Pamban Bridge, Ramaswaram, 1914 Howrah Bridge, Kolkata, 1943

Mahatma Gandhi Setu,Patna, 1982 Vidyasagar Setu, Kolkata, 1992

• Pamban Bridge is a railway bridge which connects the town
of Mandapam in mainland India with Pamban Island, and Rameswaram. It
was India's first sea bridge, and was the longest sea bridge in India until the
opening of the Bandra-Worli Sea Link in 2010.
• Howrah Bridge is a bridge with a suspended span over the Hooghly
River in West Bengal, The third-longest cantilever bridge at the time of its
construction, the Howrah Bridge is currently the sixth-longest bridge of its
type in the world.
• Mahatma Gandhi Setu (also called Gandhi Setu or Ganga Setu) is
a bridge over the river Ganges in Bihar. Its length is 5,750 metres
(18,860 ft)and it is the third-longest river bridge in India. The cantilever
segmental construction method was adopted.
• Vidyasagar Setu over the Hooghly River in West Bengal, India, linking the
cities of Kolkata (previously known as Calcutta) and Howrah. It is the
longest cable–stayed bridge in India. The deck is made of composite steel-
reinforced concrete with two carriageways.
 The bridges mentioned here are not related to the present
topic, but are shown here as postal stamps are published by
India Post
A bridge is a key element in a transportation system for
three reasons:
• It likely controls the capacity.
• It is the highest cost per kilometer.
• If the bridge fails, the system fails.
• The bridge controls both the volume and weight of the traffic
carried.
• If the width of a bridge is insufficient to carry the number of lanes
required to handle the traffic volume, the bridge will be a
constriction to the traffic flow.
• If the strength of a bridge is deficient and unable to carry heavy
trucks, load limits will be posted and truck traffic will bererouted.
• Bridges are expensive.
• The typical cost per kilometer of a bridge is many times that of the
approach roadways.
• This is a major investment and must be carefully planned for best
use of the limited funds available for a transportation system.
If the bridge fails, the system fails.
• When a bridge is removed from service and not replaced, the
transportation system may be restricted in its function.
• Traffic may be detoured over routes not designed to handle the
increase in volume.
• Users of the system experience increased travel times and fuel
expenses.
• Normalcy does not return until the bridge is repaired or replaced.
 Syllabus
Introduction Types of Bridges,
Selection of suitable site and type of bridge, Components of a bridge,
Aesthetics,
Economic span
Design Loads and IRC loads: IRC-Class AA tracked and wheeled,
their Distribution 70R tracked and wheeled,
Class-A,
Class-B,
Distribution of loads on RC culverts, Prestressed Concrete deck slab
and girdered bridge,
IRS loads: Railway loading and distribution on lattice girder bridge
Design of Design of RC Culvert,
Superstructure Design of prestressed concrete deck slab bridge, I-girder bridge and
box girder bridge for roadway,
Design of balanced cantilever RC bridge for roadway,
Design of steel lattice girder bridge for railway
Substructure Different types of foundations, their choice and
methods of construction,
Well foundation,
Pile foundation,
Piers and Abutments,
Wing walls
Bearing Various types of bearings and their suitability

Construction Various methods of erection of bridge girders,

Methods Cantilever method of construction of bridge
References:
• Design of Bridges: Raju N. K., Oxford and IBH fifth Edition
• Essentials of Bridge Engineering: Victor D.J, Oxford and IBH.
• Design of Bridge Superstructures: T.R. Jagdeesh and M.A. Jayaram,
Prentice Hall India Private Ltd., New Delhi.
• Bridge Engineering: Ponnuswamy S., Tata Mc Graw Hill.
• Concrete Bridge Practice: Raina V. K., Tata Mc Graw Hill
 IRC Code
IRC: 5- 2015 Section – I General Features of Design.
IRC: 6- 2016 Section – II Loads and Stresses
IRC: 18-2000 Design Criteria for Prestressed Concrete Road Bridges (Post Tensioned
Concrete)
IRC: 21-2000 Section – III Cement Concrete (Plain and Reinforced).
IRC: 24-2001 Section – V Steel Road Bridges.
IRC: 27-2009 Specifications for Bituminous Macadam
IRC: 45-1972 Recommendations for Estimating the Resistance of Soil below the
maximum Scour level in the design of well foundations of bridges
IRC: 78-2014 Section – VII Foundations and Substructure
IRC: 83 (i)-1999, Section – IX Metallic Bearings (Part-I).
IRC: 83 (ii)-1987, Electrometric Bearings. (Part-II)
IRC: 83 (iii)-2002 POT, POT-cum-PTFE, Pin and metallic guide bearings,

IRC:112- 2011 Code of Practice for Concrete Road Bridges.

