EFFECT OF STORAGE ON NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FOOD’

AMIHUD KRAMER
Food Science Program
Uniuersity of Maryland
College Park, Maryland
Received for Publication February 25, 1977

ABSTRACT

With few exceptions, nutrient levels and/or their bioavailability are

reduced in foods following harvest, slaughter, or collection. Rate of
these losses is usually attenuated by reducing temperature of storage.
Initial heat processing to the point of enzyme inactivation, or t o the
point of microbial sterilization, ‘Stabilizes” the food so that it does not
“spoil” but a t the same time causes a greater initial reduction in certain
nutrients, and a more gradual reduction with extended storage. Initial
heat processing and mechanical treatments may also release nutrients
so that they become more available, but once released, they are also
subject to losses unless stored a t low temperatures.
Ascorbic acid is undoubtedly the most sensitive to loss and changes
to a less active form as the result o f time and temperature in storage. In
many instances changes in ascorbic acid reflect general changes in qual-
ity. Thiamine is the other vitamin which is frequently affected adverse-
ly by time and temperature of storage. The A vitamins appear to be lost
readily in leafy vegetables, but relatively unchanged in other foods.
There is little effect on mineral content of foods, but bioavailability,
particularly of iron may be influenced during prolonged storage.
Substantial losses in carbohydrates may be encountered as a result of
respiratory activity in extended storage a t relatively high temperatures.
Protein conteizt is rarely affected, but protein availability is readily
reduced even in low moisture foods unless they are protected from
oxygen and stored a t low temperatures.
These anticipated changes in nutritive value are o f particular signifi-
cance in nutrient labeling, and must be taken into account when prepar-
ing nutrient labels.

INTRODUCTION

In contrast t o the vast literature on nutritive value of fresh and

processed foods, it is only in recent years that special attention has
’Contribution KO. 001 of the Refrigeration Research Foundation Laboratory,
University of Maryland, College Park, MD.
Journal of Food Quality 1 ( 1 9 7 7 ) 23-55. All Rights Reserved
@Copyright 1977 by Food & Nutrition Press, Inc., Westporf, Connecticut 23
24 AMIHUD KRAMER

been directed t o the effect of storage. Thus the value of foodstuffs has
been determined on the basis of their sensory quality retention and
freedom from microbial or insect infestation rather than upon nutrient
retention. Yet the same conditions that determine sensory acceptability
also affect nutrient retention. The most important of these conditions
for determining sensory or nutritional “shelf life” is temperature, but
other factors such as packaging, atmosphere within and without the
package, and exposure t o light, may all be important for specific foods
(Richardson 1976).
As with other quality attributes, the stored or processed product is
rarely nutritionally superior t o the raw ingredients from which it is
produced. Nutrients are destroyed during food processing because of
sensitivity to pH, oxygen, light, heat, or a combination of these factors.
Trace elements and enzymes catalyze these effects. Where certain nutri-
ents are included as additives they may have an antagonistic effect upon
one another (e.g., effect of added iron on vitamin E in milk), or their
retention levels may be reduced by other components in the foods (e.g.
effect of the anthocyanins on retention of vitamin C added t o prune
juice).
These changes, usually resulting in lower nutritional levels, may oc-
cur during all stages of processing, in the channels of trade, and contin-
ue in the home. There is good reason to believe that the maximum
damage t o nutrient levels in foods occurs during handling and prepara-
tion of the foods in the home (Lachance et al. 1973), t o a lesser extent
in the retail and distribution channels, t o a still lesser extent during
storage, particularly if held a t low temperatures, and t o a relatively
minor extent during the actual commercial processing of the foods.
In sensory quality the specific attributes can be weighed in relation
t o their effect on total quality and a single overall quality score can be
provided. This is next t o impossible in considering nutritional quality
although many valient efforts have been made t o provide such a score.
For example, a particular product can be given a certain number of
“points” for each quality of each nutrient that it contains. In fact,
however, such an exercise is largely meaningless and we must resort t o
listing the quantity of each of 40 plus nutrients that may be present in
a food. The current usual procedure which follows the United States
Food and Drug guidelines (Edwards 1973) is t o list the actual quantities
per serving of calories, protein and fats, and the percentages of the re-
commended daily dietary allowances (RDA’s) of protein, vitamins A,
B1, B 2 , niacin, C, and minerals (calcium and iron). Other essential vita-
mins and minerals are usually not listed nor is much attention given t o
the availability of any of these nutrients and particularly of protein, or
the essential amino acids that must be present and available in the pro-
teins for them t o be nutritionally effective.
 EFFECT O F STORAGE ON NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FOOD 25

From the standpoint of temperature control the situation is not

quite so complicated. Although there is eventually some loss in bioavail-
ability, if not in actual content of all nutrients during extended storage,
and the rate of this loss is attenuated with reduction of storage temper-
ature, all nutrients may be classified into three categories: 1)those that
are practically unaffected by temperature of storage; 2) those nutrients
that are thermally stable in some foods but not in others; 3) those
nutrients that are highly sensitive t o storage temperature. We shall con-
sider largely the third category.
The most temperature-sensitive nutrient is undoubtedly ascorbic acid
or vitamin C, particularly in non-acid foods and in the presence of air or
oxygen. Thus, vitamin C in frozen orange concentrate is maintained
quite well. However, during preparation and freezing of non-acid
greens, vitamin C content was reduced t o one quarter ( t o one tenth
when canned). When stored for six months at +5"F, vitamin C content
was reduced in half again, but when stored at - 5 ° F there was little
further loss in vitamin C (Kramer et al. 1972). Vitamin C loss in storage
has been found frequently t o parallel sensory quality loss so that often
vitamin C analysis is used t o indicate sensory quality (Cain 1967). But
this is not always the case. Frozen peaches, for example, maintain
sensory quality satisfactorily for six months or longer if stored a t -5" F.
To maintain vitamin C content at the original level, storage temperature
must be reduced to -35°F. Since there are quite a few fruits and
particularly vegetables which are not acid and are good sources of vita-
min C, there is good reason t o store them at low temperatures even if
they had been thermally stabilized, that is sterilized or canned. There is
no good argument for instance against the refrigerated storage of
canned green beans t o prevent vitamin C loss except that the vitamin C
that is lost may not be considered essential, and if the container is
labeled for a given vitamin C content, sufficient synthetic vitamin can
be added t o retain the level declared even at the end of a storage period
at high temperature.
The other thermally-sensitive vitamin is thiamine or vitamin B, .
Where vitamin C is an important nutrient in fruits and vegetables, thia-
mine, like other B vitamins, is found in greater quantities in animal pro-
ducts although it is found in vegetable products as well, particularly le-
gumes. Practically everything that has been said about vitamin C applies
also to vitamin B, . In this case the only possible argument against use of
refrigerated storage to maintain B, levels is that the standard bread in
this country and other countries is fortified with thiamine so there is
little if any thiamine deficiency in the general population. This argu-
ment, however, does not prevent a packer from misbranding if he de-
26 AMIHUD KRAMER

