STABILITY

Negative feedback for which 1   A  1 has been considered in details in Chapter

7. If 1   A  1, the feedback is termed positive or regenerative. Under these
circumstances, the resultant transfer gain Af will be greater than A, the nominal
gain without feedback, since Af  A 1   A  A . Regeneration is an effective
means of increasing the amplification of an amplifier was first suggested by
Armstrong. Because of the reduced stability of an amplifier with positive
feedback, this method is seldom used.
To illustrate the instability in an amplifier with positive feedback, consider the
following situation: No signal is applied, but because of some transient
disturbance, a signal X0 appears at the output terminals. A portion of this signal,
X0, will be fed back to the input circuit, and will appear in the output as an
increased signal AX0. If this term just equals X0, then the spurious output has
regenerated itself. In other words, if AX0 = X0 (that is, if A = 1), the amplifier
will oscillate (Section 9.7). Hence, if an attempt is made to obtain large gain by
making  A almost equal to unity, there is the possibility that the amplifier may
break out into spontaneous oscillation. This would occur if, because of variation
in supply voltages, aging of transistors, etc., A becomes equal to unity. There is
little point in attempting to achieve amplification at the expense of stability. In
fact, because of all the advantages enumerated in Section 7.4, feedback in
amplifiers is almost always negative. However, combinations of positive and
negative feedback are used.

The Condition for Stability

If an amplifier is designed to have negative feedback in a particular frequency

range but breaks out into oscillation at some high or low frequency, it is useless as
an amplifier. Hence, in the design of a feedback amplifier, it must be ascertained
that the circuit is stable at all frequencies, and not merely over the frequency
range of interest. In the sense used here, the system is stable if a transient
disturbance results in a response which dies out. A system is unstable if a transient
disturbance persists indefinitely or increases until it is limited only by some
nonlinearity in the circuit. It will be shown in Section 9.3 that the question of
stability involves a study of the poles of the transfer function since these
determine the transient behavior of the network. If a pole exists with a positive
real part, this will result in a disturbance increasing exponentially with time.
Hence the condition which must be satisfied, if a system is to be stable, is that the
poles of the transfer function must all lie in the left-hand half of the complex-
frequency plane. If the system without feedback is stable, the poles of A do lie in
the left-hand half plane. It follows from Equation (9.1), therefore, that the stability
condition requires that the zeros of 1+A all lie in the left-hand half of the
complex-frequency plane.

The Nyquist Criterion

Nyquist has obtained an alternative but equivalent condition for stability which
may be expressed in terms of the steady-state, or frequency-response,
characteristic. It is given here without proof: Since the product of A is a complex
number, it may be represented as a point in the complex plane, the real component
being plotted along the X axis, and the j component along the Y axis. Furthermore,
A is a function of frequency. Consequently, points in the complex plane are
obtained for the values of A corresponding to all values of f from  to +. The
locus of all these points forms a closed curve. The criterion of Nyquist is that the
amplifier is unstable if this curve encloses the point 1+ j0, and the amplifier is
stable if the curve does not enclose this point.
The criterion for positive or negative feedback may also be represented in the
complex plane. From Figure 9.10 we see that 1   A  1 represents a circle of unit
radius, with its center at the point 1+ j0. If, for any frequency, A extends
outside this circle, the feedback is negative, since then 1  A  1. If, however,
A lies within this circle, then 1  A  1, and the feedback is positive. In the later
case the system will not oscillate unless Nyquist’s criterion is satisfied.

Im( A)

Negative
A feedback

1+ A
1+ j0 0 Re(A)
Figure 9.9 The locus of 1   A  1 is a
circle of unit radius, with its center at 1+
j0. If the vector A ends in the shaded Positive
region, the feedback is positive. feedback
 Im( A)

Negative feedback

f = 
1+ j0  A0
A Re(A)
90o
Figure 9.10 For a dominant-pole 1+ A j A( f f H )
amplifier, the locus (for all values of A
frequency) of A in the complex A plane
is a circle in the right half plane. f = + Positive feedback

Since the locus A does not encircle the point 1+ j0, the amplifier is stable
and the feedback is negative for all frequencies. Alternatively, it is noted from the
diagram that 1   A  1 for all frequencies, which is the condition for negative
feedback.

