2141-375

Measurement and Instrumentation

Analog Electrical Devices and

Measurements
Analog Devices: Current Measurements

Force on a conductor
I A conductor is placed in a uniform magnetic field B T,
at an angle of θ. The current flow in the conductor is I
A. Force exerted on the conductor can be calculated
from

r r r
F = IL × B
F = ILB sinθ
θ B
F
 Analog Devices: Current Measurements

Force on a conductor
With no current flowing through the conductor,
the spring will be at its unstretched length. As
current flows through the conductor, the spring
will stretch and developed force required to
balance the electromagnetic force.

Fs = kx kx = ILB
I I
k = spring constant, x = the total distance
B moved by the spring and θ is 90o

k
F = IBL I= x
BL
D’Arsonval or PMMC Instrument

Important parts of PMMC Instrument

•Permanent magnet with two soft-

iron poles
• Moving coil
• Controlling or restoring spring

PMMC = Permanent Magnet Moving Coil

 Torque Equation and Scale
When a current I flows through a one-turn coil in a magnetic field , a
force exerted on each side of the coil

F = IBL
F = IBL F = IBL
D L = the length of coil perpendicular to the
paper

Since the force acts on each side of the coil, the total force for a coil of
N turns is
F = NIBL
The force on each side acts at a coil diameter D, producing a deflecting
torque
TD = NIBLD
Torque Equation and Scale
The controlling torque exerted by the spiral springs is proportional to
the angle of deflection of the pointer:

TC = Kθ
Where K = the spring constant. For a given deflection, the controlling
and deflecting torques are equal

BLIND = Kθ
Since all quantities except θ and I are constant for any given
instrument, the deflection angle is

θ = CI
Therefore the pointer deflection is always proportional to the coil
current. Consequently, the scale of the instrument is linear.
Galvanometer

• Galvanometer is essentially a PMMC instrument designed to be

sensitive to extremely current levels.

• The simplest galvanometer is a very sensitive instrument with the type

of center-zero scale, therefore the pointer can be deflected to either right
or left of the zero position.

• The current sensitivity is stated in µA/mm

• Galvanometers are often used to detect zero current or voltage in a

circuit rather than to measure the actual level of current or voltage. In
this situation, the instrument is referred as a null detector.
 DC Ammeter
• An ammeter is always connected in
series with a circuit.
PMMC
instrument • The internal resistance should be very
low

Ammeter • The pointer can be deflected by a very

shunt
small current

• Extension of ranges of ammeter can be

Rs achieved by connecting a very low shunt
resistor
Coil Rm
resistance Vm = Vs I m Rm = I s Rs
Im
Vm
I = Is + Im Is I I m Rm I m Rm
Rs = Rs =
Rs
Shunt Is I − Im
resistance
DC Ammeter
Example: An ammeter has a PMMC instrument with a coil resistance of Rm = 99 Ω and FSD
current of 0.1 mA. Shunt resistance Rs = 1 Ω. Determine the total current passing through the
ammeter at (a) FSD, (b) 0.5 FSD, and (c) 0.25 FSD.

Known: FSD of Im Rm and Rs

Solution:

FSD 0.5FSD 0.25FSD

Im (mA) 0.1 0.05 0.025
Is (mA) 9.9 4.95 2.475
I = Im + Is (mA) 10 5 2.5
DC Ammeter
Example: A PMMC instrument has FSD of 100 µA and a coil resistance of 1kΩ. Calculate the
required shunt resistance value to convert the instrument into an ammeter with (a) FSD = 100 mA
and (b) FSD = 1 A.

Known: FSD of Im Rm

Solution:
(a) FSD = 100 mA: Rs = 1.001 Ω

(b) FSD = 1 A: Rs = 0.10001 Ω

DC Ammeter: Multirange
Rm

B
C
Rs1
D
Rs2

Rs3 E
C B
A
Rs4 D

E A Make-before break switch

Multirange ammeter using switch shunts

• A make-before-break must be used so that instrument is not left without a

shunt in parallel to prevent a large current flow through ammeter.
DC Ammeter: Ayrton shunt
Rm

Im
VS
Im
I
R1 R2 R3
+ B

I Is C
Is -
A An Ayrton shunt used with an
D ammeter consists of several series-
connected resistors all connected in
R1 + R2 + R3 in parallel with Rm parallel with the PMMC instrument.
Rm Range change is effected by switch
between resistor junctions
Im
VS
Im
R1 R2 R3
+ B
I
C A
I Is Is -
D

R1 + R2 in parallel with Rm + R3
 DC Ammeter
Example: A PMMC instrument has a three-resistor Ayrton shunt connected across it to make an
ammeter. The resistance values are R1 = 0.05 Ω, R2 = 0.45 Ω, and R3 = 4.5 Ω . The meter has Rm =
1 kΩ and FSD = 50 µA. Calculate the three ranges of the ammeter.

