Highway engineering -15cv63

Module -3

Pavement Materials: Subgrade soil - desirable properties-HRB soil

classification-determination of CBR and modulus of subgrade reaction with
Problems Aggregates- Desirable properties and tests, Bituminous materials
Explanation on Tar, bitumen, cutback and emulsion-tests on bituminous
material Pavement Design: Pavement types, component parts of flexible and
rigid pavements and their functions, ESWL and its determination (Graphical
method only)-Examples

PAVEMENT MATERIALS

The important pavement materials are stone aggregates, soil and bitumen. It is
significant to study the properties of the materials and suitability of the materials in
order to serve the purpose for the design life of pavement structure.

1. SUBGRADE SOIL
Soil is an accumulation or deposit of earth material, derived naturally from the
disintegration of rocks or decay of vegetation that can be excavated readily with
power equipment in the field or disintegrated by gentle mechanical means in the
laboratory. The supporting soil beneath pavement and its special under courses is
called sub grade. Undisturbed soil beneath the pavement is called natural sub
grade. Compacted sub grade is the soil compacted by controlled movement of
heavy compactors.

1.1 DESIRABLE PROPERTIES

The desirable properties of sub grade soil as a highway material are

• Stability

• Incompressibility

• Permanency of strength

• Minimum changes in volume and stability under adverse conditions of weather

and ground water

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• Good drainage

• Ease of compaction

The soil should possess adequate stability/resistance to permanent deformation

under loads and should also possess resistance to weathering, thus retaining the
desired subgrade support. Minimum variation in volume with variation in water
content will ensure minimum variation in differential expansion and differential
strength values of subgrade. Good drainage is essential to avoid excessive moisture
retention and to reduce potential frost action. Ease of compaction ensures higher
dry density and strength under particular type and amount of compaction.

1.2 HRB SOIL CLASSIFICATION

The highway research board classification method is also called as revised public
road administration soil classification system.

Soils are divided into seven groups, A-1 to A-7. A-1, A-2, A-3 group soils are
granular, the proportion of materials passing 0.075mm sieve being less than 35%.
The soil groups A-4, A-5, A-6 & A-7, soils are fine grained soils.

 A-1 soils are well graded mixture of stone fragments, gravel coarse sand,
fine sand and non-plastic or slightly plastic soil binder. The soils of this
group are sub divided into two subgroups, A-1-a, consisting predominantly
of stone fragments or gravel and A-1-b consisting predominantly of coarse
sand.
 A-2 group of soils include wide range of granular soil ranging between A-1
to A-3 groups, consisting of granular soils and upto 35% fines of A-4, A-5,
A-6 & A-7 groups.
 A-3 soils consists mainly, uniformly graded medium or fine sand similar to
beach sand or desert blown sand. Stream –deposited mixture are poorly
graded fine sand with some coarse sand and gravel are aso included in this
group.
 A-4 soils are generally silty soils, non-plastic or moderately plastic in nature
with liquid limit and plasticity index values less than 40 & 10 resspectively.

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 A-5 soils are also silty soils with plasticity index less than 10% and liquid
limit values exceeding 40%. These include highly elastic or compressible
soils, usually of micaceous character.
 A-6 group of soils are plastic clays, having high values of plasticity index
exceeding 10% and low values of liquid limit below 40%, they have high
volume change properties with variation in moisture content.
 A-7 soils are also clayey soils as A-6 soils but with high values of both
liquid limit and plasticity index. These soils have low permeability and high
volume change properties with change in moisture content.

1.3 GROUP INDEX OF SOIL

Fine grained soil of classification group exhibits wide range of properties as

subgrade material. In order to classify the fine grained soils within one group and
for judging their suitability as subgrade material, an indexing system has been
introduced in HRB classification which is termed as ‘group index’

Group index (GI) = 0.2a+0.005ac+0.01bd

Here,

a= that portion of material passing 0.075 mm sieve , greater than 35% and not
exceeding 75% (expressed as a whole number from 0 to 40)

b= that portion of material passing 0.075 mm sieve , greater than 15% and not
exceeding 35% (expressed as a whole number from 0 to 40)

c= that value of liquid limit in excess of 40 and less than 60 (expressed as a whole
number from 0 to 20)

d= that value of plasticity index exceeding 10 and not more than 30 (expressed as
whole number from 0 to 20)

According to this formula the minimum possible value of GI is 0 and maximum

possible value is 20.

1.4 TESTS ON SOIL

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Sub grade soil is an integral part of the road pavement structure as it provides the
support to the pavement from beneath. The sub grade soil and its properties are
important in the design of pavement structure. The main function of the sub grade
is to give adequate support to the pavement and for this the sub grade should
possess sufficient stability under adverse climatic and loading conditions.
Therefore, it is very essential to evaluate the sub grade by conducting tests. The
tests used to evaluate the strength properties of soils may be broadly divided into
three groups:

• Shear tests

• Bearing tests

• Penetration tests

Shear tests are usually carried out on relatively small soil samples in the
laboratory. In order to find out the strength properties of soil, a number of
representative samples from different locations are tested. Some of the commonly
known shear tests are direct shear test, triaxial compression test, and unconfined
compression test.

Bearing tests are loading tests carried out on sub grade soils in-situ with a load
bearing area. The results of the bearing tests are influenced by variations in the soil
properties within the stressed soil mass underneath and hence the overall stability
of the part of the soil mass stressed could be studied. Penetration tests may be
considered as small scale bearing tests in which the size of the loaded area is
relatively much smaller and ratio of the penetration to the size of the loaded area is
much greater than the ratios in bearing tests. The penetration tests are carried out in
the field or in the laboratory.

1.4. a CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST

 California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test was developed by the California

Division of Highway as a method of classifying and evaluating soil-sub
grade and base course materials for flexible pavements.