GAIN AND PHASE MARGINS

Thus, in considering the stability of an amplifier, we examine the Bode plot for
the loop gain A(f) to find the frequency fGM for which the phase shift is 180o. If
the magnitude of the loop gain is less than unity at fGM, the amplifier is stable. On
the other hand, if the loop gain magnitude is greater than unity, the amplifier is
unstable.
For a stable amplifier, the gain at fGM is less than unity in magnitude (negative
when expressed in dB). The amount that the loop-gain magnitude is below 0 dB is
called gain margin (See Figure 9.11). A gain margin of zero implies that a pole
lies on the j axis. As the gain margin becomes larger, the poles move back into
the left hand half of the s-plane. In general, a larger gain margin results in less
ringing and faster decay of the transient response.
Another measure of stability that can be obtained from the Bode plots is the
phase margin, which is determined at the frequency fPM for which the loop gain
A(fPM) is unity in magnitude [i.e., 20 log A( f PM )  0 dB]. The phase margin is
the difference between the actual phase and 180o (See Figure 9.11).
 20 log  A( f ) (dB)

f PM f GM
0
f (log scale)
Gain margin

Phase (deg)
f PM f GM
0
f (log scale)

Phase
margin
180

Figure 9.11 Bode plots illustrating gain margin and phase margin.

SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS

Many different circuit configurations deliver an essentially sinusoidal output

waveform even without input-signal excitation. The basic principles governing all
these oscillators are investigated. In addition to determining the conditions
required for oscillation to take place, the frequency and amplitude stability are
also studied.
Figure 9.17 shows an amplifier, a feedback network, and an input mixing
circuit not yet connected to form a closed loop. The amplifier provides an output
signal X0 as a consequence of the signal Xi applied directly to the amplifier input
terminal. The output of the feedback network is Xf = X0 = AXi, and the output of
the mixing circuit (which is now simply an inverter) is

1 Xi X0 = AXi
Basic amplifier
A
2
X f/   X f

Figure 9.17 An amplifier with Mixing or

transfer gain A and feedback Inverting 1
network Feedback network
network  not yet connected to
Xf =  X0 
form a closed loop.

X f/   X f   AX i

From Figure 9.17 the loop gain is

X f/  X f
Loop gain     A (9.40)
Xi Xi

Suppose it should happen that matters are adjusted in such a way that the signal
X f/ is identically equal to the externally applied signal Xi. Since the amplifier has
no means of distinguishing the source of the input signal applied to it, it would
appear that, if the external source were removed and if terminal 2 were connected
to terminal 1, the amplifier would continue to provide the same output signal X0 as
before. Note, of course, that the statement X f/ = Xi means that the instantaneous
values of X f/ and Xi are exactly equal at all times. Note also that, since in the
above discussion no restriction was made on the waveform, it need not be
sinusoidal. The amplifier need not be linear, and the waveshape need not preserve
its form as it is transmitted through the amplifier, provided only that the signal X f/
has the waveform and frequency of the input signal Xi. The condition X f/ = Xi is
equivalent to A = 1, or the loop gain must equal unity.
The Barkhausen Criterion

:
The frequency at which a sinusoidal oscillator will operate is the frequency for
which the total phase shift introduced, as a signal proceeds from the input
terminals, through the amplifier and feedback network, and back again to the
input, is precisely zero (or, of course, an integer multiple of 2). Stated more
simply, the frequency of a sinusoidal oscillator is determined by the condition that
the loop-gain phase shift is zero.
The condition given above determines the frequency, provided that the circuit
will oscillate at all. Another condition which must clearly be met is that the
magnitude of Xi and X f/ must be identical. This condition is then embodied in the
following principle:
Oscillations will not be sustained if, at the oscillator frequency, the magnitude
of the product of the transfer gain of the amplifier and the magnitude of the
feedback factor of the feedback network (the magnitude of loop gain) are less than
unity.
The condition of unity loop gain A = 1 is called the Barkhausen criterion.
This condition implies, of course, both that  A  1 and that the phase of A is
zero. The above principles are consistent with the feedback formula
Af  A (1   A). For if A = 1, then Af  , which may be interpreted to mean
that there exists an output voltage even in the absence of an externally applied
signal voltage.