IRC: SP13- 2004 Guidelines for the Design of small Bridges and Culverts
• Bridge : A bridge is a structure having a total length of above
6m for carrying traffic or other moving loads across a
channel, depression, road or railway track or any other
obstruction.
(IRC 5; Clause No. 101.6; P No 02)

• A bridge is a structure providing passage over an obstacle

without closing the way beneath. The required passage may
be for a road, railway, pedestrians, a canal or a pipeline. The
obstacle to be crossed may be a river, a road, railway or a
valley
 Classification of Bridge
(IRC 5; Clause No. 102; P No 07)
Function
• River Bridge/Bridge over stream • Grade Separator
• Aqueduct (Canal over a river) • Road over Bridge
• Foot over bridge ( Pedestrian) • Road under bridge
• Flyover • Underpass
• Viaduct (Road or Railway over valley) • Subways
• Overpass
• Mathoor Aqueduct or Mathoor Hanging Trough, is an aqueduct in
southern India, in the kalkulam taluk of Kanyakumari District of Tamil
Nadu state. Length is 381m.
• Bridge no. 541 near Kanoh It was built in 1898 and is still the
highest arch gallery bridge on Indian Railway. It is 52.90 meters long,
23.00 meters high and has 34 arches. Its special features include 4
storeys (tiers) of arch galleries, each with different configuration of
arches, track on a steep gradient with a 48º reverse curve.
• Kathipara Cloverleaf Kathipara Junction Grade Separator is an
important road junction in Chennai. Kathipara flyover is the largest
cloverleaf flyover in the whole of Asia
 Classification of Bridge
(IRC 5; Clause No. 102; P No 07)
Length
• Culvert (Less than 6m)
• Minor Bridge ( 6-60m)
• Major Bridge (above 60m)
• Long Span Bridge (Span length above 150m)
(The Dhola–Sadiya Bridge, also referred to as the Bhupen Hazarika Setu, is
a beam bridge, connecting the northeast states of Assam and Arunachal
Pradesh At 9.15 kilometres (5.69 mi) in length, it is the longest bridge in
India over water.
 Classification of Bridge
(IRC 5; Clause No. 102; P No 07)
Type of Superstructure
• Slab
• Slab-Beam
• Truss
• Arch
• Cable stayed or suspension
• Box girder
 Classification of Bridge
(IRC 5; Clause No. 102; P No 07)
System of support for superstructure
• Simply supported
• Continuous
• Integral
• Balanced cantilever
• Cable supported
280m long Balanced Cantilever
Bridge having 60m+160m+60m
central span over river Chenab at
Akhnoor, J&K
 Classification of Bridge
(IRC 5; Clause No. 102; P No 07)
Material
• Masonry
• Reinforced Concrete
• Restressed concrete
• Fibre reinforced concrete
• Steel
• Composite
• Timber
 Classification of Bridge
(IRC 5; Clause No. 102; P No 07)
Construction Technology
• In-situ
• Pre cast or prefabricated
• Cantilever
• Incremental launching
• Span by span
• Segmental
 Classification of Bridge
(IRC 5; Clause No. 102; P No 07)
Level
High level bridge
Submersible bridge
 Bridge Aesthetics
• A good design of bridge structure should satisfy
• Function
• Aesthetics
• Economy
• Bridge design needs consideration of function and fitness which seeks
qualities like symmetry, harmony, proportion, simplicity, style, feeling,
expressive mass, repose, grace and conformity to the environment.
• Cost required for additional aesthetic elegance is not likely to exceed
2-3% of the overall cost
• Long multi-span bridge there should be order and rhythm.
(Ex : Tunkhannock Viaduct – Pennsylvania also known as the Nicholson Bridge,
it is a concrete deck arch bridge that spans the Tunkhannock Creek)
• The bridge structure should blend with the landscape.
(Ex: Open Spandrel deck type arch span will suit a gorge with rocky abutments or a area
near a waterfall. Rainbow bridge near a Niagara fall The construction of Rainbow Bridge
began in May of 1940. The bridge opened on November 1, 1941. The bridge is 950 feet
long and 202 feet tall).
• Bridge design is a form of structural art, The design should highlight the flow of
forces and should also conform to the needs of economy.
(Ex : Maillart’s Salginatubel bridge Switzerland built in 1930 it is a reinforced
concrete three hinged arch bridge ,)
Christian Menn’s Sunniberge Bridge it’s a cable-stayed but find the Ganter Bridge
to be over-rated in the extreme, with its stiff rectangular piers and their clumsy
connection to concrete fins in which its support stays are embedded.
 Rudenkirchen Bridge Germany Sunshine Skyway Bridge in Florida USA
An elegant bridge should have simplicity of line, expressing emphatically
the structural form. (Ex : Fehmarnsund Bridge,)
• Mixing of several systems such as beams, arches, suspension or frames or decks
of different materials in any one bridge may be avoided.
• (However this mix may be acceptable in a very long bridge like 38.6km long