clares his product to contain a certain level of B, which might very well
have been the case when packed, but is below this level when stored at
ambient temperatures.
Other heat-lable vitamins that may be affected by extended storage
are riboflavin, folic acid, pantothenic acid, and biotin. Pyridoxine, nia-
cin, and vitamin BI2 are reportedly thermally stable (Cain 1967).
The vitamin A story is a confusing one. Apparently it is not only
fully retained in such products as carrots and sweet potatoes, but seems
to increase somewhat during storage. In other products, such as leafy
greens, it is rapidly lost unless stored at low temperatures.
In contrast to most if not all the other nutrients there is a real iron
deficiency in certain population groups even in the United States. This
is probably due to both an insufficient intake of iron and the unavail-
ability of iron that is consumed. Thus, iron fortification is needed.
There is little information on the effect of storage temperature on the
bioavailability of iron. Certainly extended storage at any temperature
should not cause iron to disappear from the food.
Perhaps the most important and intriguing relationship of nutritional
quality and storage temperatures is that of protein. As with iron, there
is no reason to believe that protein content as such is reduced with
increasing time and temperature of storage. However, there is mounting
evidence to the effect that bioavailability of protein is reduced with
increase in time and temperature. It has been shown, for example, that
the protein in dried milk, when stored above 7 0 ° F and 70% relative
humidity will lose half its nutritional effectiveness (bioavailability) in
six months. Apparently this is due in part to a change in availability of
the amino acid lysine. But this seems to be only part of the story. If the
same milk powder is held in refrigerated storage, most of the protein
nutritive value is retained for a full year. When stored at 0 ° F there
appears to be little change in nutritive value for two years and longer.
Apparently these losses in protein bioavailability are accelerated in
the presence of oxygen and water vapor. Thus, packaging in vapor and
oxygen-tight containers will aid in retention of bioavailability. It yet
remains to be seen if products such as milk powder can retain protein
nutritive value even at high temperatures of storage if packed in near
total absence of oxygen and water. Recent studies with textured vege-
table proteins indicated similar losses in protein bioavailability which
were practically eliminated by storage at or below 0°C.

FRESH FOODS

Fresh foods by definition have not undergone a “stabilizing” process-

 EFFECT OF STORAGE ON NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FOOD 27

ing treatment and are therefore most susceptible to nutritional changes

during storage. It is commonplace to include as fresh, foods that have
been superficially treated chemically, coated, packaged and/or placed in
modified atmospheres, since life processes, particularly respiration, have
not been arrested, but only attenuated, and the main effect is extension
of shelf-life through protection of the food from infection or infesta-
tion.

Energy
Practically all fresh foods lose weight after harvest, collection or
storage, as a result of transpiration and respiration. This weight loss is
generally most rapid in high-moisture foods of plant origin. While trans-
pirational (i.e., moisture) losses may be of major economic importance,
no nutrients are affected; respirational losses, however represent direct
loss of carbohydrates and other digestible carbon-containing nutrients,
but mainly sugar. Thus respiration losses are generally low in animal
products, where the small quantities of glycogen are frequently com-
pletely utilized during the slaughtering operation, so that further respir-
ation during storage proceeds at such a slow rate that heat of respira-
tion is not considered a factor in refrigerated storage.
For high-moisture plant foods, however, respiration rates are so rapid
that they must be taken into account when calculating refrigeration
requirements. As shown in Table 1, adapted from ASHRAE Guide and
Data Book (1971), heat of respiration increases with storage tempera-
ture. It is also substantially lower for “hardware” items such as apples,
onions, or potatoes, known to have relatively long shelf-life, than for
short shelf-life commodities such as green beans, sweet corn, or straw-
berries.
Moisture percent is not a good indication of energy loss, since under
proper conditions, moisture loss through transpiration may be propor-
tional to solids loss through respiration. Thus, for example, green beans
stored a t 5°C and 60%RH for ten days lost 20% weight, but maintained
initial 88% moisture, indicating that about 20% (2.4 of the 12% solids)
of the most digestible solids were lost, leaving a higher level of undiges-
tible solids in the stored product.
Sweet corn, harvested at 72% moisture, and 4% sugar, lost 50% of
the sugar within 1 2 hours at 30°C and 90% within 3 days. At the same
time moisture content was reduced t o 65%, and the indigestible peri-
carp content increased from 1.8 to 2.8%. When stored at 2°C for 5
days, moisture was reduced by 2%,sugar by 1%, and pericarp increased
by 0.2%(Kramer et al. 1949).
Many “aids” t o refrigeration, such as controlled atmosphere or
28 AMIHUD KRAMER

Table 1. Approximate amount of respiration heat produced by certain fruits and

vegetables a t t h e temperatures indicated (Mainly from USDA Agr. Handbook No.
66)

Commodity Btu per t o n per 24 hr

32'F 40°F 60°F 70°F

Apples 700 1,350 1,490 5,700
Apricots -
5,050 11,700 20,350
Artichokes 7,700 10,450 25,400 40.700
Asparagus 9,700 18,050 38,500 48,750
Avocados -
5,500 24,050 46,250
Bananas (green) - -
4,850 7,400
Beans:
Green snap 7,250 10,300 38,100 49,200
Lima (in p o d ) 4,450 6,100 24,700 34,300
Beets 2,700 4,100 7,200 -

Black berries 4,100 7,950 -

38,350
Blueberries 1,400 2,350 10,550 15,300
Broccoli, sprouting 4,400 21,400 56,500 68,100
Brussels sprouts 4,400 7,700 22,000 28,350
Cabbage 1,200 2,200 4,900 8,450
Carrots 3,300 4,300 8,750 15,500
Cauliflower (trimmed) 3,900 4,500 10,100 17,700
Celery 1,600 2,400 8,200 14,200
Cherries:
Sour 2,100 2,850 8,500 9,800
Sweet 1,050 2,600 -
7,700
Corn (sweet) 8,950 13,850 35,850 63,700
Cranberries 650 950 -
3,200
Cucumbers - -
5,300 6,850
Endive and Escarole
(see Leaf lettuce)
Figs (fresh) -
2,650 12,350 16,700
Gooseberries 1,700 2,850 5,950 -
Grapefruit - 1,000 3,100 4,250
Grapes :
American 600 1,200 3,500 7,200
European 400 1,000 2,400 -