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 CBR test, an empirical test, has been used to determine the material
properties for pavement design. Empirical tests measure the strength of the
material and are not a true representation of the resilient modulus.
 It is a penetration test wherein a standard piston, having an area of 3 in2 (or
50 mm diameter), is used to penetrate the soil at a standard rate of 1.25
mm/minute.
 The pressure up to a penetration of 12.5 mm and it’s ratio to the bearing
value of a standard crushed rock is termed as the CBR. In most cases, CBR
decreases as the penetration increases.
 The ratio at 2.5 mm penetration is used as the CBR. In some case, the ratio
at 5 mm may be greater than that at 2.5 mm. If this occurs, the ratio at 5 mm
should be used.
 The CBR is a measure of resistance of a material to penetration of standard
plunger under controlled density and moisture conditions. The test procedure
should be strictly adhered if high degree of reproducibility is desired.
 The CBR test may be conducted in re-moulded or undisturbed specimen in
the laboratory. The test is simple and has been extensively investigated for
field correlations of flexible pavement thickness requirement.
 Test Procedure
 The laboratory CBR apparatus consists of a mould 150 mm diameter with a
base plate and a collar, a loading frame and dial gauges for measuring the
penetration values and the expansion on soaking.
 The specimen in the mould is soaked in water for four days and the swelling
and water absorption values are noted. The surcharge weight is placed on the
top of the specimen in the mould and the assembly is placed under the
plunger of the loading frame.
 Load is applied on the sample by a standard plunger with dia of 50 mm at
the rate of 1.25 mm/min. A load penetration curve is drawn. The load values
on standard crushed stones are 1370 kg and 2055 kg at 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm
penetrations respectively.
 CBR value is expressed as a percentage of the actual load causing the
penetrations of 2.5 mm or 5.0 mm to the standard loads mentioned above.
Therefore,

CBR = (load carries by specimen/ load carries by standard specimen) × 100

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 Two values of CBR will be obtained. If the value of 2.5 mm is greater than
that of 5.0 mm penetration, the former is adopted.
 If the CBR value obtained from test at 5.0 mm penetration is higher than that
at 2.5 mm, then the test is to be repeated for checking.
 If the check test again gives similar results, then higher value obtained at
5.0 mm penetration is reported as the CBR value. The average CBR value of
three test specimens is reported as the CBR value of the sample.

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1.4.b PLATE LOAD TEST

Plate bearing test is used to evaluate the support capability of sub-grades, bases
and in some cases, complete pavement. Data from the tests are applicable for the
design of both flexible and rigid pavements. In plate bearing test, a compressive
stress is applied to the soil or pavement layer through rigid plates relatively large
size and the deflections are measured for various stress values. The deflection level
is generally limited to a low value, in the order of 1.25 to 5 mm and so the
deformation caused may be partly elastic and partly plastic due to compaction of
the stressed mass with negligible plastic deformation. The plate-bearing test has
been devised to evaluate the supporting power of sub grades or any other pavement
layer by using plates of larger diameter. The plate-bearing test was originally
meant to find the modulus of sub grade reaction in the Westergaard’s analysis for
wheel load stresses in cement concrete pavements.

Test Procedure

 The test site is prepared and loose material is removed so that the 75 cm
diameter plate rests horizontally in full contact with the soil sub-grade.
 The plate is seated accurately and then a seating load equivalent to a
pressure of 0.07 kg/cm2 (320 kg for 75 cm diameter plate) is applied and
released after a few seconds. The settlement dial gauge is now set
corresponding to zero load.
 • A load is applied by means of jack, sufficient to cause an average
settlement of about 0.25 cm. When there is no perceptible increase in
settlement or when the rate of settlement is less than 0.025 mm per minute
(in the case of soils with high moisture content or in clayey soils) the load
dial reading and the settlement dial readings are noted.
 Deflection of the plate is measured by means of deflection dials; placed
usually at one-third points of the plate near it’s outer edge. To minimize
bending, a series of stacked plates should be used.

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 Average of three or four settlement dial readings is taken as the settlement

of the plate corresponding to the applied load. Load is then increased till the
average settlement increase to a further amount of about Guage
 Plate load test 0.25 mm, and the load and average settlement readings are
noted as before. The procedure is repeated till the settlement is about 1.75
mm or more.
 Allowance for worst subgrade moisture and correction for small plate size
should be dealt properly.
 The pressure corresponding to a settlement is obtained from this graph. The
modulus of subgrade reaction is calculated from the

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2. STONE AGGREGATES
Stone aggregates form the major proportion of pavement construction structure and
they form prime materials used in the construction of different layers of pavement.
Most of the aggregates are prepared by crushing of natural rocks. Gravel
aggregates are small rounded stone are obtained from river beds. The aggregates
are specified by based on their grain size, shape, texture and its gradation.

2.1 REQUIREMENTS

 They must be crushed aggregate.

 They shall be clean, hard, durable and cubical in shape.  They must be free
from the dust, organic matter and other deleterious matter.
 They not be flakey or elongated.
 They must not consist of injurious or harmful materials such that they
reduce the strength of structure.
 They should resist wear due to abrasive action of traffic on the surface
course.

2.3 DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

a. Strength

The aggregates to be used in road construction should be sufficiently strong to

withstand the stresses due to traffic wheel loads. The aggregates which are to be
used in top layer of the pavements, particularly in the wearing course have to be
capable of withstanding high stresses in addition to wear and tear; hence they
should possess sufficient strength and resistance to crushing.

b. Hardness

The aggregates used in the surface course are subjected to constant rubbing or
abrasion due to moving traffic. They should be hard enough to resist the wear due
to abrasive action of traffic. Abrasive action may be increased due to the presence
of abrasive material like sand between the tyres of moving vehicles and the
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aggregates exposed at the top surface. This action may be severe in the case of
steel tyred vehicles. Heavy wheel loads can also cause deformations on some types
of pavement resulting in relative movement of aggregates and rubbing of
aggregates with each other within the pavement layer. 6. The mutual rubbing of
stones is called attrition, which also may cause a little wear in the aggregates;
however attrition will be negligible or absent in most of the pavement layers.

c. Toughness

Aggregates in the pavements are also subjected to impact due to moving wheel
loads. Severe impact like hammering is quite common when heavily loaded steel
tyred vehicles move on water bound macadam roads where stones protrude out
especially after the monsoons. The magnitude of impact would increase with the
roughness of the road surface, the speed of the vehicle and other vehicular
characteristics. The resistance to impact or toughness is hence another desirable
property of aggregates.

d. Durability

The stone used in the pavement construction should be durable and should resist
disintegration due to the action of weather. The property of the stones to withstand
the adverse action of weather may be called soundness. The aggregates are
subjected to the physical and chemical action of rain and ground water, the
impurities there-in and that of atmosphere. Hence it is desirable that the road
stones used in the construction should be sound enough to withstand the
weathering action.

e. Shape of aggregates

The size of the aggregates is first qualified by the size of square sieve opening
through which an aggregate may pass, and not by shape. It is evident that the flaky
and elongated particles will have less strength and durability when compared with
cubical, angular or rounded particles of the same stone. The voids present in a
compacted mix of coarse aggregates depend on the shape factors. Highly angular,
flaky and elongated aggregates have more voids in comparison with rounded
aggregates. The shape of aggregates is generally described in terms of its shape
factors such as flakiness index, elongation index and angularity number. In
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pavement construction flaky and elongated aggregates are to be avoided,

particularly in surface course.

f. Adhesion with Bitumen

The aggregates used in bituminous pavements should have less affinity with water
when compared with bituminous material; otherwise the bituminous coating on the
aggregates will be stripped off in presence of water.