Pantchartrain Bridge, New Orleans, USA Since 1969, it was listed by Guinness
World Records as the longest bridge over water in the world)
• The use of members and components in all possible directions and sizes usually
results in an ugly structure. While it is difficult to achieve aesthetic elegance with
steel truss bridge. (Ex : Runcorn Widnes Bridge, Godavari Second Bridge)
At the time of its construction it had the third longest steel arch span in the world
• Extraneous ornamentations serve to diminish rather than enhance the
elegance of the bridge. ( Ex : Brunel’s and Telford in a competition for
the Clifton Bridge at Bristol in England.
• Brunel’s Bridge design with simple lines anchoring the suspension
chains directly in rock on each side blends well with surrounding
while The Clifton Suspension Bridge is a suspension bridge spanning
the Avon Gorge and the River Avon, linking Clifton in Bristol to Leigh
Woods in North Somerset.
• Menai Suspension Bridge is a suspension bridge to carry road traffic
between the island of Anglesey and the mainland of Wales. The bridge
was designed by Thomas Telford and completed in 1826. Telford’s
design with Gothic style piers clashes disastrously with the landscape.
For Flyover and elevated highways within urban areas, the
supporting piers should be slender, so that the street life
below is least disturbed and view through bridge least
obstructed. ( Jan Wellam Platz elevated road Dusseldorf ,
Germany)
• Proportion of the various components of a bridge should be in
harmony with each other.
(depth of the deck should have a pleasing relation with the span)
• The final shape of the structure should highlight the special
qualities of the material of construction.
(Spandrel filled arch would express gracefully the robust qualities of
stone masonry.
• For multi span bridge it is better to have the width of pier less
than one–eighth of the span.
• The final shape of the structure should highlight the special
qualities of the materials of construction.
 Selection of suitable site
• Detailed ground reconnaissance, collection of adequate hydraulic/
ground data and subsoil investigation form an essential part of
engineering survey for deciding the best possible location and type of
bridge.
• The choice of the right site is crucial decision in the planning and
designing of a bridge. It may not be possible always to have a wide
choice of sites for a bridge. This is particularly so in case of bridges in
urban areas and flyovers. For river bridges in rural areas usually a
wider choice may be available.
Characteristics of an ideal site for a bridge
• The stream at the bridge site should be well defined and as narrow as
possible.
• There should be straight reach of stream at bridge site.
• The site should have straight, firm, permanent and high banks.
• The flow of water in the stream at bridge site should be in steady regime
condition. It should be free from whirls and cross-currents.
• There should be no confluence of large tributaries in the vicinities of bridge
site.
• There should be no need for costly river training works in the vicinity of
bridge site.
• There should be minimum obstructions of natural waterway so as to have
minimum afflux.
• It should be reasonable to have straight approach roads.
• In case of curve alignment the bridge should not be on the curve, but
preferably on the tangent. Since otherwise there is a greater chances of
accident as well as an added centrifugal force which increases the load
effect on the structure.
• Suitable unyielding and non erodible material for foundation should be
available at a short depth for abutments and piers of a bridge.
• When the river to be crossed is a meandering river, the bridge should
be located at a nodal point i.e. the location where the river regime is
constant serving as function at which the river channels swing
laterally.
Choice of bridge type
• In general the bridge should be aesthetically pleasing in appearance,
strong enough to carry traffic and other incidental loads, economical
etc.
• Economy in construction :- the need to economize the overall
construction cost to the community by combining the railway and
highway requirements may necessitate a road-cum-rail bridge in two
tiers across a wide river.
(EX : Godavari Second Bridge)
The Godavari Bridge or Kovvur-Rajahmundry Bridge is truss bridge spanning
Godavari river in Rajahmundry, India. It is Asia's second longest road-cum-rail
bridge crossing a water body, after the Sky Gate Bridge in Kansai International
Airport, Osaka. The bridge is 4.2 kilometers (2.7 km Rail & 4.2 km Road) long.
• Navigational Requirement : Large navigational clearance required may