The Practical Considerations

THE PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATORS

OP-AMP Phase Shift Oscillator

Figure 9.18 shows the circuit of a phase shift oscillator, which consists of an
inverting amplifier and an RC phase shifting network. The amplifier phase-shifts
its input by 180o, and the RC phase-lead network phase-shifts the amplifier
output by +180o, giving a total loop phase shift of 0 (or 360) around the
feedback loop to meet the requirement for oscillation. The attenuated feedback
signal (at the amplifier input) is amplified to reproduce the output. In this
condition the circuit is generating its own input signal, consequently, it is
oscillating. The RC phase-lead network in Figure 9.18(a) consists of three equal-
value resistors and three equal-value capacitors. Resistor R1 functions as the last
resistor in the RC network and as the amplifier input resistor.The output and
feedback voltage waveforms in Figure 9.18(a) illustrate the circuit operation.

Inverting Output voltage, V0

R2
amplifier

R1 +VCC

Time, t
+
VEE V0
R3
Feedback voltage, Vf

C C C Time, t
Vf R R

Phase shift network

(a)

C C C

+ +

Vi I1 I2 I3 R
R R V0
 
(b)

Figure 9.18 (a) A phase shift oscillator consists of an inverting amplifier and an RC
phase shifting feedback network. The RC network attenuates the output and phase shift
it by +180o. The amplifier amplifies the network output and phase shifts it through a
further 180o. (b) The feedback network consists of three equal-value resistors and
three equal-value capacitors.

The feedback circuit in the phase-shift oscillator is shown in the following

Figure 9.18(b). Using mesh analysis we have,
 ( R  1 / jC ) I1  RI 2  Vi (9.41)
 RI1  (2 R  1 / jC ) I 2  RI 3  0 (9.42)
 RI 2  (2 R  1 / jC ) I 3 (9.43)

In order to get V0, we must solve for I3 using determinants:

( R  1 / j C ) R Vi
R ( 2 R  1 / j C ) 0
0 R 0
I3 
( R  1 / j C ) R 0
R ( 2 R  1 / j C ) R
0 R ( 2 R  1 / j C )

R 2Vi

( R  1 / jC )[( 2 R  1 / jC ) 2  R 2 ]  R 2 ( 2 R  1 / jC )

V0 RI 3 R3
Now,  
Vi Vi ( R  1 / jC )[( 2 R  1 / jC ) 2  R 2 ]  R 2 ( 2 R  1 / jC )

R3

( R  1 / jC )( 2 R  1 / jC ) 2  R 2 ( R  1 / jC )  R 2 ( 2 R  1 / jC )

1
 2
(1  1 / jRC )( 2  1 / jRC )  (1  1 / jRC )  ( 2  1 / jRC )

1

(1  1 / jRC )( 4  4 / jRC  1 /  2 R 2 C 2 )  (3  2 / jRC )
1

(1  5 /  R C  6 / jRC  1 / j 3 R 3C 3 )
2 2 2

1
 (9.44)
(1  5 /  R C )  j (6 / RC  1 /  3 R 3C 3 )
2 2 2
For oscillation in the phase-shift amplifier, the phase shift through the RC circuit
must be equal to 180. For this condition to exist, the j term in Equation (9.44)
must be 0 at the frequency of oscillation 0. Therefore,

6 /  0 RC  1 /  03 R 3C 3  0
602 R 2C 2  1
 0
03 R 3C 3
 6 02 R 2C 2  1  0
1
  02 
6 R 2C 2
1
 0 
RC 6
1
 f0  (9.45)
2RC 6

Now, from Equation (9.44) we have,

V0 1 1
 
Vi (1  5  6) 29
The negative sign results from the 180 inversion by the circuit. Thus, the value of
voltage gain by the RC circuit is,

V0 1
   (Feedback factor)
Vi 29

To meet the greater-than-unity loop gain (i.e.,  ACL  1 ) requirement, the closed-
loop voltage gain of the OP-AMP must be greater than 29.

