.S.A falls in this category, while the Russian policy of imperialism can be covered in the
former types: expansion of areas of influence or ideology .

iii) Universal long range objective

These are objectives aiming at restricting the international system. The plans and dreams which
an ideology forms to establish the international system of its own liking is the distant goal of
foreign policy. Hitler’s idea of Thousand years Reich’, the idea of world revolution in socialist
countries, the plans of the U.S.A to make the world for democracy are undoubtedly the foreign
policy goals but with some distinction. While the primary and middle range goals are the
policies immediately to be pursued, foreign policy is always coloured by them but the long
range foals are the ambitions which the states may achieve in distant future and for them the
states never press too much in the present.

OBJECTIVES AND PRINCIPLES OF INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY

1. Non–Alignment:It may be observed that the policy of non-alignment was dictated by

the consideration of national interest. Because of its liberal tradition India could not
align itself with Soviet Union which believed in ideology of violence and revolution.
On the other hand her geographical location demanded that she should not join the
Western alliance. The traditional attitude of tolerance also impelled India to remain
Non-Aligned.

2. Opposition to colonialism and imperialism:This policy was largely the outcome of

her long sufferance as a colony under the British.The anti-colonial and anti-imperialist
stand of India was not limited to mere judgment. On the other hand India tried to
practice it and extended support to Indonesia, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco etc.

3. Anti-racism: It was the first country to highlight the problem of racial discrimination
at the international forums India had severely denounced apartheid policy practiced by
white regime of South Africa against black people of South Africa and Namibia.

4. Cooperation and coexistence: It is the idea of different systems existing side by side
without clashIndia cultivated very intimate relations with China,Nepal, Yugoslavia,
Egypt etc and played a leading role in the evolution of five principles(Panchsheel)
emphasizing mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty, non
aggression, non intervention in each other’s domestic affairs, mutual benefit and
equality, and peaceful coexistence.

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5. Intimate relations with Commonwealth:India sought the membership of

commonwealth even after adopting a Republican constitution, because it thought that
the membership of commonwealth shall be beneficial in the economic and other
spheres. India played a leading role at the various commonwealth meets.

6. Special Bias for Asia: It developed very close relations with countries of Asia, and
tried to promote unity among them by organizing number of conferences. At these
conferences Nehru emphasized that Asia could play an effective role in promoting the
world peace and play a dominant role in the shaping of the international relations.

7. Faith in the United Nations:It has not only encouraged the settlement of disputes
through methods but also extended full support to the United Nations actions. It has
been contributing military as well as other personnel’s for implementing the decisions
of the United Nations. It is well known that India played a commendable role during
the Korean war and Indo-China crisis.

8. Promotion of world peace and security:India’s foreign policy aims at the promotion
of international peace and security. Article 51 of the constitution directs the Indian
states to promote international peace and security.

● It cannot be denied that in the context of conditions prevailing in the international arena
this was the best policy. It has combined twin principles of idealism and pragmatism.

● There was particularly a short deviation from the methods of foreign policy after the
Indo-Chineese border conflict of 1962.

INDIA’S RELATIONS WITH PAKISTAN

India and Pakistan, two nations united by history but divided by destiny, has travelled a long
way in an attempt to bring peace to the highly volatile valley.The Partition of India in 1947
created two large countries independent from Britain.ndia and Pakistan established diplomatic
relations with each other. Subsequent years were marked by bitter periodic conflict, and the
nations went to war four times. The war in 1971 ended in defeat and another partition of
Pakistan. The eastern wing split off as a new country named Bangladesh, while the western
wing continued as Pakistan. The war in 1971 ended in defeat and another partition of Pakistan.
The eastern wing split off as a new country named Bangladesh, while the western wing
continued as Pakistan. Pakistani paramilitary forces, Pakistani tribal warlords invaded Kashmir
in September 1947. Kashmir’s security forces were too weak and ill equipped to fight against
Pakistan. The Maharaja asked for India's help. In 1957, north-western Kashmir was fully
integrated into Pakistan, becoming Free Kashmir (Pakistan Administered Kashmir), while the

