SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

For
Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering
By
Dr. N. Balaji
Professor of ECE
JNTUK
Kakinada
Session: 1
Topic : Introduction and Basics of Signals and Systems
Date : 11.05.2020

By
Dr. N. Balaji
Professor of ECE
JNTUK
Kakinada
 Syllabus
• Continuous-time signals: Fourier series and Fourier transform representations,
sampling theorem and applications; Discrete-time signals: discrete-time Fourier
transform (DTFT), DFT, FFT, Z-transform, interpolation of discrete-time signals;

• LTI systems: definition and properties, causality, stability, impulse response,

convolution, poles and zeros, parallel and cascade structure, frequency response,
group delay, phase delay, digital filter design techniques.

3
 Outline of the Session

• Introduction to Signals
• Classification of Signals
• Classification of Systems
• Signal operations
• GATE previous questions

4
 Analysis of weightage given In GATE Papers (Signals & Systems)
Analysis of weightage given In GATE Papers (Signals & Systems)

Year ECE
2020 10
2019 12
2018 9
2017 11
Over All average Marks 10.50

5
 Introduction to Signals
• A Signal is a function of one or more independent variables that conveys
information to represent a physical phenomenon.
• For a function in the expression , each of the is called an
independent variable, while the function value itself is referred to as a dependent
variable.
• Some examples of signals include:
 A voltage or current in an electronic circuit
 the position, velocity, or acceleration of an object
 a force or torque in a mechanical system
 a flow rate of a liquid or gas in a chemical process
 a digital image, digital video, or digital audio
6 Acknowledgement : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams
 Classification of Signals
• Number of independent variables (i.e., dimensionality):
• A signal with one independent variable is said to be one dimensional (e.g., audio).
• A signal with more than one independent variable is said to be multi-dimensional (e.g.,
image).
• Continuous or discrete independent variables:
• A signal with continuous independent variables is said to be continuous time (CT)
(e.g., voltage waveform).
• A signal with discrete independent variables is said to be discrete time (DT) (e.g., stock
market index).
• Continuous or discrete dependent variable:
• A signal with a continuous dependent variable is said to be continuous valued (e.g.,
voltage waveform).
• A signal with a discrete dependent variable is said to be discrete valued (e.g., digital
image).
• A continuous-valued CT signal is said to be analog (e.g., voltage waveform).
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• A discrete-valued DT signal is said to be digital (e.g., digital audio).
Acknowledgement : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams
 Graphical Representation of Signals

8 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 System
• A system is an entity that processes one or more input signals in order to
produce one or more output signals.

9 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Classification of Systems
• Number of Inputs
• A system with one input is said to be single input (SI)
• A system with more than one input is said to be multiple input (MI)
• Number of Outputs
• A system with one output is said to be single output (SO)
• A system with more than one input is said to be multiple output (MO)
• Types of signals processed:
• A system can be classified in terms of the type of signals that it processes.
• Consequently, terms such as the following (which describe signals) can also be used to describe
systems:
• One-dimensional and multi-dimensional
• Continuous-time (CT) and discrete-time (DT)
• Analog and digital
• For example, a continuous-time (CT) system processes CT signals and a discrete-time(DT)
system processes DT signals
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• Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams
 Signal Processing Systems

11 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Communication Systems

12 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Different operations on Signal
• Time shifting
• Amplitude shifting
• Amplitude Scaling
• Time scaling
• Time reversal
• Amplitude reversal

13 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Time Shifting(Translation)
 Time shifting is, the shifting of a signal in time.
 This is done by adding or subtracting the amount of the shift to
the time variable in the function.
 When t ≥0,
i. Subtracting a fixed amount from the time variable will shift the signal to the
right (delay) that amount
ii. while adding to the time variable will shift the signal to the left (advance).