So, R2  29 R1
If the amplifier voltage gain is much greater than 29, the output waveform will
be distorted. When the gain is slightly greater than 29, a reasonable pure sine
wave output can be expected. The gain is usually designed to be just over 29 to
ensure that the circuit oscillates. The output voltage amplitude normally peaks at
(VCC  1 V).
 Example 9.4 Design of OP-AMP Phase Shift Oscillator

Using a 741 OP-AMP with a 10 V supply, design the phase shift oscillator in
Figure 9.18(a) to produce a 1 kHz output frequency. Assume that the current
through R1 is 50 A.

SOLUTION V0  (VCC  1 V)  (10 V  1 V)   9 V.

V 9
Vi  0  V  0.31 V
ACL 29
V 0.31V
R1  i   6.2 k (use 5.6 k standard value)
I1 50 A
R2  ACL R1  29  5.6 k  162 k (use 180 k to give ACL  29)
R3  R2 R1  R2  180 k
R  R1  5.6 k

From Equation (9.45),

1 1
C   0.01 F (standard value)
2Rf 0 6 2  5.6 k  1 kHz  6

BJT Phase Shift Oscillator

1
f0  (9.46)
2RC (6  4 RC R )
and
29 R 4 RC
hfe(min)  23   (9.47)
RC R

The circuit oscillates only if the BJT current gain is equal to (or larger than) the
minimum value determined from Equation (9.47). With R = RC, a minimum hfe of
56 is required to sustain circuit oscillation. With R = 10RC, hfe(min) must be greater
than 300. The output waveform is likely to be distorted if hfe is substantially
greater than the calculated hfe(min). Because hfe varies widely from one transistor to
another, RC should be partially adjustable to minimize distortion. Note that in
Figure 9.19, the amplifier input resistance (Zi) constitutes part of the last resistor
in the phase shift network.

Inverting amplifier
+ VCC
V Output voltage, V0
R1 RC

Zi V0
Q1 Time, t

R2
RE CE Feedback voltage, Vf

Time, t
R  Zi C
C C
Vf R R

Phase shift network

Figure 9.19 Phase shift oscillator using an inverting BJT amplifier

and an RC feedback network.

COLPITTS OSCILLATORS

OP-AMP Colpitts Oscillator

The Colpitts oscillator circuit shown in Figure 9.20(a) is similar to the OP-AMP
phase shift oscillator, except that an LC network is used to produce the necessary
phase shift in the feedback voltage. In this case, the LC network acts as a filter
that passes the oscillating frequency and blocks all other frequencies. The filter
circuit resonates at the required oscillating frequency.
Assuming R1 >> XC1 we have the impedance (Figure 9.20(b)) of the LC circuit,
 (  jX C2 )( jX L  jX C1 )
Z
(  jX C2  jX L  jX C1 )

X C2 ( X L  X C1 )
Z  (9.48)
j ( X L  X C2  X C1 )

At parallel resonance the impedance will be maximum and we can write,

X L  X C2  X C1  0
 X L  X C1  X C2 (9.49)
 L  1 / C1  1 / C2
1 C1  C 2
 L  1 / C1  1 / C2 
 C1C2
1 1
 2 
L C1C 2 /(C1  C2 )
1

LC1C2 /(C1  C2 )
1 CC
 ; where CT  1 2 (9.50)
LCT C1  C 2
1
f  (9.51)
2 LCT

Again, the voltage gain of the LC circuit,

V2  jX C1  X C1
 X C1 
V1 jX L  jX C1 X L  X C1

Here negative sign is for 180 phase shift by the circuit. So magnitude of the
voltage gain is,

X C1

X L  X C1
X
 C1 (from Equation (9.49))
X C2
 C2

C1
For oscillation to sustain, the loop gain must be greater than unity. Therefore, the
voltage gain of the amplifier should be,
1
ACL 

R2 C1
 
R1 C 2
C1
Therefore, ACL(min) = (9.52)
C2

Output voltage, V0
Inverting R2
amplifier

R1 +VCC

Time, t
+
VEE V0
R3
Feedback voltage, Vf

L
Time, t
Vf C1 C2

Feedback network

(a) Colpitts oscillator

L
V2 C1 C2 V1

(b) LC Feedback network

Z
Figure 9.20 A Colpitts oscillator consists of an inverting amplifier and an
LC phase shifting feedback network.
 Example 9.5 Design of OP-AMP Colpitts Oscillator

Design the Colpitts oscillator in Figure 9.20 to produce a 40 kHz output

frequency. Use a 100 mH inductor and an OP-AMP with a 10 V supply.

