ADVANCED WATER

DISTRIBUTION MODELING
AND MANAGEMENT
Authors
Thomas M. Walski
Donald V. Chase
Dragan A. Savic
Walter Grayman
Stephen Beckwith
Edmundo Koelle

Contributing Authors
Scott Cattran, Rick Hammond, Kevin Laptos, Steven G. Lowry,
Robert F. Mankowski, Stan Plante, John Przybyla, Barbara Schmitz

Peer Review Board

Lee Cesario (Denver Water), Robert M. Clark (U.S. EPA),
Jack Dangermond (ESRI), Allen L. Davis (CH2M Hill),
Paul DeBarry (Borton-Lawson), Frank DeFazio (Franklin G. DeFazio Corp.),
Kevin Finnan (Bristol Babcock), Wayne Hartell (Bentley Systems),
Brian Hoefer (ESRI), Bassam Kassab (Santa Clara Valley Water District),
James W. Male (University of Portland), William M. Richards
(WMR Engineering), Zheng Wu (Bentley Systems ),
and E. Benjamin Wylie (University of Michigan)

Click here to visit the Bentley Institute

Press Web page for more information
 12
Integrating GIS and Hydraulic
Modeling

A geographic information system (GIS) is a powerful configuration of computer hard-

ware and software used for compiling, storing, managing, manipulating, analyzing,
and mapping (displaying) spatially-referenced information. It integrates database
operations such as data storage, query, and statistical analysis with visual and geo-
graphic analysis functions enabled by spatial data. A GIS can serve as an integral part
of any project that requires management of large volumes of digital data and the
application of special analytical tools.
GIS is becoming an increasingly valuable tool for the water distribution modeler both
as a source for modeling data and as a decision-support tool. Anderson, Lowry, and
Thomte (2001) reported that although approximately 15 percent of water utilities cur-
rently use GIS in their modeling, almost 80 percent plan to use GIS in the future.
In the past, most models were developed with a batch-run philosophy in which a text
file (or card deck) containing the model data was required to drive the model. Gradu-
ally, models gained the ability to interact with databases that were either internal to
the model or more general and commercial. Finally, because a GIS is essentially a
spatially aware database, ongoing development has led to models that are highly inte-
grated with GIS. Shamsi (2001) describes the evolution of model/GIS integration as a
three-step process:
1. Interchange: Data are exchanged through an intermediary file, which may be an
ASCII text file or a spreadsheet. Data is written to this intermediary file, where it
is reformatted for the model, if necessary, and then read into the model. The
model and GIS are run independently.
2. Interface: Links are built between the model and GIS. These links are used to
synchronize the model and GIS. The data are duplicated on each side of the link
528 Integrating GIS and Hydraulic Modeling Chapter 12

and the model and GIS are run independently. One common approach is the use
of shapefiles, which can pass data between the model and the GIS and optionally
update either based on data contained in the other.

3. Integration: A single repository for the data is used. The model can be run from
the GIS and vice versa.

This integration of the hydraulic model and the GIS leads to the following benefits:
• Time-savings in constructing models
• Ability to integrate disparate land use, demographic, and monitoring data
using GIS analysis tools to more accurately predict future system demands

• Visual, map-based quality control of model inputs

• Map-based display and analysis of model outputs in combination with other
GIS layers

The most powerful feature of a GIS, from a planner's perspective, is probably the abil-
ity of the GIS to integrate, through their spatial relationships, databases that would be
difficult or impossible to integrate outside of a GIS environment. For example, a GIS
can overlay soil data, repair data, and hydraulic modeling output to automatically
assign a condition rating to pipes.

This chapter contains background information on GIS development and uses for both
water model creation and other application areas. The experienced GIS practitioner
with a specific interest in applications of GIS technology to model development may
want to begin with Section 12.3, “Model Construction.” The experienced modeler
with access to GIS, but with no GIS experience, may want to begin with Section 12.1,
“GIS Fundamentals,” and then skip ahead to Section 12.4, “GIS Analysis and Visual-
ization.”

12.1 GIS FUNDAMENTALS

An easy way to think of GIS is to imagine it as a set of transparencies that are layered
in such a manner that any point in one layer would appear at the same location in any
other layer, as shown in Figure 12.1. In an actual GIS graphical user interface (GUI),
these layers appear together, and the user can manipulate the order in which they
appear.
Within a GIS, features (objects on a map) are not simply points and lines; they have
attributes (information about the feature) associated with them. In a water distribution
system, facilities such as pipes, tanks, and pumps are features possessing attributes.
For instance, a pipe is represented in a GIS as a feature, and the diameter of the pipe is
an attribute of that feature.

As shown in Figure 12.1, maps may contain more than one type of feature, each of
which is displayed as a layer on the GIS map. By selecting which layers are dis-
played, the order in which layers are displayed, and the symbology (size, shape, and
color of symbols), the user can control the appearance of the resulting map. Figure
12.2 shows a GIS map.
Section 12.1 GIS Fundamentals 529

Figure 12.1
A conceptual layout
of a GIS

Graphic image courtesy of ESRI

In addition to being used for map-making, a GIS can be used to perform system anal-
ysis, answering questions about:
• Location (using proximity, buffer, or overlay analysis)
• Condition
• Temporal and spatial patterns (trends)
• What-if scenarios (in modeling)
530 Integrating GIS and Hydraulic Modeling Chapter 12

Figure 12.2
A GIS map

Data Management
Two primary and opposing data management paradigms are in use today: centralized
data management and decentralized data management. The mainframe computing
environment is an example of centralized data management, and the PC environment
is an example of decentralized data management. In the mainframe environment, all
applications and data reside on a central server. This data management approach is
very practical, but the hardware and software are typically very expensive to develop
and maintain. Within the PC environment, special-purpose applications and databases
are less expensive than their mainframe counterparts, but data and applications can
reside on different networked PCs. The decentralized management philosophy is
therefore very practical due to the economics involved; however, it does lead to the
creation of “data islands.”
The data developed within these “islands” are often generated and maintained redun-
dantly. For example, the diameter (6 in./150 mm), length (250 ft/76 m), and material
(ductile iron) for a pipe can be entered into the hydraulic modeling application, asset
management system, and maintenance management system, and the pipe can be
drawn and annotated on a map. Very few links to a master database or other data
islands are ever developed. As a result, the utility is unable to tap the knowledge and
efficiency that can be gained by analyzing and acting upon this information centrally.
Unfortunately, the data management situation of many water utilities around the
world is characterized by data islands.
The computer industry has created technology such as SQL and ODBC to assist in
centralizing these data islands. However, because they were designed and developed
Section 12.1 GIS Fundamentals 531

independently, they frequently do not have the key identifiers needed to form mean-
ingful data relationships. For example, the billing system may use account number as
its primary identifier, and the hydraulic modeling software may use pipe and node
numbers. It is therefore difficult to relate the billing information to the hydraulic
model for use in customer service and system planning.

What do the systems and databases for billing, customer service, asset management,
work management, inspections/permits, water quality testing, facility mapping,
hydraulic modeling, and document management have in common? The answer is
geography. All of these systems have information about items (for example, permits,
work orders, test reports) that can be tied to a geographic location such as parcel num-
ber, address, or facility number. Geography is the essence of GIS-centric data man-
agement, a compromise between centralized and decentralized data management;
features that cannot be linked explicitly through database table-to-table relationships
can be associated geographically by determining the proximity (connectivity, distance,
closeness) to each other. This aspect of GIS uniquely qualifies it as the preferred inte-
grating technology and unifying information resource within an organization.

Figure 12.3
Organizing the
desktop with GIS-
centric data
management

The compromise that GIS attains between centralized and decentralized data manage-
ment is this: not all data needs to be centralized; only the GIS layers need to be cen-
tralized. Therefore, the only limitation to the integration of specialized systems into
the GIS-centric model is that they must have some reliable means of geographic refer-
encing, such as facility ID, parcel number, or street address. Virtually any type of sys-
tem or database can be linked to a GIS layer, provided that a geographical association
and consistency and quality of data are present in both systems. Usually, expanding the
utility of a GIS system is primarily a data development and quality control exercise.
532 Integrating GIS and Hydraulic Modeling Chapter 12

Geographic Data Models

Three representations have emerged to handle most geographic data: raster, vector,
and TIN. The following list describes these representations, which are shown in Fig-
ure 12.4.
• Raster: This representation stores data as discrete grids in which a single
value for each attribute is associated with each grid cell. Each grid cell has
an attribute value and location coordinate. Because the data is stored in a
matrix, the coordinates for each cell do not need to be stored explicitly
(ESRI, 2001). Rather, they can be determined “on the fly” because the origin
of the raster model, the grid cell size, and the rotation are known.

• Vector: This representation stores discrete features as points, lines, or poly-

gons. Each feature has attribute values and a set of x-y coordinates (and pos-
sibly a z coordinate) associated with it. In this way, vector data differ from
raster data, which have coordinates intrinsically associated with the cells
(ESRI, 2001).