Kale (whole leaves) 4,700 8,900 30,250 49,600

Leeks 2,900 5,350 21,950 -
Lemons 7 00 1,250 3,650 4,850
Lettuce:
Head 2,500 3,650 8,450 12,200
Leaf 5,100 6,450 13,800 22,100
Limes -
800 1,800 2,800
Mangos -
3,500 9,9qo 24,900

Continued
 EFFECT OF STORAGE ON NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FOOD 29

Table 1.Continued

Commodity Btu per t o n per 24 hr

32'F 40'F 60'F 70'F

Melons:
Can teloups 1,200 2,050 7,950 12,000
Honeydew - 900 3,050 5,150
Watermelons - 8 00 - 4,650
Mushrooms 7,900 15,600 46,000 63,800
Nectarines (see Peaches)
Okra - 12,250 32,050 57,400
Onions:
Dry 650 7 50 2,400 3,650
Green 3,600 9,400 17,950 25,800
Oranges 750 1,200 4,000 6,200
Parsnips 3,000 2,900 8,250 -
Peaches 1,150 1,700 8,300 17,750
Pears:
Bar tle t t 1,100 1,650 8,250 11,000
Kieffer 450 - 850 4,750
Peas (green, in the pod) 8,500 14,450 41,900 66,750
Peppers (sweet) -
2,900 8,500 9,650
Pineapples - 400 3,450 7,050
Plums (including fresh
prunes) 500 1,450 2,700 4,700
Potatoes:
Uncured - 2,600 4,850 6,950
Cured -
1,250 1,950 2,650
Prunes (see Plums)
Radishes (topped) 1,400 2,100 7,100 11,250
Rasp berries 4,700 7,650 20,200 -
Rhubarb (without leaves) 2,350 3,200 8,700 10,650
Romaine -
4,550 9,750 15,100
Spinach 4,550 10,150 39,350 50,550
Squash:
Butternut - - - -
Yellow straight-neck 2,700 3,600 18,250 20,050
Strawberries 3,300 5,450 17,950 32,800
Sweetpotatoes:
Cured - -
4,800 -
Uncured - - 6,300 -
Tomatoes :
Mature-green -
1,450 4,900 7,650
Pink -
1,300 5,850 7,500
Turnips 1,900 2,150 5,000 5,400
Watercress 5,050 10,150 40,700 -
30 AMIHUD KRAMER

hypobaric storage, are primarily means of reducing rates of respiration,

thereby improving retention of energy value of the products so treated
(Dewey et al. 1969).
While energy losses in storage for more mature seed crops are not as
severe, they can be substantial, particularly if moisture content is above
the optimum. Thus Heideman and Lund (1976) reported a respiration
loss of about 2% per day in immature wild rice, about 1%in fully
mature rice, and practically no respiration loss when stored in near
100% nitrogen atmosphere.
Reports from Czechoslovakia (Urban 1975), Israel (Volcani Center
Agr. Res. (1975) and the United St,ates (USDA 1975) indicate bene-
ficial effects in using chilled air to cool wheat and soybeans to 20°C.
Without such cooling, heat of respiration increased temperatures of
stored grain t o 4O-5O0C,causing not only losses in carbohydrates and
other nutrients, but inducing spoilage and affecting germination. Re-
ports from Japan indicate that to prevent nutritional losses, and main-
tain desirable functional properties, storage temperature of rice should
be limited to 15°C.
Feed grains harvested a t somewhat higher moisture levels (18-20%)
than optimal for storage (12-14%),have been found t o have about 10%
higher feed value. When stored, they must be chilled t o about 5°C to
prevent nutritient loss and development of mycotoxins. The alternate
control method is treatment with propionic acid or other fungicide
which will also prevent loss of nutrients, but will affect germination
(Berg 1972).

Vitamin C
Heinze (1973) states that ascorbic acid is one of the more important
nutrients supplied by fresh fruit and vegetables and is also one of the
most sensitive to destruction when subjected LO adverse handling and
storage conditions. Loss of ascorbic acid is associated with degree of
wilting in practically all leafy vegetables such as kale, spinach, turnip
greens, where the degree of wilting and reduction in ascorbic acid are
much higher at 10°C and certainly a t 20°C than a t 0°C. Cabbage, which
is also a leafy vegetable, loses ascorbic acid more slowly. Seed vege-
tables, such as peas and beans, should be stored a t as low a temperature
as possible (slightly under O"C), not only t o prevent multiplication of
microorganisms, but also to retard vitamin C loss. He also points out
that shelled peas and lima beans lose ascorbic acid at twice the rate of
unshelled beans a t the same temperature.
Freshly dug potatoes contain 20+mg% ascorbic acid, so that a five
ounce serving of freshly dug potatoes will provide about half the recom-
 EFFECT OF STORAGE ON NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FOOD 31

mended daily dietary allowance (RDA). However, potatoes rapidly lose

vitamin C in storage, so that within several weeks ascorbic levels are
little more than 5-6mg%. Cooling the freshly dug potatoes rapidly and
holding them a t close to 0°C not only does not retard vitamin C loss,
but accelerates the rate of loss. Thus, potatoes a t 5°C have been found
t o lose as much ascorbic acid in two months as comparable lots stored
at 10 or 15°C in five months.
Many fruits, particularly citrus, are good sources of vitamin C. It is
generally agreed that lemons retain nearly 100% of their ascorbic acid
during storage, and grapefnit lose very little ascorbic acid. Reports
differ for oranges and tangerines, but it has been concluded that loss of
vitamin C in fresh citrus is not likely to exceed 10% under reasonable
conditions of storage. Temperature of storage may vary depending on
the species and variety from as low as 2°C t o 15°C.
Green asparagus stalks, stored at near 0°C and high relative humidity
retain over 80% ascorbic acid after 7-10 days and may at the same time
reduce fiber content. At 2OoC ascorbic acid content is reduced t o 20%
(Scott and Kramer 1949).
Tomatoes harvested in the pink stage contain more ascorbic acid
than mature green, or fully ripe tomatoes. Unripe tomatoes may show
an increase in ascorbic acid during the first few days of storage, but will
not equal vine-ripened fruit. After 10 days storage at the appropriate
temperatures (15-20°C for unripes, 5-10°C for ripe), all tomatoes re-
tained about 80% of their original ascorbic acid (Scott and Kramer
1949a).
Mature, dry seeds of vegetables, grains, and legumes, contain prac-
tically no ascorbic acid, but substantial quantities of other iodine reduc-
ing substances. Upon germination, there is a rapid reduction in glu-
tathione, and a corresponding increase in ascorbic acid so that pea and
bean sprouts may contain 20-30 mg% ascorbic acid (Siege1 1947).