SOLUTION From Equation (9.51),

1 1
CT    153.8 pF
4 f L 4  (40 kHz) 2  100 mH
2 2 2

For C1  10C2 , C1  10CT  10  153.8 pF  1538 pF (use 1500 pF standard value)

1 1
C2  
From Equation (9.50), (1 CT )  (1 C1 ) (1 153.8 pF)  (1 1500 pF)
 177 pF (use 180 pF standard value)
1 1
X C2    22 k
2fC 2 2  40 kHz  180 pF
X C2  Z 0 of the amplifier
1 1
X C1    2.65 k
2fC1 2  40 kHz  1500 pF
Since R1  X C1 , we select
R1  10 X C1  10  2.65 k  26.5 k (use 27 k standard value)
C 1500 pF
From Equation (9.52), ACL(min)  1   8.33
C2 180 pF
R2  ACL(min) R1  8.33  27 k  225 k (use 270 k standard value)
R3  R1 R2  27 k 270 k  24.5 k (use 27 k standard value)
The OP-AMP full-power bandwidth (fp) must be a minimum of 40 kHz when
V0  9 V and ACL  8.33.
Since f 2  ACL  f p , therefore,
f 2  8.33  40 kHz  333 kHz
and
Slew rate, SR  2f pVp  2  40 kHz  9 V  2.262 V/s
BJT Colpitts Oscillator
Inverting amplifier

VCC VCC
R1 RC R1
RFC
V0 CC
CC
C1
Q1
L1 L2 V0
C2

R2 RE CE
Q1

R2 CE
L RE

C1 C2
Figure 9.21
Colpitts oscillator using an (b) Practical circuit
Feedback network
inverting BJT amplifier and
an LC feedback network. (a) Basic circuit

EXERCISE 9.6
Design a Colpitts oscillator circuit to produce a 12 kHz, 10 V output. Use a 741
OP-AMP.

Answer 12 k, 120 k, 12 k, 0.01 F, 220 mH, 1000 pF, 12 V.

HARTLEY OSCILLATORS

OP-AMP Hartley Oscillator

The Hartley oscillator circuit is similar to the Colpitts oscillator, except that the
feedback network consists of two inductors and a capacitor instead of two
capacitors and an inductor. Figure 9.22(a) shows the Hartley oscillator circuit, and
Figure 9.22(b) illustrates the fact that L1 and L2 may be wound on a single core so
that there is mutual inductance (M) between the two windings. In this case, the
total inductance is,
LT  L1  L2  2M (9.54)

Inverting R2
amplifier
C
R1 +VCC

L1 L2
+
VEE V0
R3 (b) L1 and L2 wound on
a single core

L1 C L2
Vf
M C L2
V2 L1 V1
Feedback network M

(a) Oscillator circuit (c) LC Feedback network

Z
Figure 9.22 Hartley oscillator circuit using an OP-AMP inverting
amplifier and an LC feedback network.

Oscillation occurs at the frequency where the LC feedback circuits is at

resonance. Assuming R1>>XL1 we have the impedance of the LC circuit (Figure
9.22(c)),
( jX L2  jX M )(  jX C  jX L1  jX M )
Z
( jX L2  jX M  jX C  jX L1  jX M )

( X L2  X M )(  X C  X L1  X M )
Z  (9.55)
j ( X L2  X M  X C  X L1  X M )

At parallel resonance the impedance will be maximum and we can write,

X L2  X C  X L1  2 X M  0
  X L1  X M  X C  ( X L2  X M ) (9.56)
 L1  2M  1 / C  L2
 L1  L2  2M  1 / C
1 1
 2 
C ( L1  L2  2 M )
1

C ( L1  L2  2 M )
1
 ; where LT  L1  L2  2 M
CLT
1
f  (9.57)
2 CLT
Again, the voltage gain of the LC circuit,