2.4 TESTS ON ROAD AGGREGATES AND PROPERTIES EVALUATED

SL NO TEST ON AGGREGATE PROPERTY OF AGGREGATE

1 Aggregate impact test Toughness or resistance to impact

2 Los Angeles Abrasion Test Hardness or resistance to abrasion

3 Aggregate Crushing Test Strength or resistance to crushing

4 Soundness/Durability test Resistance to weathering

Shape test: Flakiness Index, Assessment of suitable shape or shape

5 Elongation Index and factors of coarse aggregates
Angularity number

Specific gravity Test To measure the quality or strength of

6
material

7 Water absorption Test To measure the porosity

Bitumen adhesion/Stripping Adhesion of bitumen

8
Test

2.4.1 Aggregate Impact Test

The aggregate impact value indicates a relative measure of the resistance of an

aggregate to a sudden shock or an impact, which in some aggregate differs from its
resistance to a slow compressive load. The method of tests specifies the procedure
for determining the aggregate impact value of coarse aggregate.

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PROCEDURE

 Take clean and dry aggregate and sieve on IS 12.5 mm and 10.00 mm sieve.
 Collect the aggregate passing IS 12.5mm sieve and retained on IS 10.0 mm
Sieve. Find the weight of empty cylindrical measure. Let the weight be ‘a’ g.
 Fill the aggregate in the cylindrical measure in three layers, tamping each
layer 25 times with the rounded end of the tamping rod.. Roll the tamping
rod over aggregate surface and remove excess aggregate, if any.
 Find the weight of the cylindrical measure with aggregate. Let the weight be
‘b’ g. Thus the weight of aggregate = W1 = ( b-a )
 Transfer all the aggregate from the cylindrical measure to the test cylinder in
one layer and tamp the layer 25 times with the rounded end of the tamping
rod. Fix the test cylinder firmly to the base of the impact tester.
 Adjust the height of fall of the plunger to 380+ 5mm and set the blow
counter to zero. 10. Lift the plunger gently and allow it to drop. This is one
blow. Give 15 such blows.
 Take out the test cylinder and sieve the crushed material on IS 2.36 mm
sieve. Find the weight of material passing the sieve. Let weight be W2 g.
Find the weight of aggregate retained on this sieve. Let the weight be W3 g.
 Then, Aggregate impact value = W2 / W1 * 100 % And percentage of dust
= W3 / W1* 100 %

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DESIRABLE VALUE

Desirable value various agencies have specified the maximum permissible

aggregate impact values for the different types of pavements, those
recommended by the Indian Roads Congress are given below:

SL NO TYPE OF PAVEMENT MATERIAL/LAYER AGGREGATE

IMPACT
VALUE

1 Water bound macadam (WBM), sub-base course 50

2 Cement concrete, base course (as per ISI) 45

3 WBM base course with bitumen surfacing 40

4 Built-up spray grout, base course 40

5 Bituminous macadam, base course 35

6 WBM, surfacing course 30

7 Built-up spray grout, surfacing course 30

8 Bituminous penetration macadam 30

9 Bituminous macadam, binder course 30

10 Bituminous surface dressing 30

11 Bituminous carpet 30

12 Bituminous/Asphalt concrete 30

13 Cement concrete, surface course 30

Aggregate impact value is used to classify the stones in respect of their

toughness property as indicated below:

<10% - exceptionally strong

10-20% - strong

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20-30% - satisfactory for road surfacing

35% - weak for road surfacing.

2.4.2 AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE

Aggregate used in road construction, should be strong enough to resist crushing

under traffic wheel loads. If the aggregate are weak, the stability of the pavement
stretches is likely to be adversely affected, the strength of coarse aggregate is
assessed by aggregate crushing test. The aggregate crushing value provides a
relative measure of resistance to crushing under gradually applied compressive
load. To achieve a high quality of pavement, aggregate possessing low aggregate
value should be preferred.

PROCEDURE

 Select clean and dry aggregate passing through IS 12.5 mm and retained on
IS 10.0 mm sieve. 2. Weight the empty cylindrical measure. Let the weight
be ‘a’ g
 Fill the aggregate in the cylindrical measure in three layers, tamping each
layer 25 times with the rounded end of the tamping rod. Weigh the
cylindrical measure with aggregate. Let the weight be ‘b’ grams. Thus the
weight of aggregate = W1 g
 Transfer the aggregate into the steel cylinder again in three layers tamping
each layer 25 times Place the plunger in the steel cylinder such that the

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piston rests horizontally over the aggregate surface. Keep the assembly of
steel cylinder with plunger in the compression testing machine.
 Set the pointer to read zero and apply the compressive load of 40 tonnes. 8.
Stop the machine. Take out the assembly.
 Sieve the crushed material on IS 2.36 mm sieve and find he weight of
material passing this sieve. Let the weight be W2 g.
 Then Aggregate crushing value=W2 / W1*100 %

DESIRABLE VALUE

Strong aggregates give low aggregate crushing value. IRC and ISI have specified
that the aggregate crushing value of the coarse aggregate used for cement concrete
pavement at surface should not exceed 30 percent. For aggregates used for
concrete other than for wearing surfaces, the aggregates crushing value shall not
exceed 45 percent, according to the ISS. However aggregate crushing values have
not been specified by the IRC for coarse aggregates to be used in bituminous
pavement construction methods.

