CHAPTER 4

Biodiversity and
Evolution
There is grandeur to this
view of life… that,
whilst this planet has
gone cycling on…
endless forms most
beautiful and most
wonderful have been,
and are being, evolved.
- Charles Darwin
 Core Case Study: Why Should We
Protect Sharks?
• 400 known species
• 6 deaths per year from shark attacks
• 79-97 million sharks killed every year
• Fins
• Organs, meat, hides
• Fear
• 32% shark species threatened with extinction
• Keystone species
• Cancer resistant
Threatened Sharks

Fig. 4-1, p. 80
 4-1 What Is Biodiversity and Why
Is It Important?
The biodiversity found in genes, species,
ecosystems, and ecosystem processes is vital to
sustaining life on earth.
 Biodiversity Is a Crucial Part of the
Earth’s Natural Capital
• Species: set of individuals who can mate and
produce fertile offspring

• 8 million to 100 million species

• 1.9 million identified

• Unidentified are mostly in rain forests and oceans

Natural Capital: Major Components of
the Earth’s Biodiversity

Fig. 4-2, p. 82
Two Species: Columbine Lily and Great Egret

Fig. 4-3, p. 82
 Science Focus: Have You Thanked the
Insects Today?
• Bad rep: sting us, bite us,
spread disease, eat our food,
invade plants

• Pollination: lets flowering

plants reproduce sexually

• Free pest control: insects eat

other insects

• We need insects more than

they need us
Individuals Matter: Edward O. Wilson:
A Champion of Biodiversity
• Loved bugs as a kid
• Specialized in ants
• Widened scope to
earth’s biodiversity
• Theory of island
biogeography
• First to use
“biodiversity” in a
scientific paper
 4-2 How Does the Earth’s Life Change
Over Time?
• Concept 4-2A The scientific theory of evolution
explains how life on earth changes over time through
changes in the genes of populations.

• Concept 4-2B Populations evolve when genes

mutate and give some individuals genetic traits that
enhance their abilities to survive and to produce
offspring with these traits (natural selection).
Biological Evolution by Natural Selection
FOSSILS
Fossils
• Physical evidence of ancient
organisms
• Reveal what their external structures
looked like

• Fossil record: entire body of fossil

evidence

• Only have fossils of 1% of all

species that lived on earth Fossilized Skeleton of an
Herbivore that Lived during
the Cenozoic Era
Biological Evolution by Natural Selection
Explains How Life Changes over Time
Biological evolution: how earth’s life changes over time through
changes in the genetic characteristics of populations
• Darwin: Origin of Species

• Natural selection: individuals with certain traits are more

likely to survive and reproduce under a certain set of
environmental conditions

Huge body of evidence

Evolution of Life on Earth

Supplement 5, Fig. 2, p. S18

Evolution by Natural Selection Works
MUTATIONS & VARIATIONS
• Populations evolve by
becoming genetically
different

Genetic variations
• First step in biological
evolution
• Occurs through mutations in
reproductive cells
• Mutations: random changes
in DNA molecules
 Evolution by Natural Selection Works
ADAPTATIONS
• Natural selection: acts on individuals
• Second step in biological evolution

• Adaptation may lead to differential

reproduction

• Genetic resistance: ability of one or

more members of a population to
resist a chemical designed to kill it
A group of bacteria, Eventually the
including genetically resistant strain
resistant ones, are The genetically replaces the strain
exposed to an Most of the normal resistant bacteria affected by
antibiotic bacteria die start multiplying the antibiotic

Normal Resistant
bacterium bacterium

Stepped Art
Fig. 4-7, p. 87
Case Study: How Did Humans Become
Such a Powerful Species?
• Strong opposable thumbs

• Walk upright

• Complex brain
 Adaptation through Natural Selection
Has Limits
• Adaptive genetic traits must precede change in the
environmental conditions

• Reproductive capacity
• Species that reproduce rapidly and in large numbers
are better able to adapt
Three Common Myths about Evolution
through Natural Selection
1. “Survival of the fittest” is not
“survival of the strongest”