• Triangulated irregular networks (TIN): TINs divide space into a set of

contiguous (non-overlapping) triangular faces. The triangular faces are
derived from irregularly spaced sample points, breaklines, and polygon fea-
tures, and each sample point has coordinate (x, y) and attribute (z coordinate
or other attribute to be modeled) information associated with it. Attribute
values at other locations (along breaklines and polygon features, or even on
the triangular faces themselves) are calculated using interpolation within the
TIN. TINs are sometimes considered a special case of a vector model, but
Zeiler (1999) presents them as a separate data model.
Figure 12.4
Geographic data
representations
Section 12.2 Developing and Maintaining an Enterprise GIS 533

Most data used in hydraulic modeling are vector data. For example, junction nodes
are points, pipes are lines, and node service areas are polygons. Although most mod-
eling data is made up of vector features, modelers also use raster and TIN data for
tasks such as extracting elevation data or using an aerial photo as a background for the
model.

12.2 DEVELOPING AND MAINTAINING AN

ENTERPRISE GIS
Many publications describe the process of developing a GIS, including Orne, Ham-
mond, and Cattran (2001) and Przybyla (2002). The pace of technologic advancement
and the diversity of commercial implementations outstrip the ability of any general
text to provide detailed guidelines on the configuration and management of a specific
GIS-based modeling system. Consequently, this section provides a general discussion
of the GIS development process and outlines the major steps involved in developing a
GIS.
GIS is generally implemented at one of four levels:

1. Project: Supporting a single project objective

2. Departmental: Supporting the needs of one department
3. Enterprise: Inter-departmental sharing of data that meets the needs of many
departments
4. Interagency: Sharing of application and data with external agencies

Building a GIS on a project basis for the sole purpose of using it with a hydraulic
model is quite rare because an organization derives a variety of benefits from a GIS,
including

• Elimination of redundant data maintenance activities

• Streamlining of workflow processes with GIS functions
• Improvements in access to quality information
• Ability to use spatial analysis to solve problems

For these reasons, a GIS is often implemented at the departmental or enterprise level.
The subsections that follow discuss some of the key steps that should be taken to
ensure a successful enterprise-level GIS implementation. For more information on
planning, developing, and maintaining a GIS for modeling and other applications, see
the references listed at the end of this chapter or the GIS section of this book's bibli-
ography (see page 727).

Keys to Successful Implementation

A community or water utility that commits to developing a GIS must consider several
key factors:
534 Integrating GIS and Hydraulic Modeling Chapter 12

• Development of a GIS that is capable of supporting a hydraulic model

requires a high level of data quality, accuracy, and detail.
• Creation of a GIS necessitates a review of existing hardware and software
and does not imply that legacy systems will go away. Systems such as a cus-
tomer information system (CIS), CMMS, and SCADA are usually fixtures
on the landscape.
• Enterprise GIS development calls for a high level of interdepartmental coop-
eration. All departments involved in enterprise GIS development should
share the same vision for the system. The “people” aspect of GIS develop-
ment can be more challenging than the technological aspects.
• Enterprise GIS development demands a GIS leader — someone to champion
the effort. The GIS leader must build communication bridges between
departments so that people talk, cooperate, and share.
• The largest expense of the GIS project is usually the data development effort,
which often requires expensive conversion from paper map sources. If an
organization fails to consider all of the cartographic, asset database, and
hydraulic modeling needs during the database development, then its GIS
system will either (a) fail to meet future application demands or (b) necessi-
tate an expensive data upgrade effort in the future. For example, the GIS
must be able reproduce the map sources used in its creation, or all that will
have been accomplished is the creation of a new, redundant dataset to main-
tain.

Needs Assessment
Critical to a successful GIS implementation is a detailed understanding of the busi-
ness processes and operational and management needs of the organization. An under-
standing of the specific GIS functions required by the individual users is also crucial.
This information is gathered through a needs assessment.
A needs assessment has three components:
1. User needs assessment: The purpose of this assessment is to answer the follow-
ing questions: who are the people that are going to use the system; what roles do
they fulfill; what task or functions do they need to accomplish with the GIS; what
skill levels do they possess; where (physically) are they; and how often will they
use the GIS applications.
2. Data source assessment: The data source assessment determines what data
sources are available to support the GIS data development, including their for-
mats (e.g., electronic, paper), geographic extents, spatial (x, y, z) and attribute
accuracies, update frequencies, and dates last updated.
3. System design assessment: The purpose of this assessment is to determine the
types, locations, and characteristics of existing servers, individual workstations,
and computer networking components. This includes operating system platforms,
current applications being served, and current levels of utilization.
Section 12.2 Developing and Maintaining an Enterprise GIS 535

The needs assessment is an essential part of creating any IT system and is usually
accomplished by conducting detailed surveys and interviews with all potential GIS
users (including hydraulic engineers) and the appropriate organization decision-mak-
ers. It can also be accomplished as part of a business process workflow analysis (rec-
ommended).
A thorough needs assessment is crucial for developing a GIS that will provide ade-
quate service now and in the future. It should reveal specific problems or constraints
associated with present systems and identify project implementation requirements. A
properly conducted needs assessment will culminate in an integrated GIS with the fol-
lowing benefits and advantages:
• Increased operational and management efficiency and staff productivity
• Better sharing of data
• Quicker access to quality and timely information
• Full leveraging of the capabilities of the system
• Support for organizational operations that reflects the organization's mission
and priorities
• Staff endorsement and regular use
• Immediate value to the organization
• Functionality that supports all current and future needs

Design
The second phase of the GIS development process is the design, which potentially
includes the following tasks:
1. Application design: Describes the commercial software to be deployed and the
custom programs that will be combined to create the applications required to sup-
port user needs.
2. Database design: Describes the format for the layers, individual features, and
their attributes that will comprise the new GIS database.
3. Data development plan: Describes the techniques, methods, and procedures that
will be used to convert the data sources into the desired GIS database.
4. System design: Describes the hardware and software to be installed on new serv-
ers, workstations, and network components, as well as the reorganization and
redeployment of existing hardware and software components. (Beyond the scope
of this book.)
5. Implementation plan and schedule: Describes the tasks and provides a sched-
ule for developing the GIS. (Beyond the scope of this book.)
Application Design. The value of digital data in general, and in a GIS in partic-
ular, is the ability to create data one time and use it over and over for many purposes
without the need to manually handle the data. This recycling of data enables the data
user to work with much larger datasets than would be possible with manual data entry
536 Integrating GIS and Hydraulic Modeling Chapter 12

and manipulation. Once developed, a GIS can serve many applications — beyond
hydraulic modeling — in a community or water utility.
In evaluating the responsibilities and workflow within a department, certain tasks that
can be performed more efficiently or effectively in a GIS will be identified. These
tasks will form the basis of GIS applications, and application descriptions prepared as
part of the needs assessment will document these tasks.
Popular GIS interfaces include:
• Interface to hydraulic and hydrologic modeling
• Interface to customer service and maintenance management systems
• Interface to customer information (billing) system
• Interface to laboratory information system
• Interface to SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) system
• Interface to Document Management/Workflow
Popular GIS-based applications (often utilizing/integrating the above system inter-
faces) include:
• Facility mapping (GIS data maintenance)
• Service request tracking/work management
• Asset management/GASB 34 reporting
• Crew dispatch/vehicle routing
Section 12.2 Developing and Maintaining an Enterprise GIS 537

• Field data collection/inspections

• Leak detection (compare master meter to individual account data)
• Link to as-built/intersection drawings (CAD or images)
• Isolation tracing/customer notification
• Demand projections/demographic data
• CIP planning/construction monitoring
• One call/underground service alert response
• New connection processing
• Cross-connection (backflow) test tracking
• Well monitoring/water resources analysis

Database Design. The database design for a GIS developed for a water utility
should strive to accomplish three fundamental goals that will enable the GIS to
become a strategic asset for the organization:
1. Cartographically represent the water distribution facilities (assets). This rep-
resentation can be used to create map products.
2. Inventory the network. The GIS is often the primary record for geographically-
distributed assets (that is, assets outside the plant).
3. Model the network. The GIS should be able to model the flow of water in the
system and support the integration of hydraulic modeling software.
Assuming that hydraulic modeling will be one of the activities supported by the GIS,
the GIS analyst should identify the entire range of related hydraulic applications that
potentially will be used. The analyst can then determine the types of data required for
these applications (for example, SCADA data and as-built drawings) and how the var-
ious types of data relate to one another. This information is necessary if the database
design is to meet all functional and interrelational requirements.
An important step in the database design process is the compilation of information
about the dataset, which is called metadata. Metadata provides the user with:
• Source of the data
• Data reliability, quality, and quality confidence levels
• Methods used in collecting and associating the data
• QA/QC (quality assurance/quality control) and validation procedures
• Other applications and software systems that the data might interact with
Metadata is becoming more important as the ability to share data between organiza-
tions over the Internet using eXtensible Markup Language (XML), a programming
language for structured information, becomes commonplace. Portal sites use meta-
data so that users can search for data layers and determine whether the datasets listed
meet their accuracy and spatial extent needs.
538 Integrating GIS and Hydraulic Modeling Chapter 12