Known: FSD of Im Rm R1 R2 and R3

Solution:
Rm

Im Position B C D
VS
Im
R1 R2 R3 IFSD (mA) 10.05 100.05 1000.05
+ B
I
C A
I Is Is -
D
 DC Voltmeter
• An ammeter is always connected across
or parallel with the points in a circuit at
which the voltage is to be measured.
PMMC • The internal resistance should be very
instrument high
V
V = I m Rs + I m Rm Rs = − Rm
Im
Series resistance
or “multiplier” Given V = Range
Range
V Rs = − Rm
Im
Multiplier Coil
resistance
The reciprocal of full scale current is the
resistance
Rs Rm
Ω/V)
voltmeter sensitivity (kΩ

Im The total voltmeter resistance =

V
Sensitivity X Range
DC Voltmeter: Multirange
Multiplier
resistors
• Multirange voltmeter using switched
R1
Meter
multiplier resistors
resistance R2

R3
V = I m (Rm + R)
Rm

Where R can be R1, R2, or R3

• Multirange voltmeter using series-

Rm R1 R2 R3 connected multiplier resistor

V = I m (Rm + R)

Where R can be R1, R1 + R2, or R1 + R2 + R3

V
DC Ammeter
Example: A PMMC instrument with FSD of 50 µA and a coil resistance of 1700 Ω is to be used as
a voltmeter with ranges of 10 V, 50 V, and 100 V. Calculate the required values of multiplier
resistor for the circuit (a) and (b)

Known: FSD of Im Rm

Solution:
Multiplier
resistors
R1
Meter Rm R1 R2 R3
resistance R2

R3
Rm

V V

(a) (b)

R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3
Ω
198.3 kΩ Ω
998.3 kΩ Ω
1.9983 MΩ Ω
198.3 kΩ Ω
800 kΩ Ω
1 MΩ
 Ohmmeter: Voltmeter-ammeter method
Pro and con:
•Simple and theoretical oriented
•Requires two meter and calculations
•Subject to error: Voltage drop in ammeter (Fig. (a))
Current in voltmeter (Fig. (b))
I
+ VA -
A A
+ + + + IV Ix
I
VS V V Rx Vx VS V V Rx

- - - - -

Fig. (b)
Fig. (a)
V V Rx
V V + VA V Measured Rx: Rmeas = = =
Measured Rx: Rmeas = = x = Rx + A I I x + IV 1 + IV / I x
I I I
if Vx>>VA Rmeas ≈ Rx if Ix>>IV Rmeas ≈ Rx

Therefore this circuit is suitable for measure Therefore this circuit is suitable for measure
large resistance small resistance
 Ohmmeter: Series Connection
•Voltmeter-ammeter method is rarely used in practical applications
(mostly used in Laboratory)
•Ohmmeter uses only one meter by keeping one parameter constant
Example: series ohmmeter
Resistance to
be measured Nonlinear scale
Standard
resistance
15k
Rx k 5k
45 50
R1
Battery
Meter Infinity 25 75
Rm
VS resistance

0
10
0
Vs

0µ
Rx = − R1 − Rm Meter

A
I

Basic series ohmmeter Ohmmeter scale

Basic series ohmmeter consisting of a PMMC and a series-connected standard resistor (R1). When
the ohmmeter terminals are shorted (Rx = 0) meter full scale defection occurs. At half scale defection
Rx = R1 + Rm, and at zero defection the terminals are open-circuited.
Loading Effect: Voltage Measurement
a Rth a

Linear
Circuit
Vab V Rm Vth Vab V Rm

b b
Undisturbed condition: Rm = ∞ Vab = Vu = Vth
Rm
Measured condition: Rm ≠ ∞ Vab = Vm = Vth
Rm + Rth
1
General equation: Vm = Vu
1 + Rth / Rm