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other portion was acceded to Indian control, and the state of Jammu and Kashmir (Indian-
administered Kashmir) was created.n 1962, China occupied Aksai Chin, the northeastern
region bordering Ladak. In 1984, India launched Operation Meghdoot and captured more than
80 percent of the Siachen Glacier.Pakistan also points to India’s failure of not understanding
its own political logic and applying it to Kashmir, by taking their opinion on the case of the
accession of Junagadh as an example (that the Hindu majority state should have gone to India
even though it had a Muslim ruler), that Kashmir should also rightfully and legally have
become a part of Pakistan since majority of the people were Muslim, even though they had a
Hindu ruler.Due to all such political differences, this dispute has also been the subject of wars
between the two countries in 1947 and 1965, and a limited conflict in 1999. The state/province
remains divided between the two countries by the Line of Control (LoC), which demarcates
the ceasefire line agreed upon in the 1947 conflict. In December 1971, following a political
crisis in East Pakistan, the situation soon spiraled out of control in East Pakistan and India
intervened in favor of the rebelling Bengali populace. The conflict, a brief but bloody war,
resulted in an independence of East Pakistan.In 1972 Shimla agreement was signed. Under this
agreement both India and Pakistan agreed to settle their difference through bilateral negotiation
in a peaceful manner. The critical involvement of china to provide nuclear know how to
Pakistan has made our relation little bitter. Anyway both of the counties decided no-first use
of nuclear weapon. But recent days the capturing of power by fundamentalist force (Taliban)
in Pakistan created a worldwide concern for the use nuclear weapon. The strained relation has
been culminated in Kargil war in 1999.After the Kargil war, India again tried to reestablish the
normal relation with Pakistan. India and Pakistan talk started in historic city of Agra. However,
the summit collapsed after two days and no formal agreement could be attained.Many
initiatives were taken by Indian government to keep normal relation with Pakistan. But rise of
fundamentalist activities in both the side of border is making the issue complicated day-by day.
The peace activities like, Samjhota express connecting two states, Delhi-Lahore bus service,
Thar express are gone in vain due to the recent infiltration in border area and terrorist attacks.

INDIA’S RELATIONS WITH CHINA

In April 1954, India and China signed an eight year agreement on Tibet that set forth the basis
of their relationship in the form of Panchsheel. Thus, the catch phrase of India’s diplomacy
with China in 1950s was Hindi-Chini bhai-bhai. Up to 1959, despite border skirmishes and
discrepancies between India and Chinese maps, Chinese leaders amicably had assured India
that there was no territorial controversy on the border. Chinese forces attacked India on October
20 1962 having occupied strategic points in Ladakh, China declared a unilateral ceasefire and
withdrew twenty kilometres behind its new line of control. This has known to be the one of the
dynamic incident which reversed the idealist experience of India foreign policy to realist.
During the Rajiv Gandhi’s period the bilateral agreements on science and technology
cooperation, on civil aviation to establish direct air links, and on cultural exchange.Tibet and
the border dispute are the perennial issue between the two countries.China has been opposing

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Indian support for the Dalai Lama and his followers who are demanding independence for
Tibet. When the Chinese military occupied Tibet, India offered shelter to the exiled Tibetans
which had a highly negative impact on relations between the two countries. The Sino-Indian
relations received setback in May 1998 when India justified its nuclear tests by citing potential
threats from China. Even the then Indian Defence Minister George Fernandes cited China as
the number one threat to India. However, in June 1999, during the Kargil crisis, external Affairs
Minister Jaswant Singh visited Beijing and stated that India did not consider China as threat.
Continuing the trend of friendly relations, Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao invited Prime Minister
Vajpayee to visit China in June 2003.They recognised the common goals of both countries and
made the commitment to build a ‘long term constructive and co-operative partnership’ to
peacefully promote their mutual political and economic goals without encroaching upon their
good relations with other countries. In 2003, India formally recognised Tibet as part of China,
and China recognised Sikkim as a formal part of India in 2004. Today, India China is engaged
in bilateral, regional and multilateral problems. The simultaneous emergence of India and
China as Asian and global power in fact, makes it imperative for them to be sensitive to each
other’s interest and aspirations. The demands from the two countries that they work together
to mutually support their rightful place in the comity of nations

INDIA’S RELATIONS WITH BANGLADESH

● Both Bangladesh and India are part of what is known as the Indian Subcontinent and
have had a long common cultural, economic and political history. To most outsiders
the people of the two countries are largely indistinguishable

● Bangladesh and India's state West Bengal are both Bengali-speaking.