As GIS applications mature, the major GIS vendors have advanced their software
from relational-relational architectures (application/database) to object-relational
architectures. In the older relational-relational environment, connectivity, attribute
domain validation, and relationships between features were implemented as relation-
ships between tables (executed by the DBMS). In the new architecture, relationships
between features, connectivity, and attribute domain validation are implemented as
object-oriented components (executed by client-side software) with the raw objects
being stored in the RDBMS. The principal advantage of the new object-relational
structure is the compatibility of the GIS applications and data to other object-oriented
software applications.
This evolution provides new opportunities and poses some new challenges for inte-
gration with modeling. Objects can be more complex, with more sophisticated con-
nectivity, than with older GIS data types (points, lines, polygons). Because the data
modeling effort in an object world is so much more involved (Zeiler, 1999), the
hydraulic modeler has to be even more involved at the GIS database design stage
when using an object-relational GIS.
As an example, consider a GIS that has been developed for a water distribution sys-
tem using the older relational-relational system. In this model, each valve, hydrant,
water service, and service shutoff throughout the entire water distribution system is
required to be a node in the network in order to maintain connectivity. As a result, the
GIS might easily contain hundreds of thousands of short pipe segments (for example,
fitting to valve, valve to valve, and valve to fitting). To the hydraulic modeler, this
level of detail is unnecessary and even problematic.
Object-relational systems provide powerful new opportunities to the hydraulic mod-
eler. For instance, the connectivity between features is now controlled by the software
according to rules supplied by the user. For instance, valves and services can be part
of the network without creating nodes in the pipe segments (that is, pipes can be fit-
ting-to-fitting). In addition, connectivity rules can be established that enhance the
integrity of the database, such as “a pipe can only connect to another pipe through a
fitting, PRV, or pump station” or “only a customer meter or backflow device can be at
the end of a service line.” The result can be a GIS database that more closely meets
the needs of the hydraulic modeler.
In older data models, the modeler would likely need to develop code to perform the
tasks of discarding unnecessary point features and merging small pipe segments into
the larger segments that would form the link-node system in the model. This code
would rely not only on a programmer's expertise to properly process the myriad con-
ditions which exist, but on a high level of data quality to avoid unintentional errors
during the translation. With object-oriented data storage, the processing of data to
form new, merged features can be manifested through behaviors introduced at the
database design stage. Further, rules can be applied during dataset development to
ensure that, for example, a 2-inch pipe is not connected to a 16-inch pipe without
some type of required transition element. By designing these rules, properties, and
behaviors up front, extracting the features needed to model a system can become a
basic function of the GIS. The challenge in this system is that the technology is new,
and a significant investment in design time and funding will be required in the coming
years to turn the promise into reality.
Section 12.2 Developing and Maintaining an Enterprise GIS 539

Although it is relatively easy to define those characteristics of the buried piping sys-
tem that are needed to support hydraulic modeling, modeling the behavior of a com-
plex pump station within the GIS is more difficult and may not make sense. In many
cases, some of the information needed by the modeler will not be stored in the GIS
and will have to be acquired from other sources, such as as-builts or design docu-
ments. Ideally, all necessary input data for the model would exist in the GIS, and the
data format and content would be capable of supporting all modeling goals and appli-
cations identified in the needs assessment. In practice, however, all the data needed by
modelers is sometimes not in a readily available format or is not economical to
develop (for example, field data) during the initial GIS implementation. Therefore,
many hydraulic model interface implementations are staged to address the most
urgent or time-saving modeling priorities first. The GIS should be capable of generat-
ing, in a repeatable manner, a high percentage of the data required for model develop-
ment.
It is important to realize that GIS is often part of a wider information management
program that may include maintenance management systems, SCADA, facility auto-
mation, CAD, flow monitoring databases, a water asset database, as-built maps and
drawings, and other elements. Developing a database design that supports the multi-
ple needs of an organization is sometimes difficult to accomplish, but the end result
should not to be compromised.

Data Development Plan. As previously mentioned, development of the data

asset is often the most important and expensive step in the GIS development process.
The following subsections describe the main components and issues of the data devel-
opment plan.
Land Base. A water utility GIS must use some type of land base layer as a spatial ref-
erence. Some design issues that must be considered in the base map are the accuracy
(+/- x ft or m), the scale, the projection (latitude/longitude, state plane coordinates,
UTM [Universal Transverse Mercator], etc.), the vertical datum (NAD [North Ameri-
can Datum] 27, NAD83, etc.), the methods used to create the land base, the frequency
of updates, and the timeliness of the data.
The details of these decisions are beyond the scope of this book, but users must real-
ize that they cannot simply make a quick decision about using a United States Geo-
logical Survey (USGS) quadrangle map, aerial photo, or commercially produced map
without giving serious consideration to the long-term potential implications of the
land base choice.
Developing the land base is expensive and must be done correctly and accurately in
the initial stages of the project; otherwise, costs escalate when problems arise that
must be addressed after the fact. The lack of an accurate land base is the most com-
mon problem in developing an accurate GIS because multiple datasets developed
without a common land base will almost always be inconsistent with each other and
therefore not suitable to be used together.
For example, if spatially accurate water facilities (such as those located with a differ-
ential global positioning system [GPS]) are used in combination with inaccurate base
map layers, a good map will not be produced (for example, pipes may not fall on the
540 Integrating GIS and Hydraulic Modeling Chapter 12

Case Study: Columbia, South Carolina

The water system in the City of Columbia—the • Beginning junction node number
largest water system in the central part of South • Ending junction node number
Carolina—provides potable water to a service
• Pipe segment number
area of approximately 320 square miles and
350,000 customers. The city worked to create a • Pipe segment diameter (in.)
GIS and construct and calibrate a system-wide • Pipe segment length (ft)
water model to evaluate and develop system
• Pipe segment friction coefficient
improvements.
• Elevations of connecting junction nodes
The city conducted a system-wide inventory by
using GPS and pen-based PCs to locate • Demand at connecting junction nodes
hydrants, water valves, water tanks, standpipes, • Minor loss coefficients
and pump stations, as well as the following
Included in the database are attributes for high-
attributes: feature identifier, feature type, condi- service pumping stations, distribution system
tion, and a flag indicating whether the feature was
tanks, and pressure reducing valves (PRVs).
located in the field. The city converted existing
water system mapping into a GIS format that was The GIS was used to assign elevations to model-
spatially accurate to the city’s planimetric and ing nodes. The city obtained elevation coverages
inventoried structure data. Existing water line data from the USGS, created a 3-D plane of USGS ele-
was corrected based on GPS data and record vation data, and assigned elevations based on the
drawing information. location of modeling nodes on the plane.

A skeletonized water network was then devel- The GIS also was used to assign demands to
oped. Water pipes and nodes were extracted from modeling nodes. (Nodes associated with pumps
CAD files and created in a GIS system. Included and tanks were temporarily removed so they
were all water lines with a 10-in. or larger diame- would not have demands assigned.) Geocoding
ter, plus selected 6-in. and 8-in. pipes required for was used to geolocate customer meters to the
system looping. All breaking points in a line were TIGER (Topologically Integrated Geographic
removed unless a diameter changed or an inter- Encoding and Referencing) street centerline file.
section between pipes occurred. Once conversion During geocoding, the GIS matched the address
was complete, a map of the skeletonized water of the customer meter with address ranges in the
network was created and inspected for connectiv- TIGER street centerline file. Demands were then
ity concerns and gaps in the distribution system. assigned based on the proximity of the customer
meter to a model node. Aggregate demands were
A database of water system model attributes was computed and then applied to the node.
created using GIS data, as-builts, and the city’s 1
in. = 1,200 ft scale schematic map. The database
contains information for each pipe segment
included in the model:

correct side of the street centerline or property line). Not being able to produce reli-
able maps is more than a nuisance; it could be a legal liability.
If an inaccurate street-centerline file is used as the spatial reference for placing water
facilities (say, for putting pipes four feet to the right of the street centerline), and a
new, more-accurate data source for the street centerline is provided in the future, all of
the facilities will have to be moved in the GIS to match the new spatial reference —
an expensive proposition.
Data Conversion. GIS database design must be matched to the specific needs of the
applications that the GIS is to serve, such as those of hydraulic models. Through data
conversion, data is made to conform to a uniform format that supports all functional
Section 12.2 Developing and Maintaining an Enterprise GIS 541

requirements. If necessary, GIS database design is modified to effectively integrate it

with the hydraulic modeling software, information management systems, as-built
drawing records, GPS, and CAD.
In supporting the data development process, the GIS analyst must develop and main-
tain data accuracy standards and implement QA/QC procedures to ensure data integ-
rity. The higher the accuracy standard, the higher the cost of the data conversion.
In some cases, the information necessary to support current and future hydraulic mod-
eling applications is not available in digital format. It will therefore be necessary to
convert paper maps to digital format or use GPS to collect data in the field. If multiple
data sources exist, the analyst should identify the sources that are best-suited for the
intended use, as well as the method for entering this data into the GIS.
Raster conversion, or rasterization, is the conversion of vector data (that is, points,
lines, and polygons) to cell or pixel data. Vector conversion, or vectorization, is the
conversion of cell or pixel data into points, lines, and polygons. Scanning of paper
maps produces raster files that must be converted to vector files to be useful for model
creation.
Rasterization and vectorization are only used when the quality of the data sources
supports it, which means that the information to be captured is easily distinguishable
by the vectorization software. Dealing with the errors of the vectorization process can
be onerous for the majority of GIS development projects. Heads-up digitizing is more
efficient, produces excellent results, and is rapidly becoming the industry standard.
Converting map data from CAD files into the desired GIS format can also pose a
number of challenges. For example, a single line in CAD file may actually represent
several pipe segments in the GIS. When this element is converted to GIS, the line
must be divided into multiple lines representing individual pipe segments. As an addi-
tional hurdle, map annotations such as pipe diameter and valve size in a CAD drawing
often do not have any data records and are not linked to the CAD features being anno-
tated. To be turned into attribute information in the GIS, these floating graphics must
be associated with the nearest pipe, and the text strings must be filtered to produce the
correct attribute. For instance, “1987 - 3 ½” may need to be converted into “1987” for
the year installed attribute and “3.50” for the pipe diameter attribute.