Vm − Vu
Measurement error: error = × 100
Vu
Rth 1
=− ×100% = − ×100%
Rm + Rth 1 + Rm / Rth

Therefore, in practice, to get the acceptable results, we must have Rm ≥ 10 Rth (error ~ 9%)
Loading Effect

R1 Ω
100kΩ
5V 6.7 V
Ω
100kΩ
10 V 10 V
R2 Ω
100kΩ
5V 3.3 V V Ω
100kΩ
Ω
100kΩ

100 // 100
Vmeas = 10 V = 3.3 V
100 + 100 // 100

Circuit before measurement Circuit under measurement

Ω Ω
100kΩ
100kΩ 6V 5.2 V

10 V 10 V
Ω
100kΩ
Ω
100kΩ 4V V Ω
200kΩ 4.8 V V Ω
1000kΩ

200 // 100 1000 // 100

Vmeas = 10 V = 4.0 V Vmeas = 10 V = 4.8 V
100 + 200 // 100 100 + 1000 // 100
 Loading Effect
Example Find the voltage reading and % error of each reading obtained with a voltmeter
on (i) 5 V range, (ii) 10 V range and (iii) 30 V range, if the instrument has a 20 kΩ/V
sensitivity, an accuracy 1% of full scale deflection and the meter is connected across Rb

SOLUTION The voltage drop across Rb without the voltmeter connection

Rb 5k
Vb = V= × 50 = 5 V
Ra + Rb 45 k + 5 k
On the 5 V range
Ra 45 V
Ω
45kΩ Rm = S × range = 20kΩ / V × 5V = 100 kΩ
50 V Rm Rb 100 k × 5 k
Req = = = 4.76 kΩ
Rb 5V Rm + Rb 100 k + 5 k
Ω
5kΩ
The voltmeter reading is
Req 4.76 k
Vb = V= 50 = 4.782 V
Ra + Req 45 k + 4.76 k
Loading Effect

Error of the measurement is the combination of the loading effect and the meter error

The loading error = 4.782 - 5 = -0. 218 V

The meter error = ± 5 x 1 = ± 0.05 V

100
∴% of error on the 5 V range:
− 0.218 V ± 0.05 V
= ×100 = ±5.36%
5V

Range Vb . Loading Meter Total % error

(V) (V) error (V) error (V) error (V)
5 4.78 -0.22 ± 0.05 ± 0.27 ± 5.36
10 4.88 -0.12 ± 0.1 ± 0.22 ± 4.40
30 4.95 -0.05 ± 0.3 ± 0.35 ± 6.10
 Loading Effect: Current Measurement
a Rth a
I I

Linear
Circuit
Vab A Rm Vth Vab A Rm

b b
Undisturbed condition: Rm = 0 I = I u = Vth / Rth

Measured condition: Rm ≠ 0 I = I m = Vth / (Rth + Rm )

General equation: I m = I u / (1 + Rm / Rth )

I m − Iu
Measurement error: error = ×100
Iu
Rm 1
=− ×100% = − × 100%
Rm + Rth 1 + Rth / Rm

Therefore, in practice, to get the acceptable results, we must have Rm ≤ Rth /10 (error ~ 9%)
AC Voltmeter: PMMC Based
Waveform Amplitude Average RMS

A
A 0
2
A A
A
π 2
2A A
A
π 2

A A
0
3

A 0 A

D D
A A A
D +W D +W
D W
AC Voltmeter: PMMC Based
• Basic PMMC instrument is polarized, therefore its terminals must be
identified as + and -.
• PMMC instrument can not response quite well with the frequency 50 Hz or
higher, So the pointer will settle at the average value of the current flowing
through the moving coil: average-responding meter.
•Using 4 diodes
Full-wave Rectifier Voltmeter
•On positive cycle, D1 and D4
Multiplier are forward-biased, while D2
resistors Rm
Rs D1 D3 and D3 are reverse-biased
Vp
Vrms
Vav •On negative cycle, D2 and D3
are forward-biased, while D1
and D4 are reverse-biased
D2 D4
•The scale is calibrated for
pure sine with the scale factor
•Actually voltage to be indicated in ac √2 / 2A/π
of 1.11 (A/√ π)
measurements is normally the rms quantity
AC Voltmeter: PMMC Based
Example: A PMMC instrument has FSD of 100 µA and a coil resistance of 1kΩ is to be employed
as an ac voltmeter with FSD = 100 V (rms). Silicon diodes are used in the full-bridge rectifier circuit
(a) calculate the multiplier resistance value required, (b) the position of the pointer when the rms
input is 75 V and (c) the sensitivity of the voltmeter
Known: FSD of Im Rm