Folk Acid
Folic acid or folacin, is a vitamin essential t o man. Yet, like Vitamins
E or K, it is difficult t o demonstrate deficiency in the human diet. For
these reasons, it is not usually involved in nutrition labeling. However,
with the increasing use of single cell protein such as yeast as a supple-
ment for protein enrichment, folacin level may become important,
since some of these materials are rich in this nutrient. Heinze (1973)
reports that folic acid is lost rapidly if storage conditions are unfavor-
able. Leguminous seeds vegetables, asparagus, spinach, turnip greens,
and other leafy vegetables supply significant quantities of folic acid to
the diet. These vegetables, stored for two weeks at refrigerated tempera-
tures, or in crushed ice, were found to lose little if any of the folic acid
32 AMIHUD KRAMER

content. However, storage at room temperature for three days resulted

in losses of more than 50% of the vitamin.

Thiamine and Riboflavin

Fruits and vegetables are not considered important sources of thia-
mine (B, ) and riboflavin (B, ), but some of the leguminous seed vege-
tables such as peas and lima beans may supply significant amounts of
thiamine. If stored for not more than two to four days even a t ambient
temperatures, they should retain about 90% of these nutrients. How-
ever, if stored for longer pe~riods,they should be refrigerated. There is
some indication that thiamine and riboflavin may initially increase dur-
ing storage or processing, but upon further storage at ambient tempera-
tures, will decline (Cain 1967; Underdal e t al. 1976).
Gas treatments had a profound effect on changes in thiamine content
of mushrooms in storage (Besser and Kramer 1972). Controls a t both
storage temperatures showed little change in thiamine content through-
out the two month storage period. When stored in nitrogen, thiamine
content appeared t o increase by about 25% after one month’s storage,
then gradually decreased to original levels during the second month’s
storage. A similar tendency was noted for the carbon monoxide-treated
mushrooms, but to a much more substantial degree with the increase at
the end of the first month’s storage being practically 100%. For all
treatments a t all storage periods, thiamine content was higher a t the
lower storage temperature.
Similar atmospheric modifications of fresh beef patties affected thia-
mine content differently. The control and carbon monoxide treatments
remained fairly stable throughout the storage period. The nitrogen
flushed patties, on the other hand, showed a sharp increase in thiamine
content (well over 100%) during the first month’s storage, thiamine
content tended t o drop, but was not reduced to the original levels even
after 2 4 month’s storage at both the high and low temperatures.

Vitamin A
There is little, if any, vitamin A as such in fruits and vegetables;
however, many fruits and vegetables, particularly the green and yellow
vegetables, contain substantial amounts of carotene, some forms of
which are precursors of vitamin A.
Generally, carotene is rather stable, so that there have been reports
that, in some vegetables such as sweet potatoes, carotene content may
actually increase during storage. On the other hand, leafy vegetables
subjected t o wilting conditions may lose more than half of their caro-
tene when held a t or near room temperature for four days. Thus, t o
 EFFECT O F STORAGE ON NUTRITIVE VALUE O F FOOD 33

preserve the carotene (or vitamin A) of vegetables such as spinach,

which are quite rich in this vitamin when first harvested, thev should be
held at as low storage temperatures as possible without freezing (Heinze
1973).

Hypobaric Storage
The benefits of low pressure storage in rooms or by means of vac-
uum packaging, is evident for extending storage life of some fresh
foods. Some recent data show some beneficial effects on nutrient reten-
tion as well. Delaporte (1971) found that apples stored at low oxygen
tension retained 60% of their original ascorbic acid after 3 months stor-
age a t 15"C, as compared to 20% for air-stored apples. Hypobaric stor-
age was reported to reduce rate of ascorbic acid loss in cherries and
blueberries, aid retention of sugar in sweet corn, and reduce fiber in
asparagus (Northeastern Regional Fruit Marketing Comm. 1975). Vac-
uum packaging of primal and sub-primal cuts of beef indirectly aided
nutrient retention by reducing drip loss (Seideman e t al. 1976).

FROZEN FOODS

Storage temperature has special significance with frozen foods be-

cause they are defined as foods stored at temperatures below -18°C. At
such temperatures microbial growth is completely arrested. However,
even at such low temperatures certain enzymatic and non-enzymatic
changes continue, but at a much slower rate, to limit storage life of
frozen foods. Thus even when frozen, the lower the storage temper-
ature, the longer the storage life. As shown in Fig. 1,which summarizes
much of the information developed in the classic time-temperature-
tolerance studies of the USDA (Van Arsdel e t al. 1969), quality losses
increase log-linearly with temperature increase, but the slopes of the
curves differ for different commodities. Bengtsson e t al. (1972), ex-
tended this work, and classified all frozen foods into six categories
exhibiting different slopes. They found that all categories except No. 2
(raw fat meat, and precooked dishes of fat meat in gravy) exhibited
log-linear curves, and quality losses could therefore be assumed to fol-
low first order reactions (Fig. 2). Since percentage of a nutrient remain-
ing after a given time-temperature of processing or storage is also
assumed t o be a first-order reaction (Labuza 1973), and in a few instan-
ces actually demonstrated to be so (Lee e t al. 1976), it might be as-
sumed that nutritional losses in storage proceed in much the same man-
ner as quality losses as reported above (Fig. 1, 2).
34 AMIHUD KRAMER

II)

sc
s

-20 -10 0 10 20 30

Temperature, OC

FIG. 1. RELATION OF TIME AND TEMPERATURE OF STORAGE TO

HIGH QUALITY SHELF LIFE OF VARIOUS FROZEN FOODS
Source: Summarized from USDA T-T-Tstudies (Van Arsdel e t QZ. 19F9, Gold-
blith 1975)

Unfortunately, the above studies provide little data on nutrient losses

in frozen storage, and more data on actual rates of nutrient losses are
needed before predictions can be made (Labuza 1973; Kramer 1974).
The nutrient that has been most thoroughly researched is ascorbic
acid, with the finding that kinetics of ascorbic acid destruction during
storage are influenced by amount of blanching (to inactivate enzymes),
rate of freezing, and packaging as well as time-temperature of storage
(Goldblith 1975). A most important finding was that for some frozen
foods, such as strawberries, while total, and biologically active ascorbic
acid remains at essentially the same level for a year or longer, if stored
below - 18" C conversion to the partially active dehydroascorbic, and
the totally inactive 2, 3-diketogulonic acid increases with increasing
storage temperatures, so that practically complete conversion occurs in
8 months at a storage temperature of -1O"C, and in less than 2 months
at -2°C (Guadagni 1958). Such findings were instrumental in establish-
ing 0°F (-18°C) as the upper limit for frozen food storage, and for
 EFFECT OF STORAGE ON NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FOOD 35