Pilot Study
After design, the next phase of the GIS development is usually to perform a pilot
study, which can include the following activities:
1. Create a pilot database following the data development plan.
2. Develop prototypes of high-priority applications following the application
design.
3. Provide core software training to key staff.
4. Test the applications and data during several pilot review sessions with end-users
and management.
542 Integrating GIS and Hydraulic Modeling Chapter 12

5. Finalize the database design, data development plan, and system design docu-
ments as appropriate, incorporating what was learned from the pilot review ses-
sions.

Production
The next phase is the Production phase, which can include the following tasks:
1. Finalize the QA/QC software and techniques that will be used during the entire-
service-area data conversion.
2. Perform the service-area-wide data conversion following the data development
plan.
3. Procure new hardware and software.
4. Finalize the applications.
5. Develop end-user and system maintenance documentation.
6. Begin user training and rollout of high-priority applications (such as facility map-
ping).

Rollout
The final phase is a rollout phase, which can include the following tasks:
1. Installation of full complement of operational hardware and software.
2. User training and system maintenance training, which will likely be a combina-
tion of core GIS software courses and application training.
3. Acceptance testing (formal testing to determine whether the system satisfies the
acceptance criteria and thus whether the customer should accept the system).
4. Roll-out, which may include transition from any legacy systems being retired.

12.3 MODEL CONSTRUCTION

Constructing a water model and maintaining it over time can be one of the most time-
consuming, costly, and error-prone steps of a hydraulic modeling project. Prior to
widespread integration of GIS and modeling, building a water model was a special-
ized activity, separate from an organization's routine business procedures and work-
flows. Engineers created model input files by gathering, combining, and digitizing
data from a variety of hard-copy source documents, such as water system maps, topo-
graphic maps, and census maps, among others. If CAD data was available, features
required for modeling had to be extracted for use with the hydraulic modeling soft-
ware. The process was manual and required great attention to detail and many engi-
neering judgments along the way. Once a model was developed, calibrated, and run,
the modeler generated the required outputs and what-if scenarios and typically pro-
duced a master plan so that a community or utility could begin making the required
capital improvements.
Section 12.3 Model Construction 543

Despite rapid advances in hydraulic modeling software throughout the last decade,
which have included tools for the automatic translation of CAD data into modeling
data and for linking the model to external data sources, many communities and water
utilities have found it difficult to build, update, and maintain anything but highly skel-
etonized models. Because of the impracticality of using manual methods to gather and
manage large volumes of data, many communities and water utilities have not per-
formed routine modeling and have had no mechanism for water model maintenance.
Although organizations may have intended to keep models updated, time constraints
or business-process issues have often interfered. Even if CAD layers have been
updated or as-builts red-lined, model maintenance has usually been ignored because
the model input data has had to be maintained separately from system drawings.
Thus, in communities experiencing rapid development, water models could quickly
become outdated and have often had to be re-created from scratch when a current sys-
tem model was required.
A GIS professional can use a GIS to create a model more efficiently, more accurately,
and more cost-effectively than an engineer creating a model input file from scratch
inside a traditional modeling environment. Consider the following:

• Because GIS tools can automate the process, model building can be faster
and more efficient, especially for large models.
• Because GIS can manage large volumes of data, the model can incorporate
more detail.
• Both hydraulic modeling software and GIS have advanced editing tools. The
user needs to look at each task and decide if it is better done in the model or
the GIS.
• In the ideal case, where GIS data-entry has a consistent spatial reference and
a high level of quality control applied, the integrated model should contain
better data and should therefore be easier to calibrate and potentially lead to
better decision-making.
• Data collected and stored in the GIS primarily for other applications can be
extracted and incorporated into the model input file, if needed.
• As long as the GIS is maintained routinely, GIS data needed for reconstruct-
ing the model input file will be maintained routinely.
• Contour interpolations and digital elevation models (DEMs) in the GIS can
be used to assign elevations to model nodes automatically.
• Digital orthophotos available in the GIS can be overlaid with the model to
provide a base map reference.
• Georeferenced customer billing records can be used to generate and allocate
water demands for the model.
• If modeling results are returned to the GIS, further analyses can be run, and
other users such as planners and developers can manipulate modeling data in
conjunction with other GIS data.
544 Integrating GIS and Hydraulic Modeling Chapter 12

Model Sustainability and Maintenance

By working with GIS professionals to build a water model from a properly con-
structed GIS, the engineer can spend time evaluating the water system and making
engineering decisions rather than constructing — and, over time, reconstructing —
the water model. If the GIS is used as the foundation for building the water model,
and assuming the GIS is maintained in the long term, the water model can be rebuilt
easily in the future using up-to-date GIS data (see Figure 12.5).
Figure 12.5
Maintaining the
hydraulic model

Graphic image courtesy of Jim McKibben, CH2MHill and ESRI

For instance, a model may be constructed by using the GIS to select and extract all
pipes that are 8 in. (200 mm) and larger, and by manually selecting additional pipes
that have smaller diameters but are necessary to close important loops or to service
large water users. All pipes and other network elements included in the model must be
marked appropriately in the GIS. Thus, as pipes, nodes, and associated features and
attributes in the GIS are updated over time, these elements can easily be selected
again and used to reconstruct the model with current data. Alternatively, the full sys-
tem can be imported into the model and then reduced by skeletonization.
The GIS professional and the modeler should determine where certain features
required for the model will reside — in the GIS or in the model. Ideally, the required
datasets should be detailed from the outset so that they can be stored and maintained
in the GIS, which helps to ensure that the model-building process can be repeated and
minimizes adjustments that the modeler must make to the data delivered by the GIS
professional.
Making good decisions about whether new pipes added to the distribution system
should be marked for inclusion in the model requires engineering judgment (based on
pipe size or other criteria). The GIS professional can use GIS tools to do much of the
sorting and selecting required for skeletonization, but the modeler must review the
entire network carefully to ensure that the model reflects reality.

Communication Between GIS and Modeling Staff

In some small systems, the modeler and the GIS professional are the same person, but
in most instances, the modeler and GIS professional are two individuals who are in
Section 12.3 Model Construction 545

different departments or companies. To be successful, model development should be a

coordinated effort between the modeler and the GIS professional.
During the model-building process, the GIS professional must confer regularly with
the modeler to ensure that the model is developed efficiently. Both professionals
should acknowledge their differing perspectives to help ensure effective communica-
tion. The GIS professional understands GIS technology, what it can do, and how to
manipulate data from various systems and databases, and the modeler understands
how the model works, what data are required by the model, and how to ensure that the
model generates meaningful results.
Because the modeler is the user or consumer of the data to be developed or managed
by the GIS professional, he or she should take time to explain the data needs of the
model. Similarly, the GIS professional should explain GIS capabilities and limita-
tions, and what is technologically feasible.
Sufficient time spent in model planning and design ensures a smooth model-develop-
ment process. Specifically, the GIS professional and the modeler should discuss the
following issues at the outset of the project:

• Modeling basics: The modeler should share modeling basics with the GIS
professional (such as flow in or out of the system occurs only at nodes;
closed pipes do not have flow; the model predicts pressures at nodes; and so
on). Before using the GIS to develop the model input file, the GIS profes-
sional must have a fairly complete understanding of input data requirements,
types of model calculations, and how the model operates. In most instances,
the GIS professional can benefit from receiving some modeling training. By
understanding how the model works and having a vision of the intended out-
come, the GIS professional can determine which GIS tools should best serve
the modeler's needs. Merely listing required features and attributes will not
suffice; the modeler must discuss why these elements are crucial.

• Modeling terminology: For successful model development, each profes-

sional must have a basic understanding of the relevant terminology familiar
to the other. The GIS professional is comfortable discussing fields, tables,
and technology, and the modeler is comfortable discussing pipes and rough-
ness coefficients. Both professionals must discuss common modeling terms,
their meanings, and how they are applied. For example, they need to discuss
terms such as demand (the GIS professional may use demand to mean an
individual customer billing record, but the modeler may think of aggregate
demand at a modeling node) and junction (the GIS professional may use
junction synonymously with any node, and the modeler may think of junc-
tion as a location where two or more pipes meet).

• Standard units of measure: The modeler must define the standard units of
measure required and the calculations needed to make unit conversions.
Although the modeler understands intuitively how certain data must be rep-
resented in the model, the GIS professional may not. For example, if the
modeler needs average demand in gallons per minute, and the demand in the
billing system is in gallons per day, then the units must be converted either
546 Integrating GIS and Hydraulic Modeling Chapter 12

by the model (preferred) or the GIS professional before the GIS data is use-
ful in the model. The modeler must therefore communicate very clearly how
the GIS professional should prepare the data for model input.