Solution:

Multiplier
resistors Rm
Rs D1 D3
Vp
Vrms
Vav

D2 D4
(a) Rs = 890.7 kΩ
(b) 0.75 of FSD
(c) 9 kΩ/V
AC Voltmeter: PMMC Based
Half-wave Rectifier Voltmeter
Rs

D1
Vp
Rm
Vrms
D2 RSH Vav

•On positive cycle, D1 is forward-biased, while D2 is reverse-biased

•On negative cycle, D2 is forward-biased, while D1 is reverse-biased

•The shunt resistor RSH is connected to be able to measure the relative large
current.

√2 / A/π
•The scale is calibrated for pure sine with the scale factor of 2.22 (A/√ π)
AC Voltmeter: PMMC Based
Example: A PMMC instrument has FSD of 50 µA and a coil resistance of 1700 Ω is used in the
half-wave rectifier voltmeter. The silicon diode (D1) must have a minimum (peak) forward current
of 100 µA. When the measured voltage is 20% of FSD. The voltmeter is to indicate 50 Vrms at full
scale Calculate the values of RS and RSH.
Known: FSD of Im Rm

Solution: RS = 139.5 kΩ RSH = 778 Ω

Rs

D1
Vp
Rm
Vrms
D2 RSH Vav
 AC Voltmeter: PMMC Based
Example The symmetrical square-wave voltage is applied to an average-responding ac
voltmeter with a scale calibrated in terms of the rms value of a sine wave. If the
voltmeter is the full-wave rectified configuration. Calculate the error in the meter
indication. Neglect all voltage drop in all diodes.
E
Solution 11%
Em

T
Bridge Circuit
Bridge Circuit is a null method, operates on the principle of
comparison. That is a known (standard) value is adjusted until it is
equal to the unknown value.

Bridge Circuit

DC Bridge AC Bridge
(Resistance)
Inductance Capacitance Frequency

Wheatstone Bridge Maxwell Bridge Schering Bridge Wien Bridge

Kelvin Bridge Hay Bridge
Megaohm Bridge Owen Bridge
Etc.
 Wheatstone Bridge and Balance Condition

The standard resistor R3 can be adjusted to null or balance the circuit.

A Balance condition:
No potential difference across the
R1 R2 galvanometer (there is no current through
the galvanometer)
I1 I2
Under this condition: VAD = VAB
V D B
I3 I4 I1R1 = I 2 R2
And also VDC = VBC
R3 R4
I3 R3 = I 4 R4
where I1, I2, I3, and I4 are current in resistance
arms respectively, since I1 = I3 and I2 = I4
C R1 R2 R2
= or Rx = R4 = R3
R3 R4 R1
Example
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω 1Ω

12 V 12 V

1Ω 1Ω 2Ω 2Ω

(a) Equal resistance (b) Proportional resistance

1Ω 10 Ω 1Ω 10 Ω

12 V 12 V

2Ω 20 Ω 2Ω 10 Ω

(c) Proportional resistance (d) 2-Volt unbalance

 Sensitivity of Galvanometer
A galvanometer is use to detect an unbalance condition in
Wheatstone bridge. Its sensitivity is governed by: Current sensitivity
(currents per unit defection) and internal resistance.

consider a bridge circuit under a small unbalance condition, and apply circuit
analysis to solve the current through galvanometer

Thévenin Equivalent Circuit

Thévenin Voltage (VTH)
A VCD = VAC − VAD = I1 R1 − I 2 R2
I1 I2
V V
R1 R2 where I1 = and I 2 =
VS R1 + R3 R2 + R4
C G D
R3 R4 Therefore  R1 R2 
VTH = VCD = V  − 
R
 1 + R3 R2 + R4 

B
Sensitivity of Galvanometer (continued)

Thévenin Resistance (RTH)