2.4.3 LOS ANGELES ABRASION TEST

Due to the movement of traffic, the road stones used in the surfacing course are
subjected to wearing action at the top. Resistance to wear or hardness is hence an
essential property for road aggregates especially when used in wearing course.
Thus road stones should be hard enough to resist the abrasion due to the traffic

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PROCEDURE

 Take the clean and dried aggregates in an oven at 105-110° C. Sieve the
given aggregates in sieve size 20-12.5mm and weigh that aggregate in 2.5kg.
 Again sieve the aggregate in sieve size is 12.5-10mm and take that
aggregates in 2.5 k. i.e., W1 gm (2.5+2.5=5kg)
 Pour the given taking aggregates into the los angles abrasion machine. Put
the steel balls into the abrasion machine after pouring the aggregates.
 Start the machine and rotating the drum for 100 revolutions and stop the
machine. After stopping the machine, take out the aggregates and sieve the
aggregates in 1.7mm sieve size and take the retained aggregates and note
down its weight i.e, W2 gm.
 Then, Los Angles Abrasion value= (W1-W2/W1)X100 %

DESIRABLE VALUE

Desirable value maximum allowable Los Angeles abrasion values of aggregates as

specified by IRC for different methods of construction are given in below table
TYPE OF PAVEMENT LAYER ABRASION
SLNO VALUE
Water bound macadam (WBM), sub-base course 60
1
 WBM base course with bituminous 50
2 surfacing
 Bituminous Macadam base course
 Built-up spray grout base course
 WBM surfacing course 40
3  Bituminous Macadam binder course
 Bituminous penetration Macadam
 Built-up spray grout binder course
 Bituminous carpet surface course 35
4  Bituminous surface dressing, single or two
coats
 Bituminous surface dressing, using
precoated aggregates
 Cement concrete surface course (as per IRC)

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Bituminous/Asphaltic concrete surface course 30

5 Cement concrete pavement surface course (as per
ISI)

The Los Angeles abrasion value of good aggregates acceptable for cement
concrete, bituminous concrete and other high quality pavement materials should be
less than 30%. Values up to 50% are allowed in base courses like water bound and
bituminous macadam.

2.4.4 SHAPE TEST

The particle shape of aggregate is determined by percentages of flaky and

elongated particles contained in it. In case of gravel it is determined by its
angularity number. The presences of flaky and elongated particles are considered
undesirable as they may cause inherent weakness with possibilities of breaking
down under heavy loads. Rounded aggregate are preferred in cement concrete road
construction as the workability of concrete improves. Angular shape of particles is
desirable for granular base course due to increased stability derived from the better
interlocking. Thus evaluation of shape of the particles, particularly with reference
to flakiness, elongation and angularity is necessary.

2.4.4.1 Flakiness Index

The Flakiness index of aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles whose

least dimension [thickness] is less than three- fifths [0.6] times of their mean
dimension. The test is not applicable to aggregate size smaller than 6.3 mm

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PROCEDURE

 The sieves are arranged such that the largest size sieve (63 mm) is at the top
and the smallest size sieve (6.3 mm) is at the bottom.
 The given aggregate are sieved. A minimum of 200 pieces of each fraction
to be tested are taken and weighed = W1 g.
 In order to separate flaky aggregate, each fraction is then gauged for
thickness through the respective opening on the thickness gauge. For
example, if the aggregate is from 50 – 40 fraction, it is gauged through the
opening of 27.00 mm on the thickness gauge.
 The flaky aggregate passing the respective openings are collected and
accurately weighed = w1 g.
 The procedure is repeated for other fractions having weights W2, W3, etc.
and the flaky aggregate in them having weights w2, w3 respectively are
weighed.
 Then Flakiness Index = [(w1+w2+w3+------) / (W1+W2+W3+-------)]x 100

2.4.4.2 ELONGATION INDEX

The elongation index of an aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles

whose greatest dimension (length) is greater than one and four fifth times [1. 8]
times their mean dimension. The elongation test is not applicable to size smaller
than 6.3 mm.
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 The sample is sieved through the IS sieves specified and a minimum of 200
pieces of each fraction are taken and weighed = W1 g.
 In order to separate elongated aggregate , each fraction is then gauged
individually for length through the respective opening on the length gauge
 In each fraction, the aggregate retained on the respective opening on the
length gauge is collected and weighed =X1 g.
 The procedure is repeated for other fractions having weights W2, W3, etc,
and the weights of elongated aggregate in them X2, X 3 etc, are found.

2.4.4.3ANGULARITY NUMBER

The angularity number of an aggregate is the amount by which the percentage

voids exceeds 33, after being compacted in a prescribed manner. The angularity
number is found from the expression (67 - 100 * W / CG, percent). Here the value
67 represents the percentage volume of solids of most rounded gravel, which
would have 33 percent voids

PROCEDURE

 The sieves for each fraction (as specified) are arranged such as 25 - 20 mm,
etc.
 The given sample of aggregate is sieved so that sufficient pieces are
obtained in each fraction.
 The empty cylinder is accurately weighed = ‘ a’ g

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 Each aggregate fraction is separately filled in the cylinder in 3 (three) layers

tamping each layer 100 (hundred) times with the rounded end of tamping
rod. The excess aggregate are removed.
 The cylinder along with aggregate is weights = ‘b’ g
 The aggregate are removed from the cylinder. The cylinder is completely
filled with water and after wiping its outer sides it is weighed with water =
‘d’ g
 Then Angularity number may be calculated from the expression, Angularity
number = 67 - 100 W / CG
Where,
W= Mean weight of aggregate in the cylinder
C = Weight of water required to fill the cylinder
G= Average Specific gravity of aggregate

DESIRABLE VALUE

IRC has recommended the maximum allowable limits of flakiness index values for
various types of construction are given below:

SL NO PAVEMENT LAYER FLAKINESS

INDEX

1 Bituminous carpet 30

2 Bituminous/Asphaltic concrete 25

Bituminous surface dressing (single coat, two coats

and pre-coated)

Bituminous penetration macadam

Built-up spray grout

3 Bituminous macadam 15

Water bound macadam, base and surfacing courses

 Though elongated shape of the aggregates also affects the compaction and
the construction of pavements, there are no specified limits of elongation

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index values as in the case of flakiness index for different methods of

pavement construction.
 The angularity number measures the percent voids in excess of 33 percent
which is obtained in the case of the most rounded gravel particles. The
angularity number of aggregates generally ranges from zero for highly
rounded gravel to about 11 for freshly crushed angular aggregates.
 Slightly higher values of angularity number also may be obtained in the
case of highly angular and flaky aggregates. Thus higher the angularity
number, more angular and less workable is the aggregate mix.
 It is desirable that the flakiness index of aggregates used in road construction
is less than 15% and normally does not exceed 25%.
 Elongation index value in excess of 15% percent is considered undesirable;
however no recognized limits have been laid down for elongation index .