dictate the use of particular types such as arches, cantilever bridges,
cable stayed or suspension bridges
(Ex: Howrah Bridge)
• Approaches and Navigational Requirement : Long and high
approaches may be too costly at a plain coastal area for a railway line
with low volume of traffic and it may be desirable to have a low level
structure with a movable (swing or lift) span to cater to navigation.
(Ex : Railway bridge of Pamban near Rameswaram.
• Foundation :- The topographic and soil conditions at a site may limit
the choice to a few general possibilities.
( Ex : A rocky ravine area is ideal for an arch bridge as in Salginatable Bridge.)
• Foundation :- Weak subsoil conditions may lead to the use of simply
supported spans instead of continuous spans.
• Traffic type :- The type of traffic may restrict the choice of bridge type
for railway traffic, steel trusses or steel cantilever types are preferable
to suspension bridge.
• Climatic conditions :- The climatic conditions and environmental
effect would preclude the use of some types and required some others.
(Ex : The corrosive atmosphere has dictated the use of cantilever
construction with precast segments for the prestressed concrete
navigation span for the road bridge at Pamban near Rameswaram and
has precluded the use of cable stayed steel bridge.
• A high level structure with uninterrupted traffic as on NH and the
need to reduce the number of piers may necessitate a cantilever
bridge or a cable stayed bridge or a series of simply supported trusses
(Ex : Zuari Bridge, Ganga Bridge)
• Deck bridge are preferred to through bridges for highway traffic
because of the better view of surrounding scenery
• (Ex : Rainbow bridge near Niagara Fall )
Economical Span
• The most economical span length is that for which the cost of
superstructure equals the cost of substructure.
• Considering only the variable items for a given linear waterway, the
total cost of superstructure increases and the total cost of substructure
decreases with increase in the span length.
• The economic span of a bridge is the one which reduces the overall
cost of a bridge to be a minimum.
Assumptions
• The bridge has equal span lengths. In practice generally equal spans
are kept.
• The cost of the supporting system of super structure varies as the
square of the span length. The design of supporting system sections of
super structure depends upon the bending moment. Which in turn
varies as square of span length.
• Cost of flooring and parapet varies directly as the span length. As the
span increases the quantity of material also increases.
• Cost of one pier and its foundation is constant.
Components of Bridge
• The bridge structure consists of the following components
• Superstructure : The portion of bridge structure above bearings, which
directly supports pedestrian/vehicular/other transient loads and transfers the
same to the substructure. (IRC 5: Clause No 101.48, P No. 6 )
• It consist of Deck slab, Girders, Trusses, Handrails, Parapets,
• Substructure :Substructure is the portion of a bridge structure between the
foundation and the superstructure. (IRC 5: Clause No 101.45, P No. 6 )
• It consists of Abutments and Piers
• Foundations : It is that part of a bridge structure, which is in direct contact
with and transmitting loads to the founding strata. (IRC 5: Clause No
101.18, P No. 4 )
• It consists of foundation for Abutments and Piers
Bearings : Bearing is a part of a bridge structure which bears directly all
the forces from the superstructure above and transmits the same to the
supporting substructure. (IRC 5: Clause No 101.5, P No. 2 )
• Bridge Deck: The load bearing floor of a bridge which carries and spreads
the loads to the main beams. It is either of reinforced concrete., pre-stressed
concrete, welded steel etc.
• Approach slab : An approach slab is transition slab of reinforced concrete
laid on immediate approaches to a bridge with one end resting on dirt wall/
abutment. (IRC 5: Clause No 101.4, P No. 2 )
• Kerb : A line of raised concrete section, forming an edge between
carriageway and railing/footpath/median. (IRC 5: Clause No 101.26, P No.
4)
• Abutment : It is sub structure component which supports the end of
superstructure and retain part or whole of bridge approach fills (IRC 5:
Clause No 101.1, P No. 2 )
• Wing wall : The walls constructed at both ends of the abutments to retain
the earth banks of the river or of the bridge approaches are known as wing
walls.(Straight, Splayed, Return)
• Piers : The intermediate supports for the superstructure of a multi
span bridge are known as piers.
Width of Carriageway
( IRC 5: Clause No. 104.3, P No. 14)