● in 1947, India emerged as an independent state and Bangladesh (as East Pakistan) was
allocated as a part of Pakistan. Following the bloody Liberation War, Mujihhur Rehman
During 1971, and Bangladesh gained her independence and established relations with
India. The political relationship between India and Bangladesh has passed through
cycles of hiccups

● During the Partition of India after independence in 1947, the Bengal region was divided
into two: East Bengal (present-day Bangladesh) and West Bengal. East Bengal was
made a part of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan due to the fact that both regions had an
overwhelmingly large Muslim population, more than 85 per cent. In 1955, the
government of Pakistan changed its name from East Bengal to East Pakistan

● India under Indira Gandhi fully supported the cause of the Bangladeshis and its troops
and equipment were used to fight the Pakistani forces. The Indian Army also gave full
support to the main Bangladeshi guerrilla force, the Mukti Bhahini. Finally, on 26

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March, 1971, Bangladesh emerged as an independent state. Since then, there have been
several issues of agreement as well as of dispute.

● Sheikh Mujibur Rahman’s first foreign visit as Prime Minister and the Founding Father
of the newly born nation was to India and it was then decided Indo-Bangladesh relations
would be guided by principles of democracy, socialism, nonalignment and opposition
to colonialism and racism. Indira Gandhi too visited Bangladesh in 1972 and assured
that India would never interfere in the internal affairs of the country. In 1972, both the
countries signed a ‘Treaty of Friendship and Peace’. An Indo-Bangladesh Trade Pact
was also signed. The mainstream party Awami League is generally considered to be
friendly towards India.

● Ganges Treaty between the two countries to share surface waters at the Farakka Barrage
was signed by Deva Gowda and Sheik Hasina

● In 2011, the Teen Bigha Corridors to Bangladesh was opened so that the latter could
access its Dahagram–Angarpota enclaves.

● Recently India and Bangladesh had agreed to jointly fight terrorism.

INDIA’S RELATIONS WITH NEPAL

● India and Nepal are close yet fraught with difficulties stemming from geography,
economics, the problems inherent in big power-small power relations, and common
ethnic, linguistic and cultural identities that overlap the two countries’ borders.

● Treaty of Peace and Friendship and accompanying letters that defined security relations
between the two countries, and an agreement governing both bilateral trade and trade
transiting Indian soil

● These accords cemented a ‘special relationship’ between India and Nepal that granted
Nepal preferential economic treatment and provided Nepalese in India the same
economic and educational opportunities as Indian citizens

● Although economic issues were a major factor in the two countries’ confrontation,
Indian dissatisfaction with Nepal's 1988 acquisition of Chinese weaponry played an
important role. New Delhi perceived the arms purchase as an indication of Kathmandu's
intent to build a military relationship with Beijing, in violation of the 1950 treaty and
letters exchanged in 1959 and 1965, which included Nepal in India’s security zone and
precluded arms purchases without India’s approval.

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● Nepal had to back down after worsening economic conditions led to a change in Nepal’s
political system, in which the king was forced to institute a parliamentary democracy.
The new government sought quick restoration of amicable relations with India

● The special security relationship between New Delhi and Kathmandu was reestablished
during the June 1990 New Delhi meeting of Nepal's Prime Minister Krishna Prasad
Bhattaria and Indian Prime Minister V.P Singh.

● In 2008, Indo-Nepal ties got a further boost with an agreement to resume water talks
after a year disagreement.