2.4.5 SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WATER ABSORPTION TEST ON

AGGREGATES

The specific gravity of an aggregate is considered to be a measure of strength or

quality of the material. Stones having low specific gravity are generally weaker
than those with higher specific gravity values. The specific gravity test helps in the
identification of stone.

Water absorption gives an idea of strength of rock stones having more water
absorption are more porous in nature and are generally considered unsuitable
unless they are found to be acceptable based on strength, impact and hardness.

PROCEDURE

 Take about 2kg of given aggregates passing IS 20mm sieve and retained on
10mm sieve.
 Keep the aggregate in density basket and then keep the basket in water.
 Allow the aggregate and basket to be in water for 24 hours.
 After 24 hours find the suspended weight of basket with aggregate.
 Remove the basket out of water and remove the aggregate.
 Keep the empty basket back in water and find the suspended weight.

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 Wipe the surface of aggregate using a cotton cloth to make them surface
dry.
 Find the weight of surface dry aggregate in air.
 Keep the aggregate in oven at 110° C for 24 hours.
 Now find the weight of dried aggregate in air.
 Then specific gravity and Water absorption is calculated from the relation:

DESIRABLE VALUE

 The specific gravity of aggregates normally used in road construction ranges

from about 2.5 to 3.0 with an average value of about 2.68.
 Though high specific gravity of an aggregate is considered as an indication
of high strength, it is not possible to judge the suitability of a sample of road
aggregate without finding the mechanical properties such as aggregate
crushing, impact and abrasion values.
 Water absorption of an aggregate is accepted as measure of its porosity.
Sometimes this value is even considered as a measure of its resistance to
frost action.
 Water absorption value ranges from 0.1 to about 2.0 percent for aggregate
normally used in road surfacing. Stones with water absorption upto 4.0
percent have been used in base courses.
 Generally a value of less than 0.6 percent is considered desirable for surface
course, though slightly higher values are allowed in bituminous
constructions.
 IRC has specified the maximum water absorption value as 1.0 percent for
aggregates used in bituminous surface dressing and built-up spray grout.

2.4.6 SOUNDNESS TEST

PROCEDURE

 In order, to quicken the effects of weathering due to alternate wet-dry or

freeze-thaw cycles in the laboratory, the resistance to disintegration of

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aggregate is determined by using saturated solution of sodium sulphate or

magnesium sulphate.
 Clean, dry aggregates of specified size is weighed and counted. Then
immersed in the saturated solution of sodium sulphate or magnesium
sulphate for 16 to 18 hours.
 Then the aggregates are dried in an oven at 105-110°C to a constant weight,
thus making one cycle of immersion and drying.
 The number of such cycles is decided by prior agreement and then the
specimens are tested. After completing the final cycle, the sample is dried
and each fraction of aggregate is examined visually to see if there is any
evidence of excessive splitting, crumbling or disintegration of the grains.
 Sieve analysis is carried out to note the variation in gradation from original.
The coarse aggregate fraction of each size range is sieved on specified sieve
sizes.

DESIRABLE VALUE

IRC has specified 12percent as the maximum permissible loss in soundness test
after 5 cycles with sodium sulphate, for the aggregate to be used in bituminous
surface dressing, penetration macadam and bituminous macadam constructions

2.4.7 BITUMEN ADHESION/STRIPPING TEST

Several laboratory tests have been developed to determine the adhesion of

bituminous binder to an aggregate in presence of water.

These tests may be classified into six types:

a) Static immersion test

b) Dynamic immersion test

c) Chemical immersion test

d) Immersion mechanical test

e) Immersion trafficking test and

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f) Coating test

PROCEDURE

The static immersion test is very commonly used as it is quite easy and simple. The
principle of this type of test is by immersing aggregate fully coated with the binder
in water maintained at specified temperature and by estimating the degree of
stripping. The result is reported as the percentage of stone surface that is stripped
off after the specified time periods.

DESIRABLE VALUE

IRC has specified the maximum stripping value as 25 percent for aggregate to be
used in bituminous construction like surface dressing, penetration macadam,
bituminous macadam and carpet.

IRC has specified that stripping value of aggregates should not exceed 25percent
for use in bituminous surface dressing, penetration macadam, bituminous macadam
and carpet constructions, when aggregate coated with bitumen is immersed in
water bath at 40°C for 24 hours.

3. BINDER MATERIALS
Bituminous binders used in the pavement are tar and bitumen. Bitumen is a
petroleum product obtained by the distillation of petroleum crude.

The types of bituminous binders that are used in flexible pavement construction
are:

a. Paving crude bitumen

b. Modified bituminous binders
c. Cut- back bitumen
d. Bitumen emulsion

3.1 FUNCTIONS OF THE BINDER AS PAVEMENT MATERIALS

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 Bituminous binders are very commonly used in surface course of pavements.

They are also used in the binder and base course of flexible pavements to
withstand relatively adverse conditions of traffic and climate.
 Bituminous binders are used for preparation of bituminous mixes by mixing
with selected aggregates, either in the form of hot bituminous mix or cold
mix.
 Bituminous binders are also used in other techniques of construction such as
surface dressing to be used as a thin surfacing course or in penetration
macadam for use in the base course.
 Bitumen binders are used in the form of bitumen emulsion, as a prime coat
over granular base course of flexible pavement.
 The binder in the form of emulsion is also used as a tack coat to be sprayed
over the primed base course or over an existing bituminous pavement layer.
 The bituminous may be used in soil- bitumen stabilization.

3.2 DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF BITUMEN

 The viscosity of the bitumen at the time of mixing with the aggregates and
compaction of the pre-mix should be adequate. This is achieved either by (i)
heating the bitumen and aggregate prior to mixing or (ii) by using in the
form of cut-back or (iii) by using in the form of emulsion of suitable grade.
 The bituminous binder should become sufficiently viscous on cooling that
the compacted bituminous pavement layer can gain stability and resist
deformation under traffic loads.
 It is desirable that the bitumen binder used in the bituminous mixes form
ductile thin films around the aggregates to serve as a satisfactory binder in
improving the physical interlocking of the aggregates. The binder material
which does not possess sufficient ductility would crack and thus provide
pervious pavement surface.
 The bituminous materials should not be highly temperature susceptible. The
materials should also be durable to resist the weathering effects.
 The bitumen binder should have sufficient adhesion with the aggregates in
the mix in presence of water.