W W m m w W . A

Days
1000
500

200

100
50

20
HIGH QUALITY
10 LIFE .
I

5
-5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35
Temperature "C
FIG. 2. TTT CHARACTERISTICS (HQL-DATA) FOR DIFFERENT FOODS
SYSTEMIZED IN GROUPS.
The groups are:
1. Raw, lean meat and precooked dishes o r lean meat in gravy;
2. Raw, fat meat and precooked dishes of fat meat in gravy;
3. Precooked foods without gravy. Lean fish;
4. Fat fish without any qualified protective measures in treatment or packaging;
5. Fruit and berries;
6. Vegetables.

using biologically active ascorbic acid as a general indicator of quality

deterioration in storage. While this may be appropriate in some instan-
ces, it certainly is not in others.
As shown in Table 2 (adapted from Van Arsdel et al. 1969; Davis
1956; Huggart et al. 1954; Dubois and Kew 1951) storage temperature
of -20°C will not only maintain quality of asparagus, green beans, lima
beans and peas, but also will retain at least 90% of the original vitamin
C content for 1 2 months. As stated above, this is the reason for using
vitamin C determinations as indicators of quality retention. There are,
however, many exceptions to this relationship. Thus, although -20°C is
adequate to maintain sensory quality of broccoli, cauliflower, spinach,
and peaches for 1 2 months or longer, these products may lose 20 to
50% of their vitamin C under these storage conditions. The reverse may
36 AMIHUD KRAMER

Table 2. Maximum storage temperatures ("C) for frozen fruits and vegetables for
general quality retention compared to vitamin C losses

Months in storage
6 12 18 24

Asparagus
Qualitya -1 8 -21 -2 3 -25
Vitamin C lossb
10% -1 5 -1 8 -1 9 -2 0
25% -1 4 -1 5 -1 8 -1 9
5 0% -1 3 -1 6 -1 7 -1 8
Broccoli
Qualitya -18 -21 -2 3 -25
Vitamin c lossb
10% -26 -4 0 -4 6 -

25% -1 7 -1 9 -21 -2 2
50% -1 3 -14 -16 -1 8
Lima Beans
Qualit ya -1 6 -20 -22 -23
Vitamin c lossb
10% -1 6 -1 7 -1 8 -1 9
25% -1 2 -1 5 -1 7 -1 8
50% - 8 -1 3 -1 5 -1 7
Green Beans
Qualitya -1 6 -1 9 -2 1 -22
Vitamin c lossb
10% -20 -21 -22 -23
25% -1 6 -1 8 -19 -20
5 0% -14 -1 6 -18 -1 7
Cauliflower
Qualitya -1 6 -1 9 -2 0 -2 1
Vitamin c lossb
10% -1 7 -2 5 -3 7 -
25% -1 6 -22 -2 9 -
5 0% -1 3 -1 8 -2 3 -
Peas
Qualitya -16 -1 9 -2 1 -23
Vitamin c lossb
10% -1 6 -19 -20 -2 2
25% -1 3 -1 6 -1 7 -1 8
50% -1 2 -1 3 -14 -1 5

Continued
 EFFECT OF STORAGE ON NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FOOD 37

Table 2. Continued

Months in storage
6 12 18 24

Spinach
Quality" -1 9 -2 2 -24 -25
Vitamin c lossb
10% -20 -26 -2 8 -3 0
25% -1 1 -20 -23 -24
5 0% -14 -1 8 -1 9 -20
O.J. & Grapefruit Conc.
Qualitya -1 0 -1 4 -1 6 -1 7
Vitamin C lossc
10% 5 5 5 5
Peaches
Qua1i ty a -1 5 -1 8 -1 6 -1 5
Vitamin c lossd
10% -3 9 - - -
2 5% -18 -3 7 - -
25% -12 -1 8 - -

aAdapted from WRRL-TTT studies (Van Arsdel et al. 1969.)

bAdapted from Davis (1956).
CAdaptedfrom Huggart ~ t a l (1954).
.
dAdapted from Dubois and K e w (1951)

also be true, i.e., sensory quality may deteriorate more rapidly than the
vitamin content. An excellent example of this is citrus fruit, particular-
ly orange juice concentrate which will retain quality for over two years
at -18°C but will lose less than 10%vitamin C even at temperatures as
high as +5".
Such data may be used for labeling purposes as in the following
example. Freshly frozen asparagus and broccoli both containing 30
mg% ascorbic acid may be held in storage for 1 2 to 18 months at
-18°C to -24°C. It could be safe to label the asparagus as containing
90% of 30, or 27 mg% vitamin C. The broccoli however, stored under
the same conditions, could be labeled as containing only 75% of 30, or
22 mg%
While it is generally assumed that vitamin A (including biologically
active carotene precursors) remains quite stable in storage, there are
occasional reports that in certain foods stored at above freezing temper-
atures, vitamin A may be lost rapidly (Heinze 1973). Such losses are
apparently caused by oxidation as demonstrated with two prepared
frozen foods. Frozen meat patties and macaroni and cheese were
blended in a Waring Blendor. The blended samples were stored in a
38 AMIHUD KRAMER

refrigerator at 5" C, and aliquots were removed for various analyses.

When the vitamin A analyses were performed immediately after blend-
ing, the patties and'the macaroni and cheese had 1840 and 1025 IU/
lOOg respectively. After 4 days storage, A values were found t o increase
to 2295 and 1665 IU. With further storage at 5"C, A values began to
decrease, so that after 11 days storage, both foods contained less than
800 IU/lOOg.
In Table 3, effects of frozen storage are shown for Salisbury steak in
tomato sauce, a popular prepared frozen food containing both animal
and vegetable ingredients, so that changes in a variety of nutrients could
be observed. While quality of product was fully maintained for 6
months when stored at constant -20°C or lower, ascorbic acid content
was reduced significantly after 3 months, and t o less than 50% after 6
months storage, even at -30°C. Thiamine reduction followed more
closely changes in quality. In general, however, losses in both vitamins
and in sensory quality increased with increasing time-temperature of
storage, and were greater under fluctuating (+ 5" C) temperature condi-
tions than under constant (k1"C) temperatures.
Storage conditions had little or no effect on the macronutrients,
minerals, nor on vitamins A, riboflavin, and niacin. Since the produce
was well packaged in gas-tight aluminum, the increased "in-package"
desiccation caused by fluctuating temperatures did not affect the com-
position of this prepared food; the ice formed in the package was
reabsorbed upon preparation for consumption. Even if the ice were
discarded it is not likely that it would result in a nutritional loss. Other
prepared frozen foods behaved similarly (Kramer and Farquhar 1976).
Although there was no indication of loss of total protein, it is known
that heat has a deleterious effect due to either the outright destruction
of amino acids, such as lysine in cereal and bread manufacture, or a
combination destruction of part of one or more of the amino acids in a
linkage that is not hydrolyzed during digestion. This is seen in the
Maillard reaction - an amino group from an essential amino acid such
as lysine reacting with the carbonyl group of a reducing sugar either
during processing or prolonged storage at high temperatures. Obviously,
such reactions do take place in the manufacture of precooked foods,
but storage of these at 0°F reduces or stops the degree of further
deterioration (Goldblith 1975). The data in Table 4 demonstrate not
only the beneficial effect of below 0°F on retaining nutritive value of
protein in terms of protein efficiency ratio (PER), but indicate that
storage at any temperature below 0°C would be practically as effective.
 Table 3. Changes in sensory, microbial, and nutritional quality of Salisbury steak in tomato sauce stored a t constant
and fluctuating temperaturesa