● a 22-point statement highlighting the need to review, adjust and update the 1950 Treaty
of Peace and Friendship, amongst other agreements

● uninterrupted supplies of petroleum products, as well as lift bans on the export of rice,
wheat, maize, sugar and sucrose for quantities agreed to with Nepal.

● Politically, India acknowledged a willingness to promote democracy and a

constitutional government to establish there.

INDIA’S RELATIONS WITH SRI LANKA

● Mid-1950s, and coinciding with the withdrawal of Britain’s military presence in the
Indian Ocean, India and Sri Lanka increasingly came to share regional security interests

● 1970s, New Delhi and Colombo enjoyed close ties on the strength of relationship
between Mrs Indira Gandhi and Sri Lanka’s prime minister, Mrs Sirimavo Ratwatte
Dias Bandaranaike

● Both sides pursued a policy of non-alignment and cooperated to minimize Western

influence in the Indian Ocean.

● 1980s, the ethnic conflict between Sri Lanka Sinhalese in the south and Sri Lankan
Tamils in the north escalated, and Tamil separatists established bases and received
funding, weapons, and reportedly, training in India.

● Government until 1987

● India to intervene in the Tamil-Sinhalese conflict, but mediatory efforts failed to

prevent the deterioration of situation

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● 1987, Indian Prime minister Rajiv Gandhi and Sri Lankan President Junius Richard
Jayewardene signed an accord to settle the conflict by sending the Indian Peace Keeping
Force(IPKF) to establish order

● The LTTE refused to disarm, and Indian troops sustained heavy casualties while failing
to destroy the LTTE.

● New Delhi completed the withdrawal in March 1990

● The May 1991 assassination of Rajiv Gandhi, allegedly by LTTE, forced New Delhi to
crack down on the LTTE presence in Tamil Nadu and institute naval patrols in Palk
Straits to prohibit LTTE movements to India

● In September 2002, Sri Lanka started negotiating with LTTE for a peaceful settlement

SOME RANDOM QUOTES

Module I:

INTERNATIONAL POLITICS/ RELATIONS

· “Domestic and International Politics are but two different manifestations of the same phenomenon, the struggle for
power. Its manifestations differ in two different spheres because different moral, political and social conditions prevail in
each.” —H.J. Morgenthau

· “International Politics and domestic politics are not necessarily separate entities, but interrelated levels of political
activity, each of which affects the other. In a world of increasing interdependency and interpenetration, domestic and
international variables fuse so closely that the political analyst separates them only on his or her peril.” —Couloumbis and
Wolfe

States are barely in need of companionship. - Palmer and Perkins

“The world community is in fact passing through a type of transition. The old actors are no longer performing their
traditional roles but they are often performing new but reduced roles” – Palmer and Perkins

Palmer & Perkins “A pattern of political system/life in which people are separately organized into sovereign states which
interact with each other in varying ways and varying degrees.”

HJM also defines International Politics as the “struggle for and use of power among nations”.

· Robert A. Dahl - Modern Political Analysis- Political Science- “study of sharing and shaping up of power.”

· David Easton - the study of the authoritative allocation of values. - the study of input-output analysis - It is the process of
converting demands into decisions as propounded by easton.

· “War is likely to occur when states are protecting their vital interests which are violated by an enemy country.”

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DECISION MAKING:

James Stoner - "Decision making is the process of identifying and selecting a course of action to solve a specific problem."

James robinson on decision making - it is a social process that selects a problem for decision – please add if known

GAME THEORY

· It is a method of analysis and also of selecting the best course of action in international politics. The theory has been
defined as body of thought dealing with rational decision strategies in situations of conflicts and competition when each
participant or player seeks to maximize gains and minimize losses. It is a mathematical model in which the player is placed
in a certain fixed situation and tries to make maximum gains from his opponents.

REALISM/ POWER

Realism is a set of rules and regulations necessary for proper relations among sovereign nations at the global level and
prescribes the rights and duties of these major actors at the global level.

· Hobbes- Man’s craze for power stops only with his death.