2. Organisms do not develop

traits out of need or want

3. No grand plan of nature for

perfect adaptation
 4-3 How Do Geological Processes and
Climate Change Affect Evolution?
• Concept 4-3 Tectonic plate movements, volcanic
eruptions, earthquakes, and climate change have
shifted wildlife habitats, wiped out large numbers of
species, and created opportunities for the evolution
of new species.
 Geologic Processes Affect Natural
Selection
• Tectonic plates affect evolution and the location of
life on earth
• Locations of continents and oceans have shifted
• Species physically move, or adapt, or form new
species through natural selection

• Earthquakes: shifting of tectonic plates

• Volcanic eruptions: occur near plate boundaries

Movement of the Earth’s Continents
over Millions of Years

Fig. 4-8, p. 89
 Climate Change Affect Natural Selection
Changes in Ice Coverage in the Northern Hemisphere
During the last 18,000 Years

• Ice ages followed by warming temperatures

• Collisions between the earth and large asteroids

• New species
• Extinctions
 VIDEO: Many Planets, One Earth

The early Earth was a much

different planet than the
one we know today.
Ancient rocks provide
evidence to the emergence
of oxygen in the
atmosphere and the deep
freeze of a Snowball Earth.
Can these clues help explain
the rise of complex animal
life?
4-4 How Do Speciation, Extinction, and
Human Activities Affect Biodiversity?
• Concept 4-4A As environmental conditions change,
the balance between formation of new species and
extinction of existing species determines the earth’s
biodiversity.

• Concept 4-4B Human activities can decrease

biodiversity by causing the extinction of many species
and by destroying or degrading habitats needed for
the development of new species.
 How Do New Species Evolve?

• Speciation: one species splits into two or more

species

• Geographic isolation: happens first; physical

isolation of populations for a long period

• Reproductive isolation: mutations and natural

selection in geographically isolated populations
lead to inability to produce viable offspring
when members of two different populations
mate
Geographic Isolation Can Lead to Reproductive
Isolation

Fig. 4-10, p. 91
 Extinction is Forever

• Extinction
• Biological extinction
• Local extinction
• Endemic species
• Found only in one area
• Particularly vulnerable
• Background extinction: typical low rate of extinction
• Mass extinction: 3-5 over 500 million years
Golden Toad of Costa Rica, Extinct

Fig. 4-11, p. 92
 Science Focus: Changing the Genetic
Traits of Populations
Genetic engineering Artificial selection
gene splicing Use selective
breeding/crossbreeding

Things to Consider
• Ethics
• Morals
• Privacy issues
• Harmful effects
4-5 What Is Species Diversity and Why
Is It Important?
• Concept 4-5 Species diversity is a major component
of biodiversity and tends to increase the
sustainability of ecosystems.
 Species Diversity: Variety, Abundance of
Species in a Particular Place
Species richness:
• The number of different species in a given area

Species evenness:
• Comparative number of individuals

Sample A could be described as

being the more diverse as it
contains three species to
sample B's two. But there is
less chance in sample B than in
sample A that two randomly
chosen individuals will be of
the same species.
Species Diversity: Variety, Abundance of
Species in a Particular Place
• Diversity varies with geographical location

• The most species-rich communities

• Tropical rain forests
• Coral reefs
• Ocean bottom zone
• Large tropical lakes
Global Map of Plant Biodiversity

Supplement 8, Fig. 6, p. S36

 Science Focus: Species Richness
on Islands
• Species equilibrium model, theory of island
biogeography
• Rate of new species immigrating should balance with
the rate of species extinction
• Island size and distance from the mainland need to be
considered
 Species-Rich Ecosystems Tend to Be
Productive and Sustainable
• Species richness seems to increase productivity and
stability or sustainability, and provide insurance
against catastrophe

• How much species richness is needed is debatable

 4-6 What Roles Do Species Play in an
Ecosystem?
• Concept 4-6A Each species plays a specific ecological
role called its niche.

• Concept 4-6B Any given species may play one or

more of five important roles—native, nonnative,
indicator, keystone, or foundation—in a particular
ecosystem.
 What is a Species?