R1 A R2

C D
RTH = R1 // R3 + R2 // R4
R3 R4

Completed Circuit
RTH
C
VTH
Ig= VTH
RTH+Rg Ig =
VTH G RTH + Rg
D

where Ig = the galvanometer current

Rg = the galvanometer resistance
Example 1 Figure below show the schematic diagram of a Wheatstone bridge with values of
the bridge elements. The battery voltage is 5 V and its internal resistance negligible. The
galvanometer has a current sensitivity of 10 mm/µA and an internal resistance of 100 Ω.
Calculate the deflection of the galvanometer caused by the 5-Ω unbalance in arm BC

SOLUTION The bridge circuit is in the small unbalance condition since the value of
resistance in arm BC is 2,005 Ω.
A Thévenin Voltage (VTH)
100 Ω 1000 Ω
 100 1000 
R1 R2
VTH = V AD − VAC = 5 V ×  − 
5V D G C  100 + 200 1000 + 2005 
R3 R4
≈ 2.77 mV
200 Ω 2005 Ω

(a)
Thévenin Resistance (RTH)
100 Ω A 1000 Ω
RTH = 100 // 200 + 1000 // 2005 = 734 Ω
C D
200 Ω 2005 Ω The galvanometer current
B
VTH 2.77 mV
(b) Ig = = = 3.32 µ A
RTH= 734 Ω C RTH + Rg 734 Ω + 100 Ω
Ig=3.34 µA
VTH
2.77 mV G Rg= 100 Ω Galvanometer deflection
D
10 mm
d = 3.32 µ A × = 33.2 mm
(c) µA
Example 2 The galvanometer in the previous example is replaced by one with an internal
resistance of 500 Ω and a current sensitivity of 1mm/µA. Assuming that a deflection of 1 mm
can be observed on the galvanometer scale, determine if this new galvanometer is capable
of detecting the 5-Ω unbalance in arm BC

Example 3 If all resistances in the Example 1 increase by 10 times, and we use the
galvanometer in the Example 2. Assuming that a deflection of 1 mm can be observed on the
galvanometer scale, determine if this new setting can be detected (the 50-Ω unbalance in
arm BC)
 Deflection Method

Consider a bridge circuit which have identical

A resistors, R in three arms, and the last arm has the
resistance of R +∆R. if ∆R/R <<1 Please correct
R R

Thévenin Voltage (VTH)

V
C V D
∆R / R
VTH = VCD = V
4 + 2 ∆R / R
R ∆R
R+∆

B Thévenin Resistance (RTH)

Small unbalance
occur by the external RTH ≈ R
environment
In an unbalanced condition, the magnitude of the current or voltage drop for the
meter or galvanometer portion of a bridge circuit is a direct indication of the
change in resistance in one arm.
This kind of bridge circuit can be found in sensor applications, where the
resistance in one arm is sensitive to a physical quantity such as pressure,
temperature, strain etc.
Example Circuit in Figure (a) below consists of a resistor Rv which is sensitive to the
temperature change. The plot of R VS Temp. is also shown in Figure (b). Find (a) the
temperature at which the bridge is balance and (b) The output signal at Temperature of
60oC.
6
Ω
5 kΩ Ω
5 kΩ 5

R v (kΩ )
4
6V
3
2 4.5 kΩ
1
0
Rv Output 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Ω
5 kΩ signal
Temp (oC)

(b)
(a)
 AC Bridge: Balance Condition
B
all four arms are considered as impedance
Z1 Z2 (frequency dependent components)
The detector is an ac responding device:
I1 I2
headphone, ac meter
V A D C Source: an ac voltage at desired frequency

Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4 are the impedance of bridge arms

Z3 Z4
At balance point: EBA = EBC or I1Z1 = I 2 Z 2
D
V V
I1 = and I 2 =
General Form of the ac Bridge Z1 + Z 3 Z2 + Z4
Complex Form: Z1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3

Polar Form: Z1Z4 =Z2 Z3

Magnitude balance:
Z1Z4 ( ∠θ1 + ∠θ 4 ) =Z2 Z3 ( ∠θ 2 + ∠θ 3 )
Phase balance: ∠θ1 + ∠θ 4 =∠θ 2 + ∠θ 3
Example The impedance of the basic ac bridge are given as follows:
Z1 = 100 Ω ∠80o (inductive impedance) Z3 = 400 ∠30o Ω (inductive impedance)
Z 2 = 250 Ω (pure resistance) Z 4 = unknown
Determine the constants of the unknown arm.
 Example an ac bridge is in balance with the following constants: arm AB, R = 200 Ω
in series with L = 15.9 mH R; arm BC, R = 300 Ω in series with C = 0.265 µF; arm CD,
unknown; arm DA, = 450 Ω. The oscillator frequency is 1 kHz. Find the constants of
arm CD. B
SOLUTION
Z1 Z2