Storage Quality Scoresb Total Plate Counts' Ascorbic Acidd Thiamined

Conditions Constant Fluctuating Constant Fluctuating Constant Fluctuating Constant Fluctuating

Initial 4.1 18.0 3.6 3 .O

3 months
-1OOC 3.0 2.8 0.3 0.3 1.8 1.o 2.8 1.8
-2OOC 3.8 3.7 17.0 14.0 2.8 2.0 2.9 2.1
-3OOC 3.8 3.7 73.0 0.3 2.8 2.5 3.2 2.6
6 months
-1OOC -
3.3 2.8 0.3 1.2 1.1 1.9 1.8
-2OOC -
4.0 3.6 0.5 1.6 1.1 2.7 1.7
-3OOC -
4.2 3.7 0.8 1.8 1.1 2.7 2.6

:Constant = i l " C , Fluctuating = i5OC Adapted from Kramer e t ol. (1976).

5 = practically perfect, 2 = poor but acceptable, less than 2 = unacceptable.
C100O's/g. 0
dlng/100g. Crl
40 AMIHUD KRAMER

Table 4. Protein efficiency ratios (All data adjusted to casein control = 2.7)

Storage duration, Storage Temperature

months -3OOC -2OOC -1OOC
~~~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~

Beef patties +8.5% TVP

3 2.45 2.54 2.12
6 3.08 2.10 2.55
12 3.01 2.12 3.00
18 2.74 2.15 2.58
Beef patties +8%TVP+2.5%SCP
3 3.01 2.e4 2.60
6 2.12 2.16 2.51
12 3.40 2.62 2.88
18 2.95 2.61 2.63
TVP, rehydrated, canned
3 2.45 2.23 2.46
6 2.06 1.95 2.09
12 2.51 2.41 2.29
18 2.14 2.30 2.52

TVP, dry stored a t -18OC +looc +23’C

6 months 1.95 1.89 1.51

TVP. textured vegetable protein.

SCP, Single cell protein, produced from alcohol yeast fermentation.

CANNED FOODS

Low temperature storage of canned foods may be beneficial to nutri-

ent retention in several ways. The most direct benefit is in the usual
improvement in nutrient retention. Canned foods packed in less nutri-
tive media such as water, sugar syrup, or starch gravies gradually suffer
a leaching effect of the nutrients from the “meat” into the liquor. This
leaching process can be delayed by low temperature storage. Thus for
example Gangal and Magar (1967) demonstrated that canned crab meat
packed in brine and stored at 80°F lost about 10%of its protein, 50%
of its niacin, and 75% of its riboflavin. In all probability much if not all
of the protein and niacin losses and a substantial portion of the ribo-
flavin were not actually destroyed, but leached out of the meat into the
brine. Thus if the consumer utilized the crab meat only, these nutrients
would be lost to him, as indicated. If on the other hand he had utilized
the total can contents, a substantial part of the apparently lost nutri-
ents would have been available.
From the refrigeration standpoint the important information pre-
sented was that these very substantial quantities of soluble nutrients
 EFFECT O F STORAGE ON NUTRITIVE VALUE O F FOOD 41

were leached out from canned crab meat during even three months of
storage when stored at ambient temperatures. Even the relatively heat
stable niacin content of crab meat dropped from 0.98 mg% immediate-
ly after canning t o 0.82 mg% after 3 months of storage, t o 0.65 mg%
after 6 months and to 0.57 mg% after 9 months storage. It appears
therefore that some equilibrium may have been reached between the
niacin retained in the meat and that leached out into the liquor in the
can after about one year of storage. If, however, the meat had been
held in refrigerated storage, this leaching process could have been
slowed down considerably, and almost completely arrested at freezer
temperatures.

Canned Juices
The major nutritional contribution of fruit and vegetable juices is
vitamin C. Citrus and tomato juice are important sources of vitamin C
for human nutrition. Other fruit and vegetable juices also provide some
vitamin C as a natural component. In addition they may be fortified
with vitamin C, i.e., ascorbic acid may be added t o the juice drink. At
storage temperatures of 5°C or less, there are very small losses of vita-
min C from fruit juices not only after 1 2 months of storage, but even if
the canned juices are “held over” from the previous season. When held
at 25-30°C for periods up to 1 2 months however, these canned fruit
juices lose approximately one-quarter of their vitamin C content. When
held over for a second year, the loss is approximately 50%. If held at
higher temperatures, as for example 98°F which is unusual except for
some tropical regions and central continental areas during the summer
months, vitamin C content may be reduced to less than half within a
4-month storage period.
The other nutrient present in fruit and vegetable juices, particularly
the orange-colored juices, in substantial amounts, is vitamin A (actually
its precursor, carotene). Carotene in canned fruit and vegetable juices is
more stable than is vitamin C so that in general refrigerated storage for
the purpose of preserving vitamin A is not necessary except for ex-
tended storage of several years. Although there may be substantial loss
of some of the B vitamins, their presence in the juices is so small that
they are not major sources of these nutrients. The same can be said for
protein. Niacin is particularly stable with little or no loss during storage
at 25-30°C even for periods longer than one year.
The maximum storage temperatures permitting 90% retention of vi-
tamins in a number of juices are summarized in Table 5. The data
indicate that canned citrus juices intended €or storage up t o two years
should be stored a t not higher than 8”C, if 90%of their vitamin C is to
 Table 5 . Fruit and vegetable juices, maximum storage temperatures ("C) for 90%retention of vitamins, for 12 to 24
months

Ascorbic Acid Thiamine Carotene

(Vit.C) (Vit. B1) (Vit. A Precursor) Niacin
Canned
Juice 12mo 18mo 24mo 12mo 181110 24mo 12mo 18mo 24mo 12mo 18mo 24mo
- - - - I - -
Carrot - 27+ 21+ 27+ -
Grapefruit 18 11 7 - - - - - - - - -
Orange 20 14 8 - - - - - - - - -
Pineapple 28 25 21 21 21 21 - - - - - -
Tomato 24 22 20 23 19 16 27+ 27+ 27+ X X X

x = 10% loss in 24 months, no temperature effect

Source: Feaster (1960).
 EFFECT OF STORAGE ON NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FOOD 43

be retained. Pineapple and tomato juice on the other hand may be

stored at 21°C and 16°C respectively, while carrot juice may be stored
at ambient temperatures with no appreciable loss in its most valuable