Using an Existing GIS for Modeling

A common misconception in the industry is that if a utility has a water system GIS
dataset, using the GIS to generate data needed for the model will be easy, if not auto-
matic. If hydraulic modeling was identified as a potential application of the GIS dur-
ing the needs assessment, this should be true. However, if the GIS was designed only
for purposes such as hard-copy mapping, maintenance management, or capital
improvement planning, it might not be easy to use the GIS to generate a hydraulic
model. This limitation is most pronounced when the GIS is used primarily for hard-
copy mapping and its “users” never interact directly with the underlying GIS data-
base. The GIS data are not necessarily bad, but they may not be suitable for hydraulic
modeling purposes, even though they satisfy the existing GIS needs.
Some typical challenges often faced by modelers using GIS data include the follow-
ing.
Database design incompatibilities or omissions:
• The GIS incorporates identification numbers for system elements that differ
from what can be used by the modeler.
• The GIS lacks critical valve information.
• The GIS lacks pump performance curve information.
• The GIS may have many short pipe segments that were introduced to provide
full topology, but that would unnecessarily add to the complexity of the
model.
Data errors:
• The GIS may not include connections that occur in the real system (because
components are not “snapped”), and may include connections that do not
occur in the real system (for example, at locations where pipes cross but do
not connect).
• The GIS may have artificial gaps between pipes that were introduced
because the data was created in a tiled system and pipes were not connected
across sheet boundaries.

Network Components
Even if hydraulic modeling was considered during the development of the GIS, unless
the GIS was created solely to support modeling, it is likely to posses a much greater
level of detail than what is needed by the model. This excess is especially true with
regard to the number of piping elements. It is not uncommon for the GIS to include
every service line and hydrant lateral. Such information is not needed for most model-
ing applications and should be removed to improve model runtime, reduce file size,
and save costs.
Section 12.3 Model Construction 547

In addition to the extraneous service lines and hydrant laterals, a GIS may begin a
new pipe element at every isolation valve or fitting — an unnecessary level of detail
for most hydraulic modeling applications. Conversion of the GIS to the model there-
fore involves combining GIS elements to form a smaller number of model elements,
as shown in Figure 12.6.

Figure 12.6
GIS view versus
model view

Two steps exist at which the GIS data can be cleaned up for model use — importing
and skeletonization. In importing data from the model to the GIS, the extraneous GIS
features such as air release valves, in-line meters, open gate valves, and locations
where new pipe segments were installed in response to a break must be associated
with model elements. This association usually requires that mapping be established
between the GIS and model. The primary criterion for handling these elements is
whether or not they have appreciable head loss associated with them. Open gate
valves and pipe bends often have negligible head loss and can be represented as pres-
sure junctions, which can be eliminated during skeletonization. Those features that
have significant head loss either need to be assigned to an adjacent pipe or treated as a
control valve element or a general-purpose valve. Typical relationships are shown in
Table 12.1.

Trade-offs exist with each situation. For example, modeling an open gate valve or
water meter as a throttling control valve or general-purpose valve makes it easy to
assign minor losses to the element. However, the three elements (upstream pipe,
valve, and downstream pipe) could also be modeled as a single pipe element with a
minor loss, thereby reducing model size.
548 Integrating GIS and Hydraulic Modeling Chapter 12

Table 12.1 GIS features and their corresponding model elements

GIS Feature Model Elements

Bend or other fitting with negligible Pressure junction to be skeletonized out
loss
Bend or other fitting with significant Valve or minor loss on adjacent pipe
loss
Isolating valve that is always open with Pressure junction to be skeletonized out
negligible loss
Isolating valve that is always open with Valve or minor loss on adjacent pipe
significant loss
Isolating valve that is normally closed Valve or a pipe segment with two nodes

Isolating valve that is always closed Valve or nodes connected by closed

pipe

Air release, blowoff, or surge relief Pressure junction to be skeletonized out

valve
Customer or hydrant lateral Pressure junction and pipe to be skele-
tonized out unless individual customer
is to be modeled
Check valve that is in-line Property of adjacent pipe

Check valve that is at a pump Usually automatically included in

pump, pipe on either side should be
combined
System water meter  Valve or minor loss on adjacent pipe

Control valve PRV, PSV, TCV, or GPV, depending on

function of valve

Pump control valve Pressure junction to be skeletonized out

Reducer Pressure junction with different diame-

ter pipe on either side

Change in pipe material Pressure junction which may be skele-

tonized out depending on difference in
hydraulic properties

After the data are imported into a model, the number of elements can be further
reduced by skeletonization. Section 3.11 provides an overview of the skeletonization
process.
Section 12.3 Model Construction 549

Some would argue that with the increasing power of models and the ease with which
models can share data with GIS, skeletonization has become less important and the
state-of-the-art is evolving toward more “all-pipe” models. Different levels of skele-
tonization are still appropriate, however, depending on how the model will be used.
The GIS professional and the engineer (or modeler) should discuss specific skeleton-
ization criteria in detail, including the importance of network connectivity. The GIS
professional must understand that a fully connected network is required for modeling.

Retrieval of Water Use Data

Utilities collect and compute water usage data by means of several possible methods,
ranging from the highly accurate to the more generalized. Three common techniques
are:
• Storing individual customer meter records for each billing period in a cus-
tomer information system
• Aggregating usage data for larger areas such as meter routes or pressure
zones
• Computing water usage estimates based on land-use or population
A GIS is not essential for loading the hydraulic model with water usage data, but it
can be used to effectively address each of these use cases and streamline the demand
allocation process. Much of the early work in using GIS for modeling focused on
accurately placing demands (Basford and Sevier, 1995; Buyens, Bizier and Conbee,
1996; Davis and Braun, 2000).

Node Service Polygons. Junction nodes are point features, but some demand
allocation methods require that the nodes have a polygon service area associated with
them. These polygons can be constructed manually, but automatic techniques, such as
construction of Thiessen polygons, exist. Thiessen polygons define the individual trib-
utary areas for each node. The space is divided such that any point within a particular
Thiessen polygon is nearer to that polygon's node than to any other node. A Thiessen
polygon for a node is created by connecting the perpendicular bisectors of lines drawn
between it and all adjacent nodes. The polygons for nodes along the outer edge of the
model will have no outer boundary, so it is essential to specify some method for clos-
ing the boundary to calculate areas. The boundary can be based on a buffering dis-
tance, but it is usually best to draw the outer boundary manually. Also, areas having
no customers may exist within the model area (for example lakes, parks, landfills).
Figure 12.7 shows a typical system with Thiessen polygons around each node.

Customer Meter Data. When water usage data is available for individual cus-
tomer meters, the GIS can be used to automatically geocode the customer location.
Geocoding is the process of matching an address data field or equivalent spatial refer-
ence, in this case a customer service address, against (usually) a street centerline file
or a parcel file that also contains address information. The resulting file is a set of
points that coincide with parcel centroids or the interpolated length along a line seg-
ment, depending on the source file used to geocode. It is important for the modeler to
550 Integrating GIS and Hydraulic Modeling Chapter 12

understand how the meter location was geocoded. Using the underlying point coordi-
nates and the coordinates of the nodes in the model, the demand can be assigned to a
node, usually based on which node is nearest to the customer meter (see Figure 12.8).
When the actual service line connection point is stored in the GIS, then the demand
can be placed at one of the nodes for that main or proportioned based on distance
from the end nodes. Usually, the difference in model results due to different methods
of assigning demands along the pipe is negligible.

Figure 12.7
Thiessen polygons for
distribution system
nodes

Geocoding can be a very effective method of demand placement, but it relies on

source datasets (GIS and billing) containing address data that are seldom standardized
and validated for geocoding purposes. Therefore, it is important to understand that the
results of a geocoding effort may inaccurately attribute the load to one polygon versus
another due to geocoding inaccuracies. The geocoding results should be checked for
accuracy, and changes to the load assignments may need to be performed manually.
Another problem in using customer meter data is that CISs are set up to capture total
volume used for billing purposes, not flow rates that are required for models. Con-
sider Table 12.2. The CIS is likely to contain the first four columns, but the modeler
needs data from the final two columns (that is, flow rate). The conversion from vol-
ume billed to flow rate must be done either in the CIS software, the GIS, or by some
code written specifically for this calculation.
Section 12.3 Model Construction 551

Figure 12.8
Meter aggregation

Table 12.2 Typical billing information from a Customer Information System CIS
Reading Billing Cycle Usage Flow Flow
Read Date
(100 ft3) (days) (1003 ft) (gpd) (gpm)
6,754.83 3/12/2002
6,770.25 4/9/2002 28 15.42 412 0.29
6,786.72 5/11/2002 32 16.47 385 0.27
6,805.99 6/11/2002 31 19.27 465 0.32
6,826.93 7/11/2002 30 20.94 522 0.36
6,850.74 8/9/2002 29 23.80 614 0.43
6,879.08 9/9/2002 31 28.35 684 0.48
6,900.10 10/9/2002 30 21.02 524 0.36
Cumulative 211 145.27 515 0.36
552 Integrating GIS and Hydraulic Modeling Chapter 12

The modeler must also decide on whether the value to be loaded into the model is the
value from the most recent billing period or an average over a longer period. This
decision depends on whether the modeler is interested in loading the model with aver-
age annual flows or flows from a particular period for, say, a calibration exercise.
Other issues include the fact that not all customer meters are read on the same day.
For instance, “July water use” for one customer may be calculated from July 1 to July
31, but for another customer, it may be July 11 through August 12. In addition, some
utilities may use different units for commercial customers and residential customers.
Meters may have become stopped during the year or been replaced during the year
such that simply subtracting the last reading from the first reading will not give the
correct volume used. Sometimes corrections or adjustments are made to billed
amounts. The modeler must decide whether to use the raw value or corrected value.
Most of these cases must be dealt with manually. For the modeler, the key to working
with customer billing data is talking with the individual who understands the data to
determine its true meaning.
When nodal demands are determined from customer metering, the modeler must
remember that unaccounted-for water, by definition, is not included in the flow rates.
The modeler must determine how to assign unaccounted-for water to nodes. This
assignment may be done by simply dividing the unaccounted-for demand evenly
among the nodes. For greater accuracy in EPS runs, the modeler may want to set up a
Section 12.3 Model Construction 553

different demand pattern for unaccounted-for water demands, although sufficient data
are not usually available for this.
Area Flow Data. When demand data are available for large areas such as pres-
sure zones and meter routes, these areas should be incorporated into the GIS as a sys-
tem meter polygon layer. Using overlay analysis, the water use within each polygon
can be equally distributed among the model nodes that fall within the polygon by
using point-in-polygon analysis. For customer demand data that have been placed
using a geocoding process, use of the meter route identifier to place points that could
not be geocoded is a common backup procedure.
Alternatively, if the individual model nodes have service area polygons associated
with them, the total demand from the pressure zone or meter route polygon can be
proportionally assigned to the service area polygons (and then to the model nodes)
based on the percentage of the larger polygon area taken up by the service area poly-
gon (see Figure 12.9). See page 549 (“Node Service Polygons”) for more information
about this method.