V2 jX L1  jX M X L1  X M
 
V1 jX L1  jX M  jX C X L1  X M  X C
X L1  X M
   Feedback factor
X L1  X M  X C
X  XM
  L1 (From Equation (9.56))
X L2  X M
Here negative sign is for 180 phase shift by the circuit. So magnitude of the
feedback factor is,

X L1  X M

X L2  X M
L M
  1
L2  M
For oscillation to sustain, the loop gain must be greater than unity. Therefore, the
closed-loop voltage gain of the amplifier should be,

1
ACL 

R2 L2  M
 
R1 L1  M
If the inductors are wound on separate core, then mutual inductance M = 0 and we
can write,

R2 L2

R1 L1
L2
Therefore, ACL(min) = (9.58)
L1
Design procedure for a Hartley oscillator circuit is similar to that for a Colpitts
oscillator.

Example 9.6 Design of OP-AMP Hartley Oscillator

Design the Hartley oscillator in Figure 9.22(a) to produce a 100 kHz output
frequency with an amplitude of 8 V. For simplicity, assume that there is no
mutual inductance between L1 and L2.

SOLUTION VCC = (V0 + 1 V) = (8 V + 1 V) = 9 V

X L2  Z 0 of the amplifier

Select X L2  1 k
X 1 k
X L2  L2   1.59 mH (use 1.5 mH standard value)
2f 2  100 kHz

L2 1.5 mH
Select L1   150 H (standard value)
10 10
LT  L1  L2  1.5 mH  150 H  1.65 mH
From Equation (9.57),
1 1
C 
4 f LT 4  (100 kHz) 2  1.65 mH
2 2 2

 1535 pF (use 1500 pF with additional parallel capacitance, if necessary)

C  stray capacitance

X L1  2fL1  2  100 kHz  150 H  94.2 

R1  X L1
Select R1  1 k (standard value)

From Equation (9.58),

L 1.5 mH
ACL(min)  2   10
L1 150 H
R2  ACL(min) R1  10  1 k  10 k (standard value)
R3  R1 R2  1 k 10 k  909  (use 1 k standard value)
The OP-AMP full-power bandwidth (fp) must be a minimum of 100 kHz when
V0  8 V and ACL  10.
Since f 2  ACL  f p , therefore,
f 2  10  100 kHz  1 MHz
and Slew rate, SR  2f pVp  2  100 kHz  8 V  5 V/s

BJT Hartley Oscillator

Inverting amplifier

VCC
VCC
R1 RC
R1
RFC
V0 C2
CC
Q1 C1
L1
L2
L3 V0
C3
R2 RE CE

Q1

L1 C L2 C4
R2 RE CE
M
Feedback network

(a) Basic circuit (b) Practical circuit

Figure 9.23 Hartley oscillator consisting of a BJT inverting

amplifier and an LC feedback network.
 EXERCISE 9.7
A Hartley oscillator circuit using a 741 OP-AMP is to produce a 7 kHz, 10 V
output. Determine suitable component values.

Answer 12 V, 1 k, 10 k, 1 k, 2.2 mH, 22 mH, 0.02 F.

WEIN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR

At the balanced condition of the bridge, the voltage at point A will be equal to
the voltage at point B (Figure 9.24(b)). Therefore, we can write,

Z 2V0 Z 4V0
 
Z1  Z 2 Z 3  Z 4

Z2 Z4
 
Z1  Z 2 Z 3  Z 4
( R2 )(1 / jC2 ) /( R2  1 / jC2 ) R4
 
( R1  1 / jC1 )  ( R2 )(1 / jC2 ) /( R2  1 / jC 2 ) R3  R4
( R2 )(1 / jC 2 ) R4
 
( R1  1 / jC1 )( R2  1 / jC 2 )  ( R2 )(1 / jC2 ) R3  R4
jR2C1 R4
 
(1  jR1C1 )(1  jR2C 2 )  jR2C1 R3  R4
jR2C1 R4
 
(1  jR1C1 )(1  jR2C 2 )  jR2C1 R3  R4
jR2C1 R4
 2

(1  jR1C1  jR2C 2   R1C1 R2C2 )  jR2C1 R3  R4

jR2C1 R4
 2
 (9.59)
(1   R1C1 R2C2 )  j ( R1C1  R2C2  R2C1 ) R3  R4

Since, the right hand side of Equation (9.59) is a real term, the left hand side must
also be a real term. So, we can write,
1   2 R1C1 R2C2  0
 1
  (9.60)
R1C1 R2C2