contribution to nutrition, vitamin A (Feaster 1960).

Canned Fruits and Vegetables

The same general comments made for fruit juices apply equally to
the fruits and those vegetables such as tomatoes that are essentially
fruits. Excepted are the leguminous vegetables such as peas and beans
which, particularly in the immature stage are good sources of vitamin C,
but in addition are also good sources of B vitamins and protein. Canned
peas, green beans, and lima beans, e.g., lose just a few percent of their
vitamin C content when stored at temperatures below 5"C, but lose
about 15% when stored at 25-30°C for 1 year and about 25% when
stored for longer than 1 year.
Vitamin B1 (thiamine) losses are more serious averaging about 25%
when stored up to 1 2 months at ambient temperatures and about 35%
when stored longer than 1 year at 27°C. Losses of vitamin B1 from
canned products such as baked beans are practically none when stored
at 0°C or less for as long as 1 2 months, and only 8% when stored for
over 2 years. A t 21°C on the other hand, there is a 16%loss within one
year and a 40% loss at the end of the second year of storage. At 38°C
there is more than a 50%loss within 1year and a 75% loss after 2 years
of storage.
The maximum storage temperatures for seasonally produced canned
food to assure not more than 10% loss of the vitamins that may be
declared, are summarized in Table 6. Since practically all these products
are packed only during a short period of time each year there is a
certain amount of carryover from year of production to the next year.
Storage times are therefore shown for 12, 18, and 24 months. These
data illustrate clearly that while there may be increasing losses of niacin
with time for storage, these losses are not temperature dependent. For
some canned products, but by no means for all, this is also true for
carotene.
Vitamins C, B 1 , B2 losses on the other hand are both time and
temperature dependent. I t may be concluded therefore that to protect
canned asparagus, green and lima beans, grapefruit segments, and
peaches from sustaining more than lO%loss of one or more of the
important vitamins during a one to two year storage period, they
should be held at 0°C. Apricots, sweet corn, peas, spinach and tomatoes
may be stored at 7°C t o afford the same protection; whole carrots and
plums appear to d o very well even at relatively high (25-30" C ) ambient
 ip
Table 6. Maximum storage temperatures ("C) for canned foods to assure not more than 10% loss of vitamin C, B1 , rp
carotene, niacin, or riboflavin

Ascorbic acid Thiamine Carotene Riboflavin

Canned (Vitamin C) (Vitamin B1 ) (Vitamin A precursor) Niacin (Vitamin B,
Product 12m0 18mo 24mo 12mo 1 8 m o 24mo 12mo 1 8 m o 24mo 12mo18mo 24mo 1 2 m o 18mo24mo

Apricots 25 20 16 > 0 - - 21 17 12 - - - - -
Asparagus 23 18 15 8 3 0 22 15 8 b b b 14 10
Beans, green 16 8 0 14 8 0 - - - b b b 14 10
Beans, lima 22 16 8 > O - - - - - c c C 18 5
Carrots - - - - - - 21+ 21+ 27+ - - - - -
Corn, sweet 22 16 10 18 14 12 14 19 24 d d d 21 13
Frankfurters
and beans - - - 13 9 6 - - - - -
Grapefruit
segments 16 8 0 - - - - - - - -
Peaches 18 10 5 25 27 29 21 5 0 c c C
- -
Peas 23 19 11 17 13 10 21 14 8 b b b 13 10
Plums - - - - - - 27+ 27+ 27+ d d d f f
Pineapple
slices 20 12 0 27 27 - - - - - -
Spinach 20 16 11 17 14 9 8 6 3 c c C 17 8
Tomatoes 20 16 8 21 16 10 a a a e e e d d

a = 10% loss in 17 months - n o temperature effect.

b = 20% loss in 1 2 months, 15% in 24 months, n o temperature effect
c = N o loss.
d = 10%loss - n o time or temperature effect.
e = 8% loss in 1 2 months, 13%in 24 months, no temperature effect.
f = 20% loss, n o time or temperature effect.
Source: Feaster (1960), and Cecil and Woodroof (1963).
 EFFECT OF STORAGE ON NUTRITIVE VALUE O F FOOD 45

storage, strictly from the nutrient retention standpoint (Feaster 1960;

Cecil and Woodroof 1963).
In addition to improvement in nutrient retention, benefits of cold
temperature storage can be demonstrated for canned fruit and vegetable
products from the standpoint of aesthetic quality, particularly eye ap-
peal. Thus it is common knowledge that canned green asparagus retains
an attractive green color for a year or more when held in cold storage.
In ambient storage, however, canned asparagus color changes t o a faded
yellow color within one year and is entirely unsalable when held much
longer than one year in common storage. Canned cherries are an exam-
ple of canned fruit which benefits greatly in improved retention of "eye
appeal" when stored in cold storage. Unsightly browning in neck of
ketchup bottles can be reduced by low temperature storage. While de-
struction of chlorophyll and anthocyanin pigments may be involved in
color changes in canned asparagus and cherries, respectively, no nutn-
ents are inactivated. Ketchup browning, however is probably the result
of a Maillard reaction which would result in reducing the bioavailability
of the ketchup protein (Kramer 1974; Goldblith 1975).

Canned Meat and Fish.

Much of the above discussion applies t o canned foods other than
fruits and vegetables, except that different nutrients require protection.
As stated above, nutrients such as protein, niacin and riboflavin may
not only be destroyed less rapidly if the canned meat is refrigerated,
but the rate of leaching of the nutrients from the meat into the liquor is
reduced.
Cecil and Woodroof (1962) showed that thiamine loss in canned
frankfurters and beans is only 10% when stored for 6 months, but
increase to 25% in 1 year and to 50%in 3 years. To retain 90% of the
thiamine for a full year, storage temperature should be <13"C; for 2
years <6"C and for 3 years not higher than 0°C.
The same authors in 1963 demonstrated that canned meat products
generally lost about 50% of their thiamine during 6 months storage and
practically 100% after 2 years at 38°C. At 21"C, thiamine loss was
about 15% and 45% after 6 and 24 months storage, respectively. When
stored at O"C, however, 10% loss was recorded only after 3 years, while
at - 18"C there was practically no loss of thiamine. Canned salmon stored
