Name: Maryam Amin

Roll No: 70083656

Department: DDNS
Semester: 4th
Subject: Behavior & Social Sciences
Professor: Madam Ifzonia
Topic: Psychological Development Theories
Piaget's theory of cognitive development:
To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes as a
result of biological maturation and environmental experience. Children construct an
understanding of the world around them, then experience discrepancies between what they
already know and what they discover in their environment.
There Are Three Basic Components To Piaget's Cognitive Theory:

1. Schemas (building blocks of knowledge):

Imagine what it would be like if you did not have a mental model of your world. It would
mean that you would not be able to make so much use of information from your past
experience or to plan future actions. Schemas are the basic building blocks of such
cognitive models, and enable us to form a mental representation of the world.
2. Assimilation and Accommodation:
Intellectual growth as a process of adaptation (adjustment) to the world. This happens
through:

 Assimilation

– Which is using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.

 Accommodation

– This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work, and needs to be
changed to deal with a new object or situation.

 Equilibration

– This is the force which moves development along. Piaget believed that cognitive
development did not progress at a steady rate, but rather in leaps and bounds. Equilibrium
occurs when a child's schemas can deal with most new information through assimilation.
However, an unpleasant state of disequilibrium occurs when new information cannot be
fitted into existing schemas (assimilation).

Equilibration is the force which drives the learning process as we do not like to be
frustrated and will seek to restore balance by mastering the new challenge
(accommodation). Once the new information is acquired the process of assimilation with
 the new schema will continue until the next time we need to make an adjustment to it.

3. Stages of Cognitive Development:

 Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years

 Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
 Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
  Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up

Freud proposed that psychological development in childhood takes place during five

psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. These are called psychosexual
stages because each stage represents the fixation of libido (roughly translated as sexual drives or
instincts) on a different area of the body.

Freud (1905) believed that life was built round tension and pleasure. Freud also believed that all
tension was due to the build-up of libido (sexual energy) and that all pleasure came from its
discharge.

Freud stressed that the first five years of life are crucial to the formation of adult personality.
The id must be controlled in order to satisfy social demands; this sets up a conflict between
frustrated wishes and social norms.

The ego and superego develop in order to exercise this control and direct the need for
gratification into socially acceptable channels. Gratification centers in different areas of the body
at different stages of growth, making the conflict at each stage psychosexual.
 Stages of Development

Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year)

In the first stage of personality development, the libido is centered in a baby's mouth. It gets
much satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the libido, and thus its id
demands.  Which at this stage in life are oral, or mouth orientated, such as sucking, biting, and
breastfeeding. 

Anal Stage (1 to 3 years)

The libido now becomes focused on the anus, and the child derives great pleasure from
defecating.  The child is now fully aware that they are a person in their own right and that their
wishes can bring them into conflict with the demands of the outside world (i.e., their ego has
developed).

Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty training, in which adults
impose restrictions on when and where the child can defecate.  The nature of this first conflict
with authority can determine the child's future relationship with all forms of authority.

Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)

Sensitivity now becomes concentrated in the genitals and masturbation (in both sexes) becomes a
new source of pleasure. The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in
motion the conflict between erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud
called the Oedipus complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in girls). 

This is resolved through the process of identification, which involves the child adopting the
characteristics of the same sex parent.

Latency Stage (6 years to puberty)

No further psychosexual development takes place during this stage (latent means hidden).  The
libido is dormant.
Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage, and sexual energy
can be sublimated (re: defense mechanisms) towards school work, hobbies, and friendships. 

Much of the child's energy is channeled into developing new skills and acquiring new
knowledge, and play becomes largely confined to other children of the same gender.

Genital Stage (puberty to adult)

This is the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development and begins in
puberty.  It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is
settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another person in our 20's.

Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like during the
phallic stage. 

For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual intercourse. 
Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual perversions may
develop. 

For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure primarily
from kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse.

Erikson’s theory of cognitive development:

Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of

psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the person experiences
a psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or negative outcome for personality
development.
Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development are based on (and expand upon) Freud’s
psychosexual theory. Erikson proposed that we are motivated by the need to achieve competence
in certain areas of our lives. According to psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of
development over our lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At each stage there is a
crisis or task that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task results
in a sense of competence and a healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings
of inadequacy.

Erikson also added to Freud’s stages by discussing the cultural implications of development;
certain cultures may need to resolve the stages in different ways based upon their cultural and
survival needs.
Trust vs. Mistrust

From birth to 12 months of age, infants must learn that adults can be trusted. This occurs when
adults meet a child’s basic needs for survival. Infants are dependent upon their caregivers, so
caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their infant’s needs help their baby to develop a
sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers
who do not meet their baby’s needs can engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their
baby may see the world as unpredictable. If infants are treated cruelly or their needs are not met
appropriately, they will likely grow up with a sense of mistrust for people in the world.

Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin to explore their world, they learn that they can control their
actions and act on their environment to get results. They begin to show clear preferences for
certain elements of the environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. A toddler’s main task is to
resolve the issue of autonomy vs. shame and doubt by working to establish independence. This is
the “me do it” stage. For example, we might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-
old child who wants to choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits might not be
appropriate for the situation, her input in such basic decisions has an effect on her sense of
independence. If denied the opportunity to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her
abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3–6 years), they are capable of initiating activities
and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play. According to Erikson,
preschool children must resolve the task of initiative vs. guilt.By learning to plan and achieve
goals while interacting with others, preschool children can master this task. Initiative, a sense of
ambition and responsibility, occurs when parents allow a child to explore within limits and then
support the child’s choice. These children will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of
purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this stage—with their initiative misfiring or stifled by
over-controlling parents—may develop feelings of guilt.

Industry vs. Inferiority

During the elementary school stage (ages 6–12), children face the task of industry vs.
inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves with their peers to see how they measure up.
They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social
activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate because they feel that they don’t
measure up. If children do not learn to get along with others or have negative experiences at
home or with peers, an inferiority complex might develop into adolescence and adulthood.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face the task of identity vs. role confusion. According to
Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with
questions such as “Who am I?” and “What do I want to do with my life?” Along the way, most
adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit; they explore various roles and
ideas, set goals, and attempt to discover their “adult” selves. Adolescents who are successful at
this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in
the face of problems and other people’s perspectives. When adolescents are apathetic, do not
make a conscious search for identity, or are pressured to conform to their parents’ ideas for the
future, they may develop a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They will be unsure
of their identity and confused about the future. Teenagers who struggle to adopt a positive role
will likely struggle to “find” themselves as adults.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned with intimacy vs.
isolation.  After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life
with others. However, if other stages have not been successfully resolved, young adults may
have trouble developing and maintaining successful relationships with others. Erikson said that
we must have a strong sense of self before we can develop successful intimate relationships.
Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of
loneliness and emotional isolation.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends to
the mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is generativity vs. stagnation. Generativity
involves finding your life’s work and contributing to the development of others through activities
such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. During this stage, middle-aged adults
begin contributing to the next generation, often through childbirth and caring for others; they
also engage in meaningful and productive work which contributes positively to society. Those
who do not master this task may experience stagnation and feel as though they are not leaving a
mark on the world in a meaningful way; they may have little connection with others and little
interest in productivity and self-improvement.

Integrity vs. Despair

From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late
adulthood. Erikson’s task at this stage is called integrity vs. despair. He said that people in late
adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. People
who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on
their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if
their life has been wasted. They focus on what “would have,” “should have,” and “could have”
been. They face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair.

Piaget’s Freud & Erik Erikson’s Cognitive Theory difference:

Piaget's Theory Differs From Others In Several Ways:

It is concerned with children, rather than all learners.

It focuses on development, rather than learning per se, so it does not address learning of
information or specific behaviors.
It proposes discrete stages of development, marked by qualitative differences, rather than a
gradual increase in number and complexity of behaviors, concepts, ideas, etc.

Freud’s Theory Differs From Others In Several Ways:

Is Freudian psychology supported by evidence? Freud's theory is good at explaining but not at
predicting behavior (which is one of the goals of science).
For this reason, Freud's theory is unfalsifiable - it can neither be proved true or refuted. For
example, the libido is difficult to test and measure objectively. Overall, Freud's theory is highly
unscientific.

Freud may also have shown research bias in his interpretations - he may have only paid attention
to information which supported his theories, and ignored information and other explanations that
did not fit them.

However, Fisher & Greenberg (1996) argue that Freud’s theory should be evaluated in terms of
specific hypotheses rather than as a whole. They concluded that there is evidence to support
Freud’s concepts of oral and anal personalities

Erikson's Theory Differs From Others In Several Ways:

Erikson's theory also has its limitations and attracts valid criticisms. One major weakness of
psychosocial theory is that the exact mechanisms for resolving conflicts and moving from one
stage to the next are not well described or developed. The theory fails to detail exactly what type
of experiences are necessary at each stage in order to successfully resolve the conflicts and move
to the next stage.

One of the strengths of psychosocial theory is that it provides a broad framework from which to
view development throughout the entire lifespan. It also allows us to emphasize the social nature
of human beings and the important influence that social relationships have on development.
Some research also suggests that people who form strong personal identities during adolescence
are better capable of forming intimate relationships during early adulthood. Other research
suggests, however, that identity formation and development continues well into adulthood.