VA  VB
Output voltage, V0
Feedback Noninverting amplifier
network

C1

R1 +VCC
+
Vf

Feedback voltage, Vf
VEE R3 V0
C2 R2
R4
Time, t

(a) Wein bridge oscillator circuit with voltage waveshapes.

+VCC
+
V0

VEE
C1
R1 R3

A
R2 B

C2 R4

Wein bridge

(b) An alternative form of circuit shown in (a) indicating the formation of Wein bridge.
oscillator circuit with voltage waveshapes.
Figure 9.24 The Wein bridge oscillator circuit uses an OP-AMP and a
Wein bridge which balances at a particular frequency.
From Equation (9.59) we have,

R2C1 R4
 
( R1C1  R2C2  R2C1 ) R3  R4
R2C1 R
  4
R1C1  R2C2 R3
R3 R1C1  R2C2 R1 C2
    (9.61)
R4 R2C1 R2 C1

The OP-AMP along with the two resistors R3 and R4 constitutes a noninverting
amplifier who’s closed-loop voltage gain is,
R
ACL  1  3
R4
Using the value of R3 R4 obtained in Equation (9.61) we have,
R C
ACL  1  1  2
R2 C1
This corresponds that the attenuation of the feedback network is,

 R1 C 2 
  1 1   
 R2 C1 
 R C 
Therefore, ACL must be equal to or greater than 1  1  2  to sustain
 R 2 C1 
oscillation. Mathematically,

 R C 
ACL  1  1  2  (9.62)
 R2 C1 
R  R C 
 1  3  1  1  2 
R 4  R2 C1 
R3 R1 C 2
  
R4 R2 C1
For R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C we have,
 R3
2
R4
 R3  2R4
Also from Equation (9.62) we have,
ACL  3
From Equation (9.60) we have,
1

RC
1
 f  (9.63)
2RC

Sometimes it is preferable to have an amplifier voltage gain substantially

greater than 3, then the relationship between the component values is determined
by Equations (9.60) and (9.61).

Example 9.7 Design of Wein Bridge Oscillator

Design the Wein bridge oscillator in Figure 9.24(a) to produce a 100 kHz output
frequency with an amplitude of 9 V. Design the amplifier to have a closed-loop
gain of 3.

SOLUTION VCC = (V0 + 1 V) = (9 V + 1 V) = 10 V

For ACL = 3, R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C

Also, R3 =2R4
Select, C1 = 1000 pF (standard value)
C2 = C1 = 1000 pF

1 1
From Equation (9.63), R  
2fC 2  100 kHz  1000 pF
 1.59 k (use 1.5 k standard value)
Select, R4  R2  1.5 k (standard value)
R3  R4  2  1.5 k  3 k (use 3.3 k standard value)

The OP-AMP full-power bandwidth (fp) must be a minimum of 100 kHz when
V0  9 V and ACL  3.
 Since f 2  ACL  f p , therefore,
f 2  3  100 kHz  300 kHz
and
Slew rate, SR  2f pVp  2  100 kHz  9 V  5.7 V/s

EXERCISE 9.8
A Wein bridge oscillator using an OP-AMP is to produce a 15 kHz, 14 V output.
Design the circuit with the amplifier having ACL = 11.

Answer 10 k, 2.2 k, 27 k, 2.2 k, 1000 pF, 5000 pF.

X Reactance
(inductive)

L p
0
C/ s 
R

C Reactance
Z (capacitive)

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 9.25 A piezoelectric crystal: (a) Symbol, (b) electrical model, and
(c) the reactance function (if R = 0).

CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS

The electrical equivalent circuit of a crystal is indicated in Figure 9.25. The

inductor L, capacitor C, and resistor R are the analogs of the mass, the compliance
(the reciprocal of the spring constant), and the viscous-damping factor of the
mechanical system. The typical values for a 90-kHz crystal are L = 137 H, C =
0.0235 pF, and R = 15 k, corresponding to Q = 5,500. The dimensions of such a
crystal are 30 by 4 by 1.5 mm. Since C / represents the electrostatic capacitance
between electrodes with the crystal as a dielectric, its magnitude (~3.5 pF) is very
much larger than C.
If we neglect the resistance R, the impedance of the crystal (Z in Figure
9.25(b)) is given by,
 Z  Z1 Z 2
Z1 Z 2
 
Z1  Z 2

(  j 1 C / )( jL  j 1 C )
 
jL  j 1 C  j 1 C /

j L(  1 LC )
 
C L(  1 LC  1 LC / )
/

j  2  1 LC
 
C /  2  1 (1 C  1 C / )
L

j  2  s2
  (9.64)
C /  2   p2
1 11 1 
Where s  = series resonant frequency and  p    /  = parallel
LC L C C 
resonant frequency. Equation (9.64) can be written, in terms of reactance, as

j  2  s2
Z  jX   (9.65)
C /  2   p2
Therefore, reactance of the crystal is

1  2  s2
X  (9.66)
C /  2   p2
The plot of Equation (9.66) is shown in Figure 9.25(c). Since C / >> C, p  s .
For the crystal whose parameters are specified above, the parallel frequency is
only three-tenths of 1 percent higher than the series frequency. For
s     p , the reactance is inductive, and outside this range it is capacitive, as
indicated in Figure 9.25(c). In order to use the crystal properly it must be
connected in a circuit so that its low impedance in the series resonant operating
mode or high impedance in the parallel resonant operating mode is selected.
 VCC VCC

RFC RFC
R1
XTAL CC
V0 V0
XTAL CC
Q1
Figure 9.26
Crystal-controlled
oscillator using crystal R2 RE RG
CE
in series feedback path:
(a) BJT circuit, and (b)
FET circuit. (a) (b)

Series Resonant Circuits

To excite a crystal for operation in the series resonant mode it may be connected
as a series element in a feedback path. At the series resonant frequency of the
crystal its impedance is smallest and the amount of (positive) feedback is largest.
A typical transistor circuit is shown in Figure 9.26. Resistors R1, R2, and RE
provide a voltage divider stabilized dc bias circuit. Capacitor CE provides ac
bypass of the emitter resistor and the RFC coil provides for dc bias while
decoupling any ac signal on the power lines from affecting the output signal. The
voltage feedback from collector to base is a maximum when the crystal (XTAL)
impedance is minimum (in series resonant mode). The coupling capacitor CC has
negligible impedance at the circuit operating frequency but blocks ant dc between
collector and base.
The resulting circuit frequency of oscillation is set by the series resonant
frequency of the crystal. Changes in supply voltage, transistor device parameters,
and so on, have no effect on the circuit operating frequency which is held
stabilized by the crystal. The circuit frequency stability is set by the crystal
frequency stability, which is good.
 VCC VCC

V0
RFC L C
R1

V0
Q1
C1 RG
Figure 9.27 XTAL
Crystal-controlled CB RS
C2 XTAL RFC CS
oscillators in parallel R2 RE
resonant operating
mode: (a) BJT circuit,
and (b) FET circuit. (a) (b)

Parallel Resonant Circuits

Since the parallel resonant impedance of a crystal is a maximum value, it is

connected in parallel/shunt. At the parallel resonant operating frequency a crystal
appears as an inductive reactance of largest value. Figure 9.27(a) shows a crystal
connected as the inductor connected in a modified Colpitts circuit. The basic dc
bias circuit should be evident A Miller crystal-controlled oscillator circuit is
shown in Figure 9.27(b). A tuned LC circuit in the drain section is adjusted near
the crystal parallel resonant frequency. The maximum gate-source signal occurs at
the crystal parallel resonant frequency controlling the circuit operating frequency.

OP-AMP Crystal Oscillator

Rf
V0
100 k

R1 +VCC VZ

1 k V0 0 t
+
VEE VZ

100 k XTAL 0.1 F

Figure 9.28 Crystal oscillator using OP-AMP.