· Struggle for and use of power among nations whatever may be the ultimate aim of International Politics, the immediate
aim of a national actor is power. Power is man’s control over the minds and actions of others

· Man is a complex of powers, desire is the desire for power, pride the illusion about power, honour the opinion about
power, life the unremitting exercise of power, death the loss of power.- Michael Oakeshott on Hobbes’ Leviathan(published
in 1651)

· “Expansion of state’s power beyond its borders” - Hans. J. Morgenthau ‘Imperialism’

· By Power, Hans J Morgenthau means political power. (not economic power)

States normally use or seek force for the protection of power - HJM

J.S. Mill - over himself and over his mind and body the individual alone is sovereign. - On Liberty, a theory of self-regarding
actions and other-regarding actions

“Men do not fight because they have arms, they have arms because they deem it necessary to fight.”- Hans.J. Morgenthau

“One drop of oil is equivalent to one drop of blood”

Truth emerges more easily from power than from confusion - Francis Bacon

National Power is that “ combination of power and capability of a state which the state uses for fulfilling its national interests
and goals.” —Padelford and Lincoln

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National Power denotes “the ability of a nation to fulfill national goals. It tells us as to how much powerful or weak a
particular nation is in securing its national goals.” —Hartman

If you accept me as your saviour and leader, I will redeem the germans - hitler

Let us be frank with ourselves, what are 40 million Italians compared to 90 million Germans and 200 million Slavs. –
Mussolini

MODULE II

BALANCE OF POWER

· “The trouble with the balance of power is not that it has no meaning but that it has too many meanings.” -Inis Claude
(balance of power in international relations)

Palmer and Perkins balance of power is a basic principle in international relations.

Samir Amin expressed view on the world order and international relations: “Yes, I do want to see the construction of a
multipolar world, and that obviously means the defeat of Washington’s hegemonic project for military control of the planet.”

Spikeman ? ? It is the active intervention by the statesmen – balance of power

It is a Manifestation of a general social principle - Hans J Morgenthau

Balance of power - scholars say that 17,18,19th centuries were the golden age for the balance of power with great britain at
its helm

AMBASSADORS AND DIPLOMACY:

· “Words are one thing actions another” “Good words are a mask for the concealment of bad deeds”. Stalin’s words

· Henry Wotton “An Ambassador is an honest man who is sent to lie abroad for the good of his country”.

Never allow a weak ally to make decisions for you - morgenthau, on diplomacy

MODULE III

DISARMAMENT:

· Morgenthau: “Disarmament is the limitation, control or reduction of the prevailing armaments for the purpose of ending
the armament race”

COLLECTIVE SECURITY

According to Palmer and Perkins- It is a collective measure for dealing with threats to peace

George Schwarzenberger (on collective security) “It is a machinery for joint action in order to prevent or counter any attack
against an establishment international order”

NATIONAL MORALE

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· Morale as s state of mind - prof. LG

· Prof Alexander Weighton - it is the capacity of a group of people to pull together consistently and persistently in pursuit
of a common purpose. Common purpose in public administration means economy and efficiency.

· organski - elements like geography, natural resources and national morale are of less importance than national interest

· Adolf hitler - if you accept me as your saviour and leader i will redeem the german

· War is to man what maternity is to a woman. – Mussolini

INTERNATIONAL LAW

· LFL Oppenheim - “international law is a body of customary and conventional rules which are considered legally binding
by civilized states in their intercourse with one another.”

· Palmer and Perkins “International Law is not a law over nations but a Law among nations”

“In order to improve society we must understand the laws governing the society”

MODULE V

FOREIGN POLICY

Definition of foreign policy- George Modelski - “a system of activities evolved by communities for changing the behaviour
of other states and for adjusting their own activities to the international Environment.”

Eric Frome- Whims and fancies of leaders affects foreign policy.

‘Foreign policy of a country is determined by its Geography’-Napoleon

Through sheer necessity,states have relations with other states in varying ways and varying capacities.- Palmer and Perkins

Quincy wright - study of war- states are committed to protect their vital interests by all means including war.

END

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