14 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams and Prof. Paul Cuff

 Time Shifting

15 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams and Prof. Paul Cuff

 Time Shifting(Translation)
• Time Shifting:

𝑥(𝑡) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑘)

16 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Left shift and Right Shift
• Case (i): when • Case (ii): when

𝑥(𝑡) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡 + 2) 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡 − 2)

It is the case of right shifting

It is the case of left shifting

17 Acknowledgement : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Amplitude Shifting
 Amplitude shifting maps the input signal to the output signal as given by
, where is a real number.
 Geometrically, amplitude shifting adds a vertical displacement to

18 Acknowledgement : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Amplitude Shifting
• Case (i): when • Case (ii): when
𝑥(𝑡) 𝑦 𝑡 = −1 + 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑦 𝑡 = 1 + 𝑥(𝑡)
𝑥(𝑡) 𝑦 𝑡 =𝑥 𝑡 +𝑘
−1 + 0 𝑡<0 1+0 𝑡<0
𝑦 𝑡 = −1 + 1 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2 𝑦 𝑡 = 1+1 0≤𝑡 ≤2
−1 + 0 𝑡>2 1+0 𝑡>2

−1 𝑡<0 1 𝑡<0
= 0 0≤𝑡≤2 = 2 0≤𝑡≤2
−1 𝑡>2 1 𝑡>2

0 𝑡<0
𝑥 𝑡 =
1 0<𝑡<2

Its case of downward shifting Its case of upward shifting

19 Acknowledgement : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Amplitude Scaling

20 Acknowledgement : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Time Scaling
• Time scaling maps the input signal x to the output signal as given by by
, where is a nonzero real number.
• Such a transformation is associated with a dilation (i.e., compression/expansion
along the time axis) and/or time reversal.
• If |a| > 1, the signal is compressed along the time axis by a factor of |a|.
• If |a| < 1, the signal is expanded (i.e., stretched) along the time axis by a factor of

21 Acknowledgement : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Time Scaling
• If =1, the signal is neither expanded nor compressed.
• If , the signal is also reversed.
• Dilation (i.e., expansion/compression) and time reversal commute.
• Time reversal is a special case of time scaling with and time compression/
expansion is a special case of time scaling with

22 Acknowledgement : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Time Scaling

If |a| > 1, the signal is compressed along the time axis by a factor of |a|

If |a| < 1, the signal is expanded (i.e., stretched) along the time axis by a factor of
23 Acknowledgement : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams
 Time Scaling
Consider an example y(t) = x(10t)
For t=0, y(0) = x(0), t=1, y(1) = x(10), t=2,
y(2) = x(20) …
…t=5, y(5) = x(50)
so, by the time y(t) goes to 5, x(t) takes
values at t=50

24 Acknowledgement : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Time Scaling
𝑥(𝑡) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑎𝑡)

• Case (i): when • Case (ii): when

𝑥(𝑡) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(2𝑡) 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(0.5𝑡)

Time compression Time Expansion

25 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Time Scaling
Note: General rule
𝑥(4𝑡)
𝑥(𝑡) t

If 𝑥(𝑡) (𝑥(−3𝑡)
−3 ≤ −3𝑡 ≤ 6
−3 6
≥𝑡≥
−3 −3
1 ≥ 𝑡 ≥ −2

26 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Time Reversal

• If , the signal is also reversed.

• Dilation (i.e., expansion/compression) and time reversal
commute.
• Time reversal is a special case of time scaling with
and time compression/ expansion is a special case of time
scaling with

27 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Time Reversal
• Time reversal is a special case of time scaling in which signal folding will take place
around y axis

𝑥(𝑡) 𝑥(−𝑡)

−1 ≤ −𝑡 ≤2
1 ≥ 𝑡 ≥ −2

28 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Amplitude Reversal
• In this case, signal folding will take place about x-axis.

29 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Question1

30 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

Acknowledgement: OCW MIT Resource: Signals and Systems Professor Alan V. Oppenheim
 Solution1

31 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams Acknowledgement: OCW MIT Resource: Signals and Systems Professor Alan V. Oppenheim
 Solution1 Contd…

32 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams Acknowledgement: OCW MIT Resource: Signals and Systems Professor Alan V. Oppenheim
 Classification of Signals- Even Signals
• A continuous function is said to be even if it satisfies
• for all
• A discrete function is said to be even if it satisfies
• for all n
• Geometrically, the graph of an even signal is symmetric about the origin.
• A few examples of even signals are shown below.