Figure 12.9
Proportional flow
distribution
554 Integrating GIS and Hydraulic Modeling Chapter 12

Land-Use/Population Data. In some cases, the attribute data in a database

may be sufficient to get the bills out but may be very poor for geocoding purposes. In
other cases, demand data is only available as land-use or population information
based on census tracts, traffic analysis zones, or other similar areas. When data are
stored in the GIS in terms of the area of a given land use, population, number of struc-
tures, or population density, the modeler needs to develop the corresponding rates for
water usage. For example, if considering land use, rates need to be established for
water demand per unit of land use (for example, gal/day/ac or l/day/ha). If the number
of structures is being considered, then rates need to be established for water demand
for each type of dwelling unit. With this data, the aggregate demands can be automat-
ically computed within the GIS.
Figure 12.10 and Table 12.3 show how water usage can be determined based on land
use.

Figure 12.10
Determining water
use based on land use
Section 12.3 Model Construction 555

Table 12.3 Computing water use based on land-use area

Total Node Land Use Unit
Land Use Demand  Node Total
Node Area  Area  Demand 
Type (l/day) (l/day)
(ha) (ha) (l/day/ha)
J-1 6.88 Industrial 6.88 11,200 77,100 77,100
J-2 7.69 Industrial 1.38 11,200 15,500 60,200
Commercial 0.92 4,700 4,300
Residential 5.38 7,500 40,400
J-3 7.69 Commercial 1.31 4,700 6,100 44,800
Residential 5.15 7,500 38,600
Undeveloped 1.23 0 0
J-4 8.50 Industrial 0.17 11,200 1,900 20,800
Commercial 0.10 4,700 470
Residential 2.45 7,500 18,400
Undeveloped 5.78 0 0
J-5 8.09 Industrial 6.48 11,200 72,500 80,100
Commercial 1.62 4,700 7,600
J-6 4.86 Industrial 0.20 11,200 2,200 33,400
Commercial 1.36 4,700 6,400
Residential 3.30 7,500 24,800

GIS can also be used to calculate demands for future conditions based on population
or land-use projections supplied to the modeler. Custom GIS operations enable mod-
elers to compute future water usage rates by overlaying data such as population pro-
jection and future land-use polygon layers with a modeling node layer.

Retrieval of Elevation Data

Many GISs contain elevation data, and numerous sources of elevation data in digital
form exist, such as published digital elevation models (DEMs). These models are
often used to develop the contours found in base mapping, but they can also be used to
derive the elevation for any other GIS feature, or for hydraulic model nodes. It is typi-
cally a very simple and fast process to drape, or overlay, the model nodes onto a sur-
face model and compute the elevation at each point. As with most GIS layers,
depending on the means used to develop it, a surface model can be very detailed or
quite coarse.
Elevation data can be stored in a GIS in several ways, two of which are TINs and ras-
ter DEMs. Figure 12.11 shows a shaded TIN of ground elevation data with the
hydraulic network draped over it, and Figure 12.12 shows a raster DEM with a
hydraulic model superimposed on it.
556 Integrating GIS and Hydraulic Modeling Chapter 12

Figure 12.11
Network draped over
a TIN

Figure 12.12
Network super-
imposed on a DEM
Section 12.3 Model Construction 557

For hydraulic modeling purposes, elevations are needed at specific points, including
junction nodes, pumps, valves, and tanks. To determine the elevation at these points,
the x-y coordinates of the node are passed to the GIS, and the GIS software uses the
elevations of DEM grid points or TIN vertices surrounding the node to determine the
node elevation, which can be passed back to the model. Use of DEMs is described in
more detail in Miller (1999), Price (1999), and Walski et al. (2001).
DEMs have been prepared for much of the United States by the U.S. Geological Sur-
vey and are available with grid spacing of 30 m (although 10-m grid spacing is avail-
able for an increasing number of locations). These maps are based on the contour
intervals found in the 7.5-minute quad sheets of that area (for example, 20 ft and 10
ft). Interpolating between these lines may only be accurate to several feet. In some
cases, it may be necessary to find sources of elevation data with higher accuracy in
order to achieve the model accuracy desired. It may be worthwhile to use free or low
cost data initially, and then determine if it is accurate enough. If it is not, more accu-
rate DEMs may need to be obtained.
Software that converts the data from a DEM to elevation attributes in a model usually
requires that the DEM data be in a specific format. Some type of function is usually
necessary to convert the raw DEM data into the required raster grid format and project
the data to the coordinate system being used in the GIS (most USGS data sources are
provided in Universal Tranverse Mercator [UTM] coordinates, which are not com-
monly used in municipal GIS applications).
Most models cover more than a single USGS quad sheet. Although elevation data
import software can work with one sheet at a time, it is usually easier to mosaic the
raster grid files together into a single file using a GIS function rather than deal with
numerous files. In recent years, improvements in LIDAR (Light Detection and Rang-
ing) technology have proven to be a source for higher resolution and accuracy in ele-
vation data. LIDAR data can be represented in a number of file formats, including
DEM and TIN.

Modeling GIS Versus Enterprise GIS

Few would doubt the value of using data from a GIS to create and update a model.
One issue that arises in modeling with GIS, however, is whether model results should
be carried back to the source GIS. Typically, the modeling data is maintained in a sep-
arate GIS layer created specifically for modeling.
Hydraulic modeling results in the enterprise GIS can be used for a number of pur-
poses, including:
• Pressure mapping (used by both engineering and customer service)
• Establishment of water main replacement priorities (when combined with
other GIS layers such as soils and repair data)
• Connection permit processing (available capacity can be reviewed and future
demands reserved)
• Contaminant isolation/remediation (contaminant is introduced accidentally
or intentionally)
558 Integrating GIS and Hydraulic Modeling Chapter 12

Extract, Transform, Load. Modelers will leverage many data sources within
an enterprise. An enterprise GIS houses the centrally managed data that is shared by
individuals within the organization. Modelers typically envision the GIS as the pri-
mary data source or hub from which they will derive their models. Modelers also need
access to other important data sources managed outside of the GIS. Often, this infor-
mation will not reside in the same database or physical server that contains the GIS. It
may be maintained using a blend of database technologies and/or proprietary file for-
mats. The data sources may be distributed across the enterprise and hosted on various
servers and client workstations. Figure 12.13 presents a generalization of such an
enterprise-based GIS modeling system.
The figure shows the data pathways between the distributed data sources and the
modeling GIS. The key to successful modeling in the enterprise is to use automation
tools to accomplish the flow of data between these pathways whenever possible,
avoiding manual intervention or transcription of data between the GIS and the origi-
nal data sources. The modeler can accomplish this automation in several ways:
• By using general utilities to extract the data from one source, transform it as
required for the target source, and then load it into the target source. Such
utilities, called extract/transform/load utilities (ETLs), are readily available
and are extremely valuable to modelers.
• By using programming and script Application Programming Interfaces
(APIs) provided by the GIS and the databases to develop custom extensions
of the standard GIS commands for accomplishing the ETL steps.
• By using commercially available technologies that are specialized for mod-
eling within GIS. These technologies usually focus on some of the intensive
and key data transformation services (for example, automation of the proto-
cols for skeletonization, demand loading, and terrain extraction).
Modeling Features. Several aspects of hydraulic modeling must be taken into
account when using a GIS for this purpose, and these considerations often lead to the
separation of the enterprise GIS layers from the modeling GIS layers. These aspects
of modeling are:
• Network granularity
• Scenarios
• Time-series data
• Ownership
Network granularity. For many hydraulic modeling applications, the model network
does not need to contain every pipe in the actual system to obtain accurate results. For
example, a skeletonized version of the system is often sufficient to make informed
planning decisions and is often desirable to improve the efficiency of the hydraulic
modeling software. Providing fields in the enterprise GIS layers to manage the
hydraulic results would be wasteful because many of the GIS features are eliminated
during the skeletonization process. However, providing a single field for the modeling
identifier is possible, and this identifier allows the extraction or skeletonization soft-
ware to make the link between the GIS feature and model feature. This link then pro-
vides a trail back to the GIS feature for the analysis of hydraulic results.
Section 12.3 Model Construction 559

Figure 12.13
Enterprise-based GIS
modeling system

Scenarios. In water system planning, the modeler is most often dealing with what-if
conditions, not as-built or in-service conditions. These conditions may include future
demands, proposed pipes and system facilities, or facility outages for emergency
response planning.
560 Integrating GIS and Hydraulic Modeling Chapter 12

The GIS can be designed to incorporate the various what-if conditions and phases of a
water system facility. For example, a given pipe goes through many stages:

1. Alternative pipe in the model

2. Proposed pipe in a planning study or budget

3. A pipe under design, bid, and then construction

4. An installed pipe that has not been tested or placed in service

5. A pipe placed in service

Ideally, the enterprise GIS will be designed to manage this whole life cycle, because
many users need to see proposed pipes with other GIS data. A tremendous amount of
activity within a water utility revolves around planned or proposed pipes. The sharing
of data on planned or proposed pipes is one area where inter-agency GIS needs are
high. However, papers on modeling (for example, Deagle and Ancel, 2002) typically
describe how models use GIS, but few describe incorporating model information in
the GIS. An exception to the situations described in most papers is the Indianapolis
Water Company (Schatzlein and Dieterlein, 2002), which has a separate area in its
GIS for proposed projects.