I1 I2 Z1 = R + jω L = 200 + j100 Ω
V Z 2 = R + 1/ jω C = 300 − j 600 Ω
A D C
Z3 = R = 450 Ω
Z 4 = unknown
Z3 Z4

D
The general equation for bridge balance states that Z1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3
Operational Amplifier: Op Amp
VCC(+)

I1
Inverting _ _
Input
Output I2
Non-inverting
Input
+ +
V-
V+ Vout
VEE(-)

(a) Electrical Symbol for the op amp (b) Minimum connections to an op amp

Ideal Op Amp Rules:

1. No current flows in to either input terminal
2. There is no voltage difference between the two input terminals

Rule 1: I1 = I2 = 0; R+/- = ∞
Rule 2: V+ = V-; Virtually shorted
 Inverting Amplifier

KCL Rf Use KCL at point A and apply Rule 1:

(no current flows into the inverting input)
R1 v A − vin v A − vout
_ + =0
A R1 Rf
+ + Rearrange
vin vout  1 1   vin vout 
- vA  +  − +  =0
R   
 1 R f   R1 R f 

Apply Rule 2: (no voltage difference between inverting and non-inverting inputs)

Since V+ at zero volts, therefore V- is also at zero volts too. vA = 0

vin vout vout Rf
+ =0 =−
R1 R f vin R1
 Inverting Amplifier: another approach

No current flows Rf i From Rule 2: we know that V- = V+ = 0,

into op amp
and therefore 0 vin
R1
_ −vin + iR1 − V = 0 − i=
R1
i + + Since there is no current into op amp
vin vout (Rule 1)
- 0
−V − + iR f + vout = 0 vout = −iR f
Combine the results, we get mV
vout
vout Rf 60
=− 40
vin R1 20 vin
time
Given vin = 5sin3t, R1=4.7 kΩ and Rf =47 kΩ 1 2 3 4 5 6
-20
vout = -10vin = -50 sin 3t mV -40
-60
 Non-inverting Amplifier

KCL Rf Use KCL at point A and apply Rule 1:

v A v A − vout
+ =0
R1 R1 Rf
_
A Apply Rule 2: vin = v A
+ +
vout Rf
vin vout
- = 1+
vin R1
mV
vout
60
Given vin = 5sin3t, R1=4.7 kΩ and Rf =47 kΩ 40
20 vin
vout = 11vin = 55 sin 3t mV time
1 2 3 4 5 6
-20
-40
-60
 Summing Amplifier: Mathematic Operation

i = i1 + i2 + i3 Use KCL and apply Rule 1:

i Rf v A − v1 v A − v 2 v A − v3 v A − vout
+ + + =0
R R R Rf
i1 R vA Since vA = 0 (Rule 2)
_
i2
R vB
+ + Rf
i3
R vout
vout = − ( v1 + v2 + v3 )
R
v1
-
v2 Sum of v1, v2 and v3
v3
 Difference Amplifier: Mathematic Operation

R4 Use KCL and apply Rule 1:

v A − v1 v A − vout (1)
+ =0
R1 vA R1 R4
_
R2 vB Since vA = vB (Rule 2) and
+ +
vout  R3 
v1 v A = vB =  (2)
R3 -  v2
v2  R2 + R3 

vout  R1 + R4   R3  v1
Substitute eq. (2) into eq. (1), we get =   2
v −
R4  R1 R4   R2 + R3  R1

Rf
If R1 = R2 = R and R3 = R4 = Rf vout = ( v2 − v1 )
R
Difference of v1and v2
 Differentiator and Integrator: Mathematic Operation
R i
vout = − iR
C dvC
_ But i=C and vin = vC
dt
i + +
vout dvin
vin - vout = − RC
dt
Differentiator
C i
vout = − vC

R
+ vc - t
1 vin = iR
_ But vC (t ) = ∫ idt + vC (0) and
C 0
i + + t
1
∫
vout
vin
vout =− vin dt + vC (0)
- RC 0
Integrator