• Definition: A group of organisms which can

interbreed to form fertile young
• A class of individuals having some common
characteristics or qualities; distinct sort or kind
Different Species
of Plants
 Each Species Plays a Unique Role
in Its Ecosystem
• Ecological niche, niche
• Pattern of living: everything that affects survival and
reproduction
• Water, space, sunlight, food, temperatures

• Generalist species
• Broad niche: wide range of tolerance

• Specialist species
• Narrow niche: narrow range of tolerance
Competitive Exclusion Principle
Fundamental vs. Realized Niche
Specialist Species and Generalist Species Niches

Fig. 4-13, p. 95
Specialized Feeding Niches of Various Bird Species in a
Coastal Wetland

Fig. 4-14, p. 96
 Case Study: Cockroaches: Nature’s
Ultimate Survivors
• 3500 species

• Generalists
• Eat almost anything
• Live in almost any climate

• High reproductive rates

 Species Can Play Five Major Roles
within Ecosystems
• Native species: normally live & thrive in particular ecosystem

• Nonnative species: migrate (deliberately or accidentally) into an

ecosystem

• Indicator species: early warnings of damage to ecosystem

• Keystone species: role have a large effect on the types & abudance
of other species in an ecosystem

• Foundation species: play a major role in shaping their communities

by creating & enhancing their habitats to benefit other species
 What is The Importance of
Native Species?
• It is important to remember that every species in
an ecosystem is there for a reason
• Native species are a vital part of the food web
• Plants and animals native to the same area have
adapted to one another so that animals can eat
the plants, but plants can defend themselves
enough to be able to reproduce successfully
 Non-Native Species - Invasive Species

• species considered to be alien

or non-native to an ecosystem
• can cause environmental harm
or harm to human health

Problems They May Cause:

• Economic harm
• Environmental harm
• Harm to human health
Invasive Organisms
• 50,000 species introduced
into US in past 500 years
• Not all invasive
• Out of 4200 “weed” species,
630 cause excessive harm
 Deliberately Introduced Species

Purple looselife European starling African honeybee Nutria Salt cedar

(“Killer bee”) (Tamarisk)

Marine toad Water hyacinth Japanese beetle Hydrilla European wild boar
(Feral pig)
 Accidentally Introduced

Sea lamprey Argentina fire ant Brown tree snake Eurasian muffle Common pigeon
(attached to lake trout) (Rock dove)

Formosan termite Zebra mussel Asian long-horned Asian tiger mosquito Gypsy moth larvae
beetle
Ecological Effects of Invasive Species
• Outcompete native and
endangered species
• Less survival of native
species
• Lower diversity of native
species
• Reduce hunting and
fishing potential
• Habitat aesthetics
diminished
Invasive Species: Zebra Mussel
 Indicator Species

• plants and animals that, by their

presence, abundance, or chemical
composition, are able to reveal
something about the environment
• used as measures of habitat or
ecosystem quality

• Examples: canary in the coal mine,

global death of amphibians, spotted
owl in old growth forests, butterflies,
frogs
 Case Study: Why Are Amphibians
Vanishing?
• Habitat loss and fragmentation
• Prolonged drought
• Pollution
• Increase in UV radiation
• Parasites
Red-Eyed Tree Frog
• Viral and fungal diseases
• Climate change
• Overhunting
• Nonnative predators and competitors

Poison Dart Frog

Why Are Amphibians Important?

• Sensitive biological
indicators of environmental
changes
• Adult amphibians
• Important ecological roles
in biological communities
• Genetic storehouse of
pharmaceutical products
waiting to be discovered
Keystone Species Play Critical Roles in
Their Ecosystems
Keystone species: roles have a large effect on the types
and abundances of other species

• Pollinators

• Top predators
 Keystone Species: SALMON

• critical fall food source for the

grizzly bear, wolves, eagles and
otters, but they also act as
fertilizer for the trees
 Case Study: Why Should We Care
about the American Alligator?
• Largest reptile in North America

• 1930s: Hunters and poachers

• Importance of gator holes and

nesting mounds: a keystone
species

• 1967: endangered species

• 1977: comeback, threatened

species
 Foundation Species Help to Form the
Bases of Ecosystems
• Create or enhance their habitats, which benefit
others
• Examples: Elephants (break/uproot trees giving
space for grasses); Beavers (ecological engineers –
build dams)
 CHAPTER 4: Three Big Ideas
1. Populations evolve when genes mutate and give some
individuals genetic traits that enhance their abilities to
survive and to produce offspring with these traits (natural
selection).
2. Human activities are decreasing the earth’s vital
biodiversity by causing the extinction of species and by
disrupting habitats needed for the development of new
species.
3. Each species plays a specific ecological role (ecological
niche) in the ecosystem where it is found.