Time-series data. Hydraulic models and water quality models are dynamic, meaning
they can be used to predict the response of the water system over an extended period
of time. The modeler needs to visually analyze this time-series data in an efficient
manner. Although an enterprise GIS can be designed to handle time-series data, they
typically lack the tools for working with time-series data efficiently because most
attributes for GIS features contain a single value (such as node elevation). With time-
series data, it is not uncommon to have 48 hourly values for each hydraulic parameter
for dozens of scenarios. The modeling software is set up to handle these large num-
bers of values, but the enterprise-wide GIS is usually not the best repository.

Ownership. In an enterprise-level GIS, the majority of the data is typically not

“owned” by the hydraulic modelers, and changes to this data are often outside the
modeler's direct control. Several issues arise from this lack of control. First, the enter-
prise GIS will often have data inaccuracies or omissions that are insignificant from a
maintenance management or asset management perspective, but that are important
from a hydraulic modeling viewpoint. The “owners” of the GIS may not be able to
make these corrections as quickly as the hydraulic modeler requires, so the modeler is
forced to make these corrections directly in the modeling GIS layers. An opposite but
equally problematic issue is that the hydraulic modeler often does not want changes to
the GIS to be immediately reflected in the model. For example, when calibrating
against fire hydrant flow test data, it is important that the model reflect the “as-built”
conditions at the time of the test. The GIS owners may be updating for recent water
main installations, and this could have a significant impact on the model's results. The
bottom line is that the modeler needs to be in control of the data used for modeling.
Section 12.4 GIS Analysis and Visualization 561

Case Study: Germantown, Tennessee

The City of Germantown created a GIS to get a Additional criteria were used to perform batch
complete and accurate digital mapping inventory queries and skeletonize the network. For exam-
of its water network. The city also wanted to use ple, because Germantown did not need to per-
the GIS to create a skeletonized water network form unidirectional flushing, all hydrant laterals
suitable for hydraulic modeling. Germantown’s were queried and removed from the model
approach to GIS development was to develop a dataset. Once the skeletonization was complete,
basic infrastructure GIS for a single application— any critical pipe spans omitted were added back
modeling—and then consistently enhance and into the skeletonized network.
build upon the GIS for additional applications over The GIS was used to assign customer demand
time. information, taken from the city’s billing database
In the past, Germantown had maintained its water and stored in parcel centroids, to model nodes.
data on a 1 in. = 500 ft scale, hard-copy map. The Each billing data address was matched with a par-
city used digital orthophotos to compile planimet- cel centroid address, and demands were then
ric data so a spatially accurate GIS could be cre- aggregated and assigned to modeling nodes. The
ated and used as the basis for the water model. procedure resulted in very precise demand
Valve and hydrant locations from the digital ortho- assignments, which would not have been possible
photos and planimetric mapping were used with without GIS. Elevations were also extracted from
the 1in. = 500 ft scale map as the basis for con- Germantown’s DEM and automatically assigned
necting water pipes. The result was a highly accu- to model nodes. The model was then calibrated
rate GIS dataset that could be used immediately and run to determine whether the system could
for modeling applications, inventory, and map meet the present-day demand, and where future
maintenance, and in the future, for building addi- capital improvements were needed.
tional applications. Based on the success of the GIS, Germantown is
GIS tools were used to extract a skeletonized now considering a GIS expansion that would pro-
water network for hydraulic modeling. The model duce an integrated information system featuring
was skeletonized to include water lines larger than an online parcel application and a document man-
6 in., plus all other lines critical for looping. agement system for managing the city’s as-built
drawings.

12.4 GIS ANALYSIS AND VISUALIZATION

This section illustrates ways that GIS might support a water utility in the hydraulic
model application cycle, from model development to capital planning, decision sup-
port, and operations support. It is important to note that a significant amount of plan-
ning and data conversion may be required to develop the datasets to empower a GIS to
perform all of these operations. Section 12.3 covers GIS development to support
water utilities, concentrating on the hydraulic modeling aspects.

Using Attributes to Create Thematic Maps

A classic and very simple use of GIS is to change the appearance of features in a
dataset based on an underlying attribute (attributes are the data that have been col-
lected and associated with each feature in a dataset). In Figure 12.14, this capability
illustrates an apparent error in GIS data that will be imported into a model, where a 6-
in. (150-mm) line still exists in the middle of all new 8-in (200-mm) piping. In this
562 Integrating GIS and Hydraulic Modeling Chapter 12

figure, water pipes 4-in. (100-mm) and smaller are represented by dashed lines, 6-in.
(150-mm) pipes by thin lines, and 8-in. (200-mm) and larger pipes by thick lines.
Used in this manner, GIS can serve as an excellent quality-control tool for all manner
of data related to the water distribution system piping prior to model construction
(such as pipe length, C-value, diameter, and so on). Similarly, thematic maps can be
used to show which customers are late on payments or distinguish between different
types of water quality complaints (or any underlying attribute of any dataset).

Figure 12.14
Basic thematic
mapping — the thin
line between thick
lines indicates a
diameter error in the
GIS

Note: Most water distribution modeling software can perform basic thematic map-
ping, but the number of available settings to distinguish between unique attribute val-
ues is usually higher in a GIS environment.
A variation of basic thematic mapping for quality control or map production involves
color-coding data by underlying attribute ranges. For example, water distribution
nodes at elevations below 500 ft could be color-coded dark blue, 501-600 ft in light
blue, 601-700 ft in green, and so on. These types of thematic maps can also be effec-
tive in quality control and debugging operations.
Communicating the results of modeling to managers, regulators, the media, and the
general public is often difficult. A good map can convey the information much more
clearly than long oral explanations or text. Publications such as ESRI’s Map Book
series contain hundreds of examples of maps drawn using GIS (ESRI, series).
Some examples of thematic mapping are:
• Color-coding pressure zones and overlaying the model to show which unde-
veloped land parcels belong in which pressure zones
Section 12.4 GIS Analysis and Visualization 563

• Illustrating the areal extent of deficient fire flow capacity before and after the
proposed improvements are constructed
• Displaying concentrations of a contaminant in the system in conjunction
with epidemiological data to aid in correlating illness with water quality
• Showing a three-dimensional view of the hydraulic grade line overlaying a
system
Most GIS packages provide many alternatives within the framework of basic thematic
mapping that can be used to produce innumerable effects.

Using the Spatial Coincidence of Features to Assign

New Data
GIS software can analyze features on different layers to determine which coincide. In
this way, data from one set of features can be transferred into a second set of features.
A typical example in water model construction involves the overlay of model nodes
against a layer that contains elevation data. The process is more fully explored in Sec-
tion 12.3, but essentially, the elevation associated with the point at each node can be
incorporated as an attribute of the node based on this coincidence. Nodes that lie out-
side the extent of the elevation layer will not be assigned an elevation in this case.
Other examples of this type of analysis include
• Overlaying water distribution model nodes on meter routes to assign the
meter route number to each node
• Overlaying water distribution model pipes and nodes on pressure zone
boundaries to add the zone code to each model feature, enabling zone-spe-
cific models to be created (see Figure 12.15)
• Overlay a land-use map on a node service zone map to determine the land-
use in each node service zone

Using Spatial Relationships Between Features to Select

Certain Elements and Assign New Data
In addition to using the coincidence of features to assign new data, many GIS pack-
ages can select or isolate features based on their proximity to other features. Classic
cases include finding the closest feature in another dataset and finding all features
within a specified distance of a selected feature. Examples of this type of analysis
include
• Finding the water distribution node closest to a parcel centroid, so that the
billed water demand may be assigned to that node.
• Finding all parcels within 300 feet (91 m) of a set of water distribution pipes,
so that the owners can be notified that a construction project will take place
from October to November. In Figure 12.16, the dark pipes in the center of
the figure were selected and buffered by 300 ft (91 m) to select the parcels to
be notified.
564 Integrating GIS and Hydraulic Modeling Chapter 12

Figure 12.15
Zone-specific model

Figure 12.16
Buffer area along
pipeline project

Using Relationships to Trace Networks

When structured properly, datasets such as those that make up a hydraulic model
(pipes and nodes), can be subjected to a process known as network tracing. In net-
work tracing, GIS software uses information on which links are connected to which
Section 12.4 GIS Analysis and Visualization 565

nodes to allow a system to be traversed. These functions are commonly applied to

street networks and utility networks. Examples of this type of analysis include:

• Generating shortest-path driving directions from point A to point B.