• For high level bridges constructed for the use of road traffic only, the width of
carriageway shall not be less than,
4.25 m for a single lane bridge and
7.5 m for a two-lane bridge and
• shall be increased by 3.5 m for every additional lane of traffic for a multiple lane
bridge.
• Width of median : The median width of approach road shall generally be carried
over the bridges, the median width may be reduced, subjected to minimum
width of 1.2m, in which case, crash barriers shall be provided in the median.
• Width of footpath : When a footpath is provided, its clear width shall not be less
than 1.5m. For urban and populated areas having large concentration of
pedestrian traffic, the width of the footpath shall be suitably increased.
• The Indian Road Congress (IRC) has formulated std. specifications
and codes of practice for Road bridges with a view to establish a
common procedure for the design and construction of road bridges in
India.
• The first loading std.(IRC:6) in India was published by the Indian
Road congress in 1958 and subsequently reprinted in 1962 and 1963
and they have not changed in the subsequent revision of 1964, 1966
and 2000.
• The std. IRC loads specified in IRC 6:2016 are grouped under five
categories.
• Road bridges and culverts shall be divided into classes according to
the loadings they are designed to carry. (Clause No 201.1)
• IRC Classed 70R : This loading is to normally adopted on all roads on
which permanent bridges and culverts are constructed. Bridges designed for
class 70R loading should be checked for class A loading also.
• IRC Class AA : This loading is to adopted within certain municipal limit in
certain existing or contemplated industrial areas, in other specified areas
and along certain specified highways.
• Bridge designed for class AA loading should be checked for class A loading
also.
• IRC Class A : This loading is to be normally adopted on all roads on which
permanent bridges and culvers are constructed.
• IRC Class B : This loading is to be normally adopted for timber bridges.
• IRC Class SV (Special Vehicle) : This loading is to be adopted for design of
new bridges in selected corridors as may be decided by concern authorities
where passage of trailer vehicles carrying stator units, turbines, heavy
equipment and machinery may occur occasionally.
 Loads, Forces and Load Effects
( IRC 6: Clause No. 202, P No. 5)
Dead Load Live Load
Snow Load Impact Factor on vehicular live load
Impact due to floating bodies or Vessels Vehicle collision load
Water current Longitudinal force caused by tractive effort
of vehicle
Centrifugal forces Buoyancy
Earth pressure including live load Temperature effect
surcharge, if any
Deformation effects Erection effects
Secondary effects Wind load
Seismic effect Wave pressure
Grade effect
• Dead Load ( IRC 6:2016 Clause No. 203, P No. 8) : The dead load
carried by bridge member consists of its own weight and the portions
of the weight of the superstructure and any fixed load supported by the
member.
• Live Load ( IRC 6:2016 Clause No. 204, P No. 10) : Live load are
those caused by vehicles pass over the bridge and are transient in
nature.
• Impact Effect ( IRC 6:2016 Clause No. 208, P No. 30) : Live load
trains produce higher stresses than those which would be caused if the
loading vehicles where stationary. In order to take into account the
increase in stresses due to dynamic action and still proceed with the
simpler statical analysis, an impact allowance is made.
• Provision for impact or dynamic action shall be made by an increment of
the live load by an impact allowance expressed as a fraction or a percentage
of the applied live load.
• For Class A or Class B Loading
• The impact fraction shall be determined from the following equations which
are applicable for spans between 3 m and 45 m .
4.5
• Impact factor fraction for reinforced concrete bridges =
6+𝐿
9
• Impact factor fraction for steel bridges =
13.5+𝐿
• Where L is length in meters of the span.
• For Span less than 3m, the impact factor is 0.5 for RC bridges and 0.545 for
steel bridges.
• When the span exceeds 45m, the impact factor is taken as 0.088 for RC
bridges and 0.154 for steel bridges.
• (In the members of any bridge designed either for Class A or Class B
loading (vide Clause 204.1), this impact percentage shall be determined
from the curves indicated in Fig.9. )
Impact Percentage for Highway Bridges for Class A and Class B Loading
• For Class AA Loading and Class 70R Loading
• For spans less than 9 m Span upto 5m 25%
• For tracked vehicles : Span upto 9m 10%