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 There has to be adequate affinity and adhesion between bitumen and

aggregates used in the mix. The coated binder should not strip off from the
aggregates under stagnant water.
3.3 TESTS ON BITUMEN

There are a number of tests to assess the properties of bituminous materials. The
following tests are usually conducted to evaluate different properties of bituminous
materials

1. Penetration test

2. Softening point test

3. Ductility test

4. Viscosity test

5. Specific gravity test

6. Heat stability test

a. Flash point test

b. Fire point test

c. Loss on heating test

3.3.1 PENETRATION TEST

An indirect method of measuring viscosity is the measure of penetration of a

standard needle under standard conditions of load, time & temperature. The test
measures the hardness or softness of bitumen in terms of penetration expressed in
mm/10th of std needle.

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Procedure

 Temperature= 25oC [test to be performed after sample is kept for 1hr in H2O
bath at this temperature]
 Load on needle = 100 g Time in which penetration is recorded = 5 s
 The penetration is measured by a graduated dial.
 Bitumen is softens to a poring consistency a depth more than 15mm in the
container is poured. The expected penetration sample is cooled in 60 min in
air and 60 min in water before testing.
 The standard needle is positioned to get a penetration value for 5sec and is
noted.
 The penetration value obtained is represented in 80-100 or 80/100 grade
bitumen at standard consistence and it range from 20-225mm.
 In cold region bitumen with High penetration value is used. In warm region
low penetration value is used ex. 30/40 grade.
 The factors which affect the Penetration test is test temperature, needle size
and weight and period of cooling.

3.3.2 SOFTENING POINT

The softening point is the temperature at which the substance attains a particular
degree of softening under specified condition of test. A viscosity material like
bitumen or tar doesn’t have a well-defined softening point. However a standard test
determines the temperature at which a standard ball will pass through a disc of
bitumen contained in ring. The test is known as ring & ball test.

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Procedure

 A brass ring of internal dia 17.5 mm at top and 15.9 mm at bottom and of
depth 6.4mm.The steel ball of 9.5mm dia and 2.5g.
 Support distance is 25mm between the bottom of the ring and top surface of
the bottom plate of support is provided.
 Glass container of 85mm dia and 120mm depth is used. The bitumen is
heated to poring consistency and poured into ring and cooled for half an
hour before testing.
 A brass ring containing the bitumen sample is suspended in H2O or glycerin
at given temperature a steel ball is placed on the disc of bitumen. The liquid
medium is then heated at a rate of 50C increase per minute.
 Metal plate placed at a specified bituminous material touches the bottom at
the softening point. With increase in temperature bitumen melts and come
down with the weight of ball at particular temperature it touches the bottom
plate that point temperature is noted.
 The softening point is range between 35 to 75 0 C. The liquid water is used
for bitumen having softening point less than 800 C and Glycerine is for
softening point more than 800 C
 Higher softening point indicates lower temp. Susceptibility and in warm
climate. The factors which affect the softening points are quality and type of
liquid used, weight of ball, distance between bottom of the ring and bottom
base plate and rate of temperature.

3.3.3 DUCTILITY TEST

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In flexible pavement construction it is important that the binders form ductile thin
film around the aggregate. This serves as a satisfactory binder in improving the
physical interlocking of the aggregate bitumen mixes. Under traffic loads the
bitumen layer is subjected to repeated deformation and recoveries. The binder
material which does not possess sufficient ductility would crack and thus provide
pervious pavement surface. The test is believed to measure the adhesive property
of bitumen and its ability to stretch. The ductility of a binder is an indication of its
elasticity & ability to deform under load & return to original condition upon
removal of the load. A material which doesn’t possess adequate ductility would
crack under a load. This is unsatisfactory since water can penetrate into the
surfacing through there cracks.

PROCEDURE

 The property is determined by measuring the distance that a std briquette of

bitumen, necked to a cross section of 1 sq-cm will stretch without breaking
when elongated at a rate of 5 cm/min at 270 C
 The ductility values should be a minimum of 50 as per IS. The briquette
mould is filled with bitumen and cool for 30 min in air and 30 min in water
before testing.
 Then it is fixed to expanding machine assembly which stretches the bitumen
at a rate of 5cm/min and expands till to break and the point is noted by scale.
 The factors which affect the ductility is pouring and test temperature,
dimension of briquette mould, rate of pulling and period of cooling

3.3.4 VISCOSITY TEST:

Viscosity is the property of a fluid that determines the resistance offered by the
fluid to a shearing force under laminar flow conditions, it is thus the opposite of
fluidity. The determination of viscosity is generally done by efflux viscometers.
They work on common principles, though they differ in detail.

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PROCEDURE

 The liquid under test is poured to a specified level into a container surround
by water or oil bath providing temperature control at the base of the
container is a small orifice with a simple valve control on opening valve, the
time in seconds is recorded for a stated quantity of liquid to discharge into a
measuring liquid below.
 The different type of viscosity testing operator is there they are Efflux
viscometer, Standard tar viscometer (10mm dia orifice and 50ml fluid to
discharge), Saybolt furol viscometer (3mm dia orifice and 60ml fluid to
discharge).
 The bitumen is placed in to a standard tar viscometer or efflux viscometer
and its temperature is raised to test temperature specified (35, 40, 45, 55&
600 C).

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 When the temperature reaches respective test temperature orifice valve is

open time elapse is noted to collect the bitumen of 50ml.
 The time required to collect a bottom container of 50ml is five indirectly the
viscosity of bitumen. Then is specified in VG 10, VG20, VG 30 and VG 40.

3.3.5SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST

In most applications bitumen is weighed, but finally in use with aggregate the
bitumen content is converted on volume basis. Hence determine of specific gravity
value is required for conversion of weight to volume. Specific gravity of a binder
doesn’t influence its behavior but all the same, its value is needed for mix design.
Specific gravity of bitumen varies from 0.97 to 1.02. Specific gravity of tar varies
from 1.16 to 1.28. There are two methods to test the specific gravity of bitumen a.
Pycnometer method b. Balance method Generally balance method is used in that a
cup of 50ml capacity is used and it is oiled before using.

Procedure

 The bitumen is poured in to cup and cooled and its weight e is noted and
weight of cup with bitumen when immersed in distilled water is weighed f.
Specific gravity of bitumen is the ratio of e to the difference between (e and
f).
 It is used to convert the weight in to volume. Determines Purity of bitumen
if the impurity present in the bitumen by showing high value of specific
gravity.