33 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Classification of Signals- Even Signals
• Even signals: These are symmetrical (or) mirror image about y-axis.

i.e.

Eg:-

𝑖𝑣 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔 𝑡
𝑡 → −𝑡
𝑥 −𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔 (−𝑡)= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔 𝑡=x(t)

34 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Classification of Signals- Odd Signals
• A function is said to be odd if it satisfies
• for all
• A function is said to be odd if it satisfies
• for all n
• Geometrically, the graph of an odd signal is antisymmetric about the origin.
• An odd signal must be such that
• A few examples of odd signals are shown below.

35 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Classification of Signals- Odd Signals
• Odd signals: These are symmetrical (or) mirror image about y-axis.

i.e. or

Eg:-

36 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Classification of Signals- Odd Signals

• Hence it is odd signal

• Note: The average value of an odd signal is 0, but converse of this statement is
not true.

37 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Even and Odd Parts of a Signal
• Any signal can be written as a combination of an even and an odd signals
• Even and Odd components

1 1
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 + 𝑓(−𝑡) + 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑓(−𝑡)
2 2

𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 + 𝑓(−𝑡) even component

𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑓(−𝑡) odd component

𝑓 𝑡 =𝑓 𝑡 +𝑓 𝑡

38 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Even and Odd Parts of a Signal
• Any signal can be divided into two parts

( )
=

( )
=

39 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Important properties of Even and Odd functions
• Even function odd function = odd function
• Odd function odd function = even function
• Even function function = even function
• Area

40 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Important Properties of Even and Odd Functions

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 Example Problems- Even and Odd Signals

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 Example Problems- Even and Odd Signals

43 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Question2

44
Acknowledgement: OCW MIT Resource: Signals and Systems Professor Alan V. Oppenheim
 Solution2

45
Acknowledgement: OCW MIT Resource: Signals and Systems Professor Alan V. Oppenheim
 Example Problems- Even and Odd Signals

46 Acknowledgement : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Periodic Signals

47 Acknowledgement : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Example of Periodic Signals

48 Acknowledgement : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Periodic and Non-Periodic Signals
Periodic Signal : A signal is said to be periodic if it repeats a
definite pattern of variation after a constant length of time
called the time period T0

where n is an integer

Fundamental Time Period (FTP): It is the smallest positive and fixed

value of the time for which signal is periodic
49
 Find the Fundamental Time period of the Signal

50
 Calculation of Fundamental Time period of the Signals

51
 Calculation of Fundamental Time period of the Signals

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 Calculation of Fundamental Time period of the Signals

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 Calculation of Fundamental Time period of the Signals

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 Calculation of Fundamental Time period of the Signals

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 Sum of Periodic Functions

56 Acknowledgement : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Calculation of FTP of sum of two or more signals

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 Example problems on Fundamental Time Period

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 Example problems on FTP

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 Example problems on FTP

60 Acknowledgement : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Signal Energy and Power

61 Acknowledgement : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Energy and Power of signals

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 Find the Energy and Power of the given signal x(t) = e-2t u(t)

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 Find the Energy of a given signal

64 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Find the Energy of a given signal

65 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Find the energy of a given signal

66 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Find the Energy of a given signal

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Important points to remember Related to Energy of a give Signal
If a signal x(t) has Energy E, then for the signal x(2t) the Energy reduces by a factor of 2

68 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Important Note to remember Related to Energy of a give Signal

69 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Finding the Power of a given Signal

70 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Find the Power of a given Pulse Signal

71 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Find the power of a given triangular waveform

72 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Find the power of a sinusoidal signal

73 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Previous GATE Questions and Answers
GATE 2013

74 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Previous GATE Questions and Answers

75 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 GATE 2005

76 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams

 Solution

77 Acknowledgemet : Lecture slides of Michael D. Adams