• For wheeled vehicles : 25 Percent

• For spans of 9 m or more
• i) Reinforced Concrete Bridges
• 1) Tracked Vehicles : 10 percent upto a span of 40 m and in accordance with
the curve in Fig. 9 for spans in excess of 40 m
• 2) Wheeled Vehicles : 25 percent for spans upto 12 m and in accordance with
the curve in Fig. 9 for spans in excess of 12 m.
• ii) Steel Bridges
• 3) Tracked Vehicles : 10 percent for all spans
• 4) Wheeled vehicles : 25 percent for spans upto 23 m and in accordance with
the curve indicated in Fig. 9 for spans in excess of 23 m
• Wind Load ( IRC 6:2016 Clause No. 209, P No. 32) : This Clause is
applicable to normal span bridges with individual span length up to 150m or
for bridges with height of pier up to 100m. For all other bridges including
cable stayed bridges, suspension bridges and ribbon bridges specialist
literature shall be used for computation of design wind load.
• Horizontal forces due to water current ( IRC 6:2016 Clause No. 210, P
No. 39) : Any part of a bridge structure which may be submerged in running
water should be designed to sustain safely the horizontal pressure due to the
force of the current.
• On piers parallel to the direction of the water current, the intensity of
pressure shall be calculated from the following equation:
• P = 52KV˄2
P = intensity of pressure due to water current, in kg/m2
V = the velocity of the current at the point where the pressure intensity is
being calculated, in metre per second, and
K = a constant having the values for different shapes of piers
• Longitudinal force ( IRC 6:2016 Clause No. 211, P No. 42) : In all road bridges,
provision shall be made for longitudinal forces arising from any one or more of the
following causes:
• Tractive effort caused through acceleration of the driving wheels
• Breaking effect resulting from the application of the brakes to braked wheels
• Frictional resistance offered to the movement of free bearings due to change of temperature or any
other cause.
• Centrifugal forces ( IRC 6:2016 Clause No. 212, P No. 46) : Where a road bridge is
located on a curve the effects of centrifugal forces due to movement of vehicles should be
taken into account.
• The centrifugal force shall be determined from
• 𝐶=𝑊𝑉˄2/127𝑅
Where
• C = Centrifugal force acting normally to the traffic (1) at the point of action of the wheel loads or
(2) uniformly distributed over every metre length on which a uniformly distributed load acts, in
tonnes.
• W = Live load (1) in case of wheel loads, each wheel load being considered as acting over the
ground contact length specified in Clause 204, in tonnes, and (2) in case of a uniformly distributed
live load, in tonnes per linear metre
• V = The design speed of the vehicles using the bridge in km per hour, and
• R = The radius of curvature in metres
• Buoyancy effect ( IRC 6:2016 Clause No. 213, P No. 47) : In the design of
abutments, especially those of submersible bridges, the effects of buoyancy
shall also be considered assuming that the fill behind the abutments has
been removed by scour.
• To allow for full buoyancy, a reduction shall be made in the gross weight of the
member affected by reducing its density by the density of the displaced water.
• In case of submersible bridges the full buoyancy effect on the superstructure shall be
taken into considerations.
• Temperature effect ( IRC 6:2016 Clause No. 215, P No. 55) : Daily and
seasonal variations in temperature occur causing material to shorten with
fall in temperature and lengthen with a rise in temperature.
• Deformation stresses ( IRC 6:2016 Clause No. 216, P No. 60) :A
deformation effects is defined as the bending stress in any member of an
open web-girder caused by the vertical deflection of the girder combined
with the rigidity of the joints. Deformation stresses are considered for steel
bridges only.
• In the absence of calculation, deformation stresses shall be assumed to be not less
than 16 percent of the dead and live loads stresses.
• Secondary effect ( IRC 6:2016 Clause No. 217, P No. 60) : In steel
structures, secondary stresses are caused due to eccentricity of
connections, floor beam load applied at intermediate points in a panel,
cross girders being connected away from panel points, lateral wind
loads on the end-posts of through girders movements of support etc.
• In Reinforced concrete structure, secondary stresses are caused due to
movements of supports or deformations in the geometrical shape of the
structure or its members.
• For reinforced concrete members, the shrinkage coefficient for purposes of
design may be taken as 2 X 10 -4