3.3.6. HEAT STABILITY TEST

When a bituminous binder is heated continuously it starts emitting volatile vapors

above a certain temperature and these volatile vapors can momentarily catch fire in
form of flash and continued heating get fired.

a. Flash point:

The flash point of bitumen is that temperature at which it gives off vapors, which
ignites in the pressure of a flame, but don’t continue to burn. The flame point is an
induction of critical temperature at & above which suitable precautions should be

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taken to eliminate fire hazards. The ISI test describes the Penske-Martin method.
The method involves a cup into which the bitumen is filled. The bitumen sample is
then heated at a rate of 5-6 0C/min stirring the material continuously. The test
flame is applied at intervals. The flash point is taken at the temperature read on the
thermometer when flame causes a bright flash in the interior of cup in a closed
system & at the surface of material in open system. It is 2200 c

b. Fire point test:

If heating is continued beyond the flash point, the vapors ignite in the pressure of a
flame & continue to burn indicating the fire point temperature. There is no
standard method to determine the spontaneous ignition temperature, which can
only broadly indicate. c. Loss on heating test: The effect of heat on a bituminous
binder is the loss of volatile constituents. This loss causes the binder to harden.
Thus one method of testing the desirable property of a binder is to find out the loss
on heating. This is achieved by an accelerated heating test a 50gm sample is weight
is taken and maintained at a temperature of 1600 c for 5hours. Then it expressed as
a percentage of loss in original weight is determined.

3.4 TAR

Tar is the viscous liquid obtained when natural organic materials such as wood and
coal carbonized or destructively distilled in the absence of air. Based on the
materials from which tar is derived, it is referred to as wood tar or coal tar. It is
more widely used for road work because it is superior.

There are five grades of roads tar: RT-1, RT-2, RT-3, RT-4 and RT-5, based on
their viscosity and other properties.

 RT-1 has the lowest viscosity and is used for surface painting under
exceptionally cold weather as this has very low viscosity.
 RT-2 is recommended for standard surface painting under normal Indian
climatic conditions.
 RT-3 may be used for surface painting, renewal coats and premixing chips
for top course and light carpets.
 RT-4 is generally used for premixing tar macadam in base course.

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 RT-5 is adopted for grouting purposes, which has highest viscosity among
the road tars.
3.5 Emulsions

An emulsion is a two-phase system consisting of two immiscible liquids (un

mixable or un blend able). The dispersed or internal phase is the liquid that is
broken up into globules and the surrounding liquid is known as the continuous or
external phase. Oil-in-water emulsions have the oil as the dispersed phase and
water as the continuous phase. The reverse occurs when the emulsion is of water-
in-oil type.

In the preparation of emulsion of asphaltic bitumen or tar, emulsifiers have to be

added in small proportions both to facilitate the formation of dispersion and to
keep the globules of dispersed binder in permanent suspension. If no emulsifier is
present, a dispersion of oil droplets in water brought about by stirring will rapidly
separate into 2 layers. With emulsifier present, an adsorbed film of the emulsifier is
formed round each globule in the emulsion.

Emulsions are classified in to 3 types based on setting time

1. Rapid setting: If the bitumen emulsion is intended to break rapidly, the emulsion
is said to possess rapid-set quality and this type is used in surface dressing &
penetration macadam.

2. Medium setting: Emulsion which does not break spontaneously on contact with
stone but break during mixing or by fine mineral dust are MC. Used in premixing
with coarse aggregate.

3. Slow setting: When specified type of emulsifying agent is used to make the
emulsion relatively stable, they are called slow setting grade. Used in surface
course along with the coarse aggregate. Emulsifiers for road emulsions may be
divided into four main groups: a) Anionic emulsifiers b) Cationic emulsifiers c)
Non-ionic emulsifiers d) Colloidal emulsifiers

Classification of Emulsions Bitumen emulsions are divided into 3 main classes

depending on the rates at which they break. The classes are sub-divided, depending
on the bitumen contents and viscosity ranges of the emulsions.

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 Class-1: Labile or Quick-Breaking This class embraces emulsions

characterized by rapid breakdown on application and suitable for surface-
dressing and grouting work. They are normally unsuitable for mixing with
aggregate and subdivided into following classes: 1A, 1B, 1C.
 Class-2: Semi-Stable These are emulsions of sufficient stability to permit
mixing with certain grades of aggregate before breakdown occurs. They
contain more stabilizer than the labile emulsions and are sub-divided as class
2A, 2B.
 Class-3: Stable These are emulsions with sufficient mechanical and chemical
stability for all purposes involving mixing with aggregates including fines
like cement, hydrated lime, etc

Uses of Emulsions:

*They are more tolerant than penetration grade bitumen, of the presence of
dampness, although they should not be used in the presence of free water on the
road surface or on aggregate.

* Because emulsion is of relatively low viscosity at normal temperature, they

eliminate the need to heat the aggregate and binder and thus they conserve energy.
They can be used when the weather is relatively cold

*They are ideal for patching and repairing work, particularly they do not require
heating before use.

*They are used for surface dressing, grouting, pre-mixing, sealing, and soil
stabilization with cement.

Disadvantages

*Emulsions are however, costly.

* Since they contain a substantial quantity of water, the transportation coat is

higher.

3.5 CUTBACK BITUMEN

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 Cutback bitumen is defined as the bitumen, the viscosity of which has been
reduced by a volatile diluents.
 For use in surface dressings, some type of bitumen macadam and soil
bitumen stabilization, it is necessary to have a fluid binder which can be
mixed relatively at low temperatures. Hence to increase the fluidity of the
bituminous binder at low temperatures the binder is blended with volatile
solvent.
 After the cutback mix is used in construction work, the volatile gets
evaporated and the cutback develops the binding properties.
 The viscosity of cutback and rate of which it hardens on the road depend on
the characteristics and quantity of both bitumen and volatile oil used as the
diluents.

Types of Cutback Bitumen and Uses Cutback bitumen is available in three types,
namely:

a) Rapid Curing (RC)

b) Medium Curing (MC)

c) Slow Curing (SC)

This classification is based on the rate of curing or hardening after the application.