• Indicating the location of a hydrant flushing into a catch basin and identify-
ing the location at which the chlorinated water will enter a stream.

• Indicating the location of a water pipe break and identifying the valves that
must be closed to isolate the break (see Figure 12.17).

• Tracing the network to identify segments that are disconnected, either due to
inaccurate data or inadvertently closed valves. This analysis can be a great
aid in GIS and model input data quality control.

Figure 12.17
Using trace analysis
to simulate the
isolation of a main
break

Using Combinations of GIS Capabilities to Perform

Complex Analyses
Although many advanced types of GIS analyses can be performed, the examples
listed in the preceding sections illustrate some of the most common uses available
through most commercial GIS packages and can be easily mastered. These simple
capabilities can also be used in combination and series to perform more complex
analyses. Examples pertinent to the water distribution industry include:
566 Integrating GIS and Hydraulic Modeling Chapter 12

• Developing or optimizing pressure zone boundaries: A polygon map of

the static hydraulic grade line in each pressure zone can be draped on an ele-
vation model to calculate theoretical static pressures across an entire service
area. The resulting pressures can then be color-coded and shown together
with piping and valve locations to indicate where the boundaries might be
adjusted for optimum service and to determine how undeveloped areas
should be incorporated into the zones (see Figure 12.18).

Figure 12.18
Pressure zone
topographic map
(darker shading
corresponds to higher
pressure zone)

• Locating potential sites for facilities: The GIS can be used to identify good
locations for water system facility sites. In this case, the GIS is not used as a
source of data for modeling but as a way to present alternatives to decision-
makers. As an example, Figure 12.19 illustrates the results of an analysis to
identify the top five ranked sites for the location of a new water storage tank.
About 13,000 parcels were ranked using various criteria, including parcel
size, land ownership, distance to a large water main, and parcel elevation.
The resulting scores were filtered to select the top five parcels. Better parcels
are shown in darker colors. Areas shown in white were eliminated from con-
sideration because of size or elevation constraints.

• Locating potential sites for monitoring equipment: Another example

described by Walski (2002) shows how model results can be imported into a
GIS and used with other data, such as property ownership and locations of
utility-owned buildings, to determine good locations for water quality or
pressure monitoring equipment. For example, siting a pressure monitor or
chlorine sensor in an area where the pressure or chlorine concentration is
almost always constant would not provide a great deal of information to the
system operators. Model runs can provide data on locations in the system
with widely fluctuating pressures or chlorine concentrations. These locations
can be displayed in the GIS by using color-coding and can be overlaid with
other layers to show desirability of monitoring locations in terms of utility
land ownership, location of power, and existence of pump stations and
vaults.
Section 12.5 The Future of GIS and Hydraulic Modeling 567

Figure 12.19
Locating the best sites
for a new water
storage tank

12.5 THE FUTURE OF GIS AND HYDRAULIC MODELING

Both GIS software and hydraulic models are embracing open computing standards
promulgated by the International Standards Organization (ISO), the Open GIS Con-
sortium (OGC), and others. These standards enable the once disparate systems of
models and GIS to share databases and objects, allowing users to quickly make more
informed decisions with less risk of using outdated or inaccurate information.
Users can look forward to even tighter integration between systems in the next few
years as vendors begin to incorporate object technologies and object-oriented pro-
gramming methods into their products. Ultimately, this technology will bring models
and GIS so close to one another as to be indistinguishable in certain applications.
568 Integrating GIS and Hydraulic Modeling Chapter 12

REFERENCES

Anderson, J. L., Lowry, M. V., and Thomte, J. C. (2001). “Hydraulic and Water Quality Modeling of Distri-
bution Systems: What are the Trends in the US and Canada.” AWWA Annual Conference, Washington,
DC.
Basford, C., and Sevier, C. (1995). “Automating Maintenance of Hydraulic Network Model Demand Data-
base Using GIS and Customer Billing Records.” AWWA Computer Conference, Norfolk, Virginia.
Buyens, D. J., Bizier, P. A., and Combee, C. W. (1996). “Using a Geographical Information System to
Determine Water Distribution Model Demands.” AWWA Annual Conference, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Davis, A. L., and Braun, R. C. (2000). “General Purpose Demand Allocator (DALLOC).” EWRI Confer-
ence, ASCE, Minneapolis, Minnesota.
Deagle, G., and Ancel, S. (2002). “Development and Maintenance of Hydraulic Models.” AWWA IMTech,
Kansas City, Missouri.
ESRI. (2001). Dictionary of GIS Terminology. ESRI Press, Redlands, California.
ESRI (series). ESRI Map Book: Applications of Geographic Information Systems. ESRI Press, Redlands,
California.
Miller, D. (1999). “DEM-Based Terrain Modeling with ArcView 3-D Analyst.” ARC User, ESRI, July-Sep-
tember, 16.
Orne, W., Hammond, R., and Cattran, S. (2001). “Building Better Water Models.” Public Works, October.
Price, M. (1999). “Converting and Using SDTS Digital Elevation Models.” Arc User. ESRI, July-Septem-
ber, 10.
Przybyla, J. (2002). “What Stops Folks Cold from Pursuing GIS.” Public Works, April.
Schatzlein, M., and Dieterlein, J. (2002). “Finding Needles in a Haystack: IWC's Experience Optimizing
Integration with Hydraulic Models.” AWWA IMTech, Kansas City, Missouri.
Shamsi, U. M. (2001). “GIS and Modeling Integration." CE News, 13(6).
Walski, T. M. (2002). “Identifying Monitoring Locations in a Water Distribution System.” AWWA IMTech,
Kansas City, Missouri.
Walski, T. M., Toothill, B., Skronski, D., Thomas, D., and Lowry, S. G. (2001). “Using Digital Elevation
Models.” Current Methods, Haestad Press, 91.
Zeiler, M. (1999). Modeling Our World. ESRI Press, Redlands, California.
 Discussion Topics and Problems 569

DISCUSSION TOPICS AND PROBLEMS

Read the chapter and complete the problems. Submit your work to Haestad Methods
and earn up to 11.0 CEUs. See Continuing Education Units on page xxix for more
information, or visit www.haestad.com/awdm-ceus/.

12.1 Match the definition with the GIS term on the left. Place the letter in the blank.

1) ___
Polygon a) Data structure in which features are represented by set of coordinates
2) ___
TIN b) A closed two-dimensional figure
3) ___
Raster c) Assign x-y coordinates to a location such as an address
4) ___
DEM d) Data structure made up of contiguous non-overlapping triangles
5) ___
Vector e) Type of projection of earth surface to Cartesian coordinates
6) ___
Analytical f) Assigns unique attribute value to even sized cells
paradigm
7) ___ Geocode g) Polygons generated around points
8) ___ UTM h) File used for storing elevation data
9) ___ Thiessen i) Using GIS as a place to store mapping data

12.2 Consider a small pressure zone with known flow rates. The demands are to be assigned to the nodes
based on the area of each node. A set of Thiessen polygons was created and their areas are listed in
the table below. Given that the long term average demand is 85 gpm and the peak is 215 gpm, find
the average and peak demand at each node as would be done by a GIS-based tool.

Average and peak demands

Area Average Demand Peak Demand

Node
(acres) (gpm) (gpm)
J-151 15
J-152 25
J-153 23
J-154 41
J-155 12
J-156 15
J-157 11

When is it logical to expect water use to be proportional to the service area of the node?
570 Integrating GIS and Hydraulic Modeling Chapter 12

12.3 The interpolation for elevation used in a GIS is based on two-dimensional TINs using three points.
In the simple problem below, interpolate the elevation at point x, given the elevation at points x1 and
x2.

Extracting elevation data from points is based on the assumption that the points are close enough
such that interpolation gives accurate results. What would the elevation at x be if, between the points,
there is a steep embankment as shown by the dashed gray line?

12.4 Using the nearest node method based on customer meters, the demands assigned to a given node are
16 gpm. What demand should be placed on the node if unaccounted-for water is 20 percent of pro-
duction?

12.5 Given the demand (already corrected for unaccounted-for water) for the land-uses in the following
table:

Unit Demand
Demand Type
(L/day/hectare)
Single Family
1,400
Residential
Multi-family
1,800
Residential
Commercial 1,200
Light Industrial 2,500
Open Space 100
 Discussion Topics and Problems 571

And the following land uses for each node:

Node Area % in Land
Land Use
(hectare) Use
J-201 5 Single Family Residential 100
J-202 8 Commercial 100
Single Family Residential 65
J-203 12 Commercial 20
Light Industrial 15
Single Family Residential 40
J-204 15
Multi-family Residential 60
Light Industrial 75
J-205 9
Open Space 25

Determine the demand at each node in Liters/day.

To perform the above calculation in a GIS, it is necessary to have two different polygon layers.
Describe them?

12.6 In building a GIS for water distribution system modeling, indicate whether the following items
should be vectors (also indicate if they should be point, line, or polygon), rasters, or TINs. There
may be more than one correct answer for each depending on the system.

Item GIS representation

Junction Node Vector (point)
DEM
Tank
Pipe
Aerial Photo Back Ground
DXF File Background
Raw Water Reservoir
Pump
Node Service Area