• Erection Effects ( IRC 6:2016 Clause No. 218, P No. 60) : The
stresses that are likely to be induced in members during erection
should be considered in design. It is possible that the erection stresses
may be different from those which the member will be subjected to in
actual service.
Examples of Typical Construction Loadings are
• Loads of plant and equipment including the weight handled that might be
incident on the structure during construction.
• Temporary super-imposed loading caused by storage of construction
material on a partially completed a bridge deck.
• Unbalanced effect of a temporary structure, if any, and unbalanced effect of
modules that may be required for cantilever segmental construction of a
bridge.
• Loading on individual beams and/or completed deck system due to
travelling of a launching truss over such beams/deck system.
• Thermal effects during construction due to temporary restraints.
• Secondary effects, if any, emanating from the system and procedure of
construction.
• Loading due to any anticipated soil settlement
IRC Class 70R
• IRC 70R loading consists of the following three types of vehicles.
• Tracked vehicle of total 700kN with two tracks each weighing 350kN.
• Wheeled vehicle comprising 4 wheels, each with a load of 100kN
totaling 400kN.
• Wheeled vehicle with a train of vehicles on seven axles with a total
load of 1000kN
70R Tracked Vehicle (700kN)
• The nose to tail spacing between successive vehicles shall not be less
than 90m
70R Wheeled vehicle (1000kN)

• The nose to tail spacing between two successive vehicles shall not be less than 30m
 70R Loading
• The nose to tail spacing between two successive vehicles shall not be
less than 90 m for tracked vehicle and 30 m for wheeled vehicle.
• For multi-lane bridges and culverts, each Class 7OR loading shall be
considered to occupy two lanes and no other vehicle shall be allowed
in these two lanes. The passing/crossing vehicle can only be allowed
on lanes other than these two lanes.
• Class 7OR loading is applicable only for bridges having carriageway
width of 5.3 m and above (i.e. 1.2 x 2 + 2.9 = 5.3). The minimum
clearance between the road face of the kerb and the outer edge of the
wheel or track, ·c·, shall be 1.2 m.
• The maximum loads for the wheeled vehicle shall be 20 tonne for a
single axle or 40 tonne for a bogie of two axles spaced not more than
1.22 m centres.

• The minimum clearance between the outer edge of wheel or track of

passing or crossing vehicles for multilane bridge shall be 1.2 m.
Vehicles passing or crossing can be either same class or different class,
Tracked or Wheeled.
 IRC Class AA Loading
• This loading consists of either :
• Tracked Vehicle( Army Tank) : 700kN
• Wheeled Vehicle (Heavy Duty Army Truck) 400kN
• The nose to tail spacing between two successive vehicles shall not be less
than 90m.
• For multi-lane bridges and culverts, each Class AA loading shall be
considered to occupy two lanes and no other vehicle shall be allowed in
these two lanes. The passing/crossing vehicle can only be allowed on lanes
other than these two lanes.
• The ground contact length of the track is 3.6m and nose to tail length of the
vehicle is 7.2m
• The maximum loads for the wheeled vehicle shall be 200kN for a single
axle or 400kN for a two axle spaced not more than 1.2m centers.
• Class AA loading is applicable only for bridges having carriageway width
of 5.3 m and above (i.e. 1.2 x 2 + 2.9 = 5.3). The minimum clearance
between the road face of the kerb and the outer edge of the wheel or track,
·c·, shall be 1.2 m.
Tracked Vehicle
IRC Class A Loading
• Class A loading consists of a wheel load train composed of a driving
vehicle and trailers of a specified axle spacing and load ( heavy duty
truck with two trailers 8 axles)(Total load 440kN)
Axle Load (kN) Ground Contact Ground Contact
B (mm) W (mm)