 Rapid Curing Cutbacks (RC) These are bitumens, fluxed or cutbacks with a
petroleum distillate such as naphtha or gasoline, which will rapidly
evaporate after using in construction, leaving the bitumen binder. The grade
of the RC cutback is governed by the proportion of the solvent used. The
penetration value of residue from distillation upto 360°C of RC cutback
bitumen 80 to 120.
 Medium Curing Cutbacks (MC) This bitumen fluxed to greater fluidity by
blending with a intermediate boiling-point solvent like kerosene or light
diesel oil. MC cutbacks evaporate relatively at slow rate because the
kerosene-range solvents will not evaporate rapidly as the gasoline-range
solvents used in the manufacture of RC cutbacks. MC products have good
wetting properties and so satisfactory coating of fine grain aggregate and
sandy soils is possible.
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 Slow Curing Cutbacks (SC) These are obtained either by blending bitumen
with high-boiling-point gas, oil or by controlling the rate of flow and
temperature of the crude during the first cycle of refining. SC cutbacks or
wood soils hardens or set way slowly as it is a semi volatile material.
3.6 MODIFIED BITUMEN

Certain additives or blend of additives called as bitumen modifiers can improve

properties of Bitumen and bituminous mixes. Bitumen treated with these modifiers
is known as modified bitumen. Polymer modified bitumen(PMB)/crumb rubber
modified Bitumen (CRMB) should be used only in wearing course depending upon
the requirements of extreme climatic variations. The detailed specifications for
modified bitumen have been issued by IRC: SP: 53-1999. It must be noted that the
performance of PMB and CRMB is dependent on strict Control on Temperature
during construction.

4. DESIGN OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS

An ideal pavement should meet the following requirements:

• Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value on the
sub-grade soil

• Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it

• Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles

• Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed,

• Produce least noise from moving vehicles,

• Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not impaired by reducing visibility

• Impervious surface, so that sub-grade soil is well protected

• Long design life with low maintenance cost.

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4.3 TYPES OF PAVEMENTS

Flexible pavements

The component parts of flexible pavement structure are shown in figure.

Seal Coat: Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to water-proof the surface and
to provide skid resistance.

Tack Coat: Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt
emulsion diluted with water. It provides proper bonding between two layer of
binder course and must be thin, uniformly cover the entire surface, and set very
fast.

Prime Coat: Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an

absorbent surface like granular bases on which binder layer is placed. It provides
bonding between two layers. Unlike tack coat, prime coat penetrates into the layer
below, plugs the voids, and forms a water tight surface.

Surface course: Surface course is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads
and generally contains superior quality materials. They are usually constructed
with dense graded asphalt concrete (AC).

Binder course: This layer provides the bulk of the asphalt concrete structure. It’s
chief purpose is to distribute load to the base course The binder course generally
consists of aggregates having less asphalt and doesn’t require quality as high as the

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surface course, so replacing a part of the surface course by the binder course results
in more economical design.

Base course: The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the
surface of binder course and it provides additional load distribution and contributes
to the sub-surface drainage It may be composed of crushed stone, crushed slag, and
other untreated or stabilized materials.

Sub-Base course: The sub-base course is the layer of material beneath the base
course and the primary functions are to provide structural support, improve
drainage, and reduce the intrusion of fines from the sub-grade in the pavement
structure If the base course is open graded, then the sub-base course with more
fines can serve as a filler between sub-grade and the base course A sub-base course
is not always needed or used. For example, a pavement constructed over a high
quality, stiff sub-grade may not need the additional features offered by a sub-base
course. In such situations, sub-base course may not be provided.

Sub-grade: The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive
the stresses from the layers above. It is essential that at no time soil sub-grade is
overstressed. It should be compacted to the desirable density, near the optimum
moisture content

The flexible pavement structure consists of number of layers. And they are :

 Prepared soil subgrade

 Granular – sub base cum drainage layer
 Granular base course
 Bituminous binder / surface course

Functions of soil subgrade

The soil subgrade is layer of natural soil or selected soil from identified borrow
pits fulfilling the requirements and well compacted in layers to the desired density.

The subgrade is the lower most soil layer of the pavement which ultimately
supports the all other pavement layers.

Function of granular sub-base and drainage layer

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The granular sub-base has to serve as an effective drainage layer of the pavements
and also has to sustain lower magnitude of compressive stresses than the base
course.

This layer is permeable and pervious in order to facilitate the drainage of water.

Functions of granular base course

The granular base course is considered as the most important component of

flexible pavement layer which sustains the wheel load stresses and disperses
through larger area on to GSB layer below.

A good base course enhances the load carrying capacity of the flexible pavement
structure

Functions of thin bituminous layer

The thin bituminous layer prevents the entry of water into the pavement structure.
And thus protects the base course.

Functions of thick bituminous pavement layer/ surface course

Thicker layers of dense graded surface course along with a dense graded
bituminous binder course are generally adopted on stretches of expressway,
national highways and state highways. These dense bituminous courses and surface
courses are relatively stiff and therefore possess noteworthy tensile strength .

Rigid pavements

Rigid pavements have sufficient flexural strength to transmit the wheel load
stresses to a wider area below. A typical cross section of the rigid pavement is
shown in Figure 19:3. Compared to flexible pavement, rigid pavements are placed
either directly on the prepared sub-grade or on a single layer of granular or
stabilized material. Since there is only one layer of material between the concrete
and the sub-grade, this layer can be called as base or sub-base course. In rigid
pavement, load is distributed by the slab action, and the pavement behaves like an
elastic plate resting on a viscous medium . Rigid pavements are constructed by
Portland cement concrete (PCC) and should be analyzed by plate theory instead of
layer theory, assuming an elastic plate resting on viscous foundation. Plate theory

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is a simplified version of layer theory that assumes the concrete slab as a medium
thick plate which is plane before loading and to remain plane after loading.
Bending of the slab due to wheel load and temperature variation and the resulting
tensile and flexural stress.

EQUIVALENT SINGLE WHEEL LOAD

To carry maximum load with in the specified limit and to carry greater load, dual
wheel, or dual tandem assembly is often used. Equivalent single wheel load
(ESWL) is the single wheel load having the same contact pressure, which produces
same value of maximum stress, deflection, tensile stress or contact pressure at the
desired depth. The procedure of finding the ESWL for equal stress criteria is
provided below. This is a semi-rational method, known as Boyd and Foster
method, based on the following assumptions:

 equalancy concept is based on equal stress;

 contact area is circular;
 influence angle is 45 ; and
 soil medium is elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic half space.

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