114 250 500

68 200 380

41 150 300

27 150 200

16 125 175
• The nose to tail distance between successive trains shall not be less
than 18.5 m.
• For single lane bridges having carriageway width less than 5.3 m, one
lane of Class A shall be considered to occupy 2.3 m. Remaining width
of carriageway shall be loaded with 500 Kg/m2 , as shown in Table 6
of IRC:6-2016.
• For multi-lane bridges each Class A loading shall be considered to
occupy single lane for design purpose
• The minimum clearance, ‘f’ between outer edge of the wheel and the
roadway face of the kerb and the minimum clearance , ‘g’ between the
outer edges of passing or crossing vehicles on multi-lane bridges shall
be as
• (2 X 1.8 ) + (2 X w ) + g + 2f
• (2 X 1.8 ) + (2 X .5 ) + 0.4 + 2 X 0.15

Clear carriageway width g f

5.3 m to 6.1 m Varying between 0.4 m to 1.2m 150 mm for all
Above 6.1m 1.2m carriageway width
IRC Class B Loading
• The nose to tail distance between successive trains shall not be less
than 18.5 m.

• No other live load shall cover any part of the carriageway when a
train of vehicles (or trains of vehicles in multi-lane bridge) is crossing
bridge

• For bridges having carriageway width less than 5.06, only single lane
of class B loading shall be considered.
• The minimum clearance, ‘f’ between outer edge of the wheel and the
roadway face of the kerb and the minimum clearance , ‘g’ between the
outer edges of passing or crossing vehicles on multi-lane bridges shall
be as
• (2 X 1.8 ) + (2 X w ) + g + 2f
• (2 X 1.8 ) + (2 X .38 ) + 0.4 + 2 X 0.15

Clear carriageway width g f

5.06 m to 5.86 m Varying between 0.4 m to 1.2m 150 mm for all

Above 5.86 m 1.2m carriageway width
Combination of Live Load
Analysis of Slab Deck/ Effect of Live Load on Deck Slab
• A wheel load is practically considered as a concentrated load on the slab( supporting
media)
• This load will get dispersed with its effects along spanwise and width wise directions.
• A mathematical model foe analysis of moments and shear in respect of steel plates
subjected to concentrated loads was developed by Navier.
• However as these methods were not applicable to concrete slabs, Semi-empirical methods
were suggested.
• There are three methods available for analysis of slabs subjected to concentrated loads.
• Effective width method
• Pigeaud’s coefficient method.
• Westergaurds method
• First method is applicable to one way slabs which are supported on two opposite edges.
• The second method is used for two way slabs which are supported on all four sides.
• Westergaurds method is cumbersome and therefore rarely adopted for slab designs.
• RC slab decks used for small span culverts are generally spanning in
one direction and hence the moments due to dead and live loads are
critical in the longitudinal direction i.e. in the direction of moving
loads.
• In case of Reinforced concrete Tee beam and slab bridges the deck
slab is supported along the longitudinal and lateral direction by main
and cross girders Hence the slabs in such cases have to be analyzed for
moments developed in the longitudinal and lateral directions.
• The effect of concentrated loads on slab spanning in one or two
directions or on cantilever slab may be calculated from the influences
fields of such loads or by any other rational method. ( IRC Clause
No.305.16.1 P No. 52)
• The bending moment per unit width of slab caused by concentrated loads on
solid slabs spanning in one direction or on cantilever slab may also be
calculated by assessing the width of slab that may be taken as effective in
resisting the bending moment due to concentrated loads.
• Single Concentrated Load : (IRC 21 Clause No.305.16.12 P No. 52)
• bef = α a ( 1 – a/lo ) + b1
• bef = The effective width of slab on which the load acts
• lo = The effective span
• a = Distance of center of gravity of the concentrated load from the nearer
support.
• b1 = The breadth of concentration area of the load i.e. the dimensions of
tyre or track contact area over the road surface of the slab in a direction at
right angles to the span plus twice the thickness of wearing coat or surface
finish above the structural slab.
• α = A constant having the values depending upon the ration of b/lo where b
is width of slab.
• Provided that the effective width shall not exceed the actual width of
the slab.
• When a concentrated load is closed to the unsupported edge of a slab
the effective width shall not exceed the above value nor half the above
value plus the distance of the road from unsupported edge.
• For two or more concentrated loads in a line in the direction of span
the bending moment per meter width of slab be calculated separately
for each load according to its approximate effective width of slab.
Pigeaud’s method