for 1 2 months lost 10% of thiamine a t 2"C, 25% a t 13"C, and 50% at
28°C.
46 AMIHUD KRAMER

DRY AND DEHYDRATED FOODS

The beneficial effect of low temperature storage on retention of

sensory as well as nutritional quality of dry and dehydrated foods has
been neglected even to a greater extent than for canned foods. Pretreat-
ments such as thorough scalding, reduction of moisture content to less
than 3%, packaging in airtight containers, and even addition of oxygen
scavengers and desiccants into the package have been proposed. Al-
though some of these measures have been shown to be effective in
improving retention during ambient storage of nutrients, particularly
vitamins A, B1,C, and protein availability, low water activity equiv-
alent to such low moisture contents was found to accelerate lipid oxida-
tion, thereby increasing the rate of development of rancidity and dis-
coloration. It is for such reasons that acceptable fish protein concen-
trate must contain not more than 0.5% fat.
The only way of maintaining both sensory and nutritional quality in
dried foods, therefore, for extended time periods, is to store them at
appropriately low temperatures and low relative humidities particularly
if the dried products are not packed in airtight containers. Thus for
example, Tressler ( 1 9 5 6 ) demonstrated practically no loss in vitamin C
in tomato flakes stored at 5 ° C at moisture levels of 1 t o 5%. At 21°C
storage, however, percent vitamin C loss in 1%moisture flakes was 10%
and increased to 30%in 5% moisture flakes. At a storage temperature
of 30"C, a 30%loss in vitamin C was obtained within a 3 2 week storage
period even in tomato flakes having only 1%moisture, and in 5%moist-
ure flakes, the loss was over 80%.
As shown in Table 7 even some dehydrated vegetables that were
packaged in airtight containers that were evacuated and/or the air in the
container was replaced with an inert gas, showed substantial losses in
vitamin C after ambient storage at 3 to 6 months. To retain vitamin C
content of onions, tomato flakes,cabbage white potatoes, and ruta-
bagas, for as long as 1 year, storage temperatures of -5 to +5"C were
found necessary. Sweet potatoes and carrots on the other hand, showed
no appreciable losses when stored at ambient temperatures, but in fact
seemed to gain in vitamins A, B1 and/or B2.
Some dehydrated products such as dried citrus powders, are highly
hygroscopic and must therefore be stored in airtight containers which
automatically help preserve nutrients. Other products such as carrot
flakes (Stephens and McLemore 1969) may be stored in vacuum, in
inert atmospheres such as nitrogen, or simply in air. Under the former
circumstances, vitamin C is retained quite well at a temperature of
about 21°C for as long as 2 years. The same product, if stored in air,
will lose about 20% of its vitamin C and 70% of its carotene in 2
months at ambient temperatures.
 EFFECT OF STORAGE ON NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FOOD 47

Table 7. Maximum temperature ("C) storage to retain vitamin C levels in de-

hydrated foods packed in vacuum

Vitamin C Months in Storage

Product Loss 1 3 6 12 18 24

Onions 10% 21 13 8 3 0 2
25% 33 26 21 13 10 17
5 0% 38 38 37 25 22 19
Tomato flakes 10% - 38 25 -4 -12 -17
25% - - 38 8 - 4 -12
5 0% - - - 23 10 0
Cabbage 10% - 35 27 13 - 4 -10
- -
25% 35 24 10 2
- -
5 0% 38 30 20 10
White potatoes 10% 21 8 0 - 5 - 7 -8
25% 27 16 6 0 - 2 - 3
5 0% - 32 24 16 -10 - 8
Rutabagas 10% 21 13 9 3 0 - 3
25% 33 26 21 13 10 7
5 0% - 38 32 26 22 19

Source: Adapted from Cecil and Woodroof (1963).

Effect of Packaging on Flour Protein Quality

Flours which are essentially comminuted dry or dehydrated pro-
ducts, respond to iow temperature storage and other environmental
conditions and treatments in a manner similar t o other products as
described above. In addition t o storage losses of vitamins, particularly
vitamin C, such flours, are subject not so much to actual losses in total
protein content, but to the nutritive value of the proteins, unless stored
at low temperatures. Thus for example, CSM, a blend of corn, soy and
milk flour has been shipped in great quantities particularly t o develop-
ing countries to improve the nutritional quality of a primarily protein
deficient population. In such a mixture where cereal protein predomin-
ates, the amino acid that usually determines the nutritional quality of
the protein is lysine. I t has been demonstrated by Bookwalter e t al.
(1971) that at a storage temperature of -18°C there is practically no
loss in available lysine. At 25"C, there is a loss of over 20% of available
lysine. At 25"C, there is a loss of over 20% of available lysine when
stored for about 1 year. At temperatures of 49°C the loss is about 75%
in less than 2 months.
48 AMIHUD KRAMER

Table 8. Maximum storage temperature ("C) for limiting % loss of protein nutri-
tive value in dehydrated products

Months in Storage
6 12 18 24

Wheat f l o u r a
<lo% loss
in sealed jars 10 33 0 2
in bags 3 - 3 - 7 - 9
<20% loss
in sealed jars 38+ 38+ 38 38
in bags 38+ - 21 7
Nonfat milk solidsb
<lo% loss
in bags, 60°RH - 1 -2 2
in bags, 40"RH 11 3
<25% loss
in bags, 60"RH 24 - 1 -18 -22
in bags, 40"RH 36 8 - 7 -14
in vacuum cans 38+ 35 20 11
<50% loss
in bags, 60"RH 27 17 8 3
in bags, 40"RH 38 + 33 30 8
in vacuum cans 38+ 38+ 38 35
~ ~

:True protein nitrogen. adapted from Jones and Gersdorff (1941).

Protein efficiency ratio, adapted from Ben-Gera (1966).

Such losses in nutritional protein quality are demonstrated in Table 8

for wheat flour and nonfat milk solids. It appears, that for wheat flour
that is not sealed in an airtight bag a storage temperature of 3°C is
required to retain 90% of the protein value for 6 months, and still lower
temperatures if the flour will be held longer. When stored in sealed jars,
90% protein value retention is maintained at 3°C storage for 1 2 months
(Jones and Gersdorff 1941).
If the protein value of nonfat milk solids should not be reduced by
more than 10%in 6 months, storage temp'erature must be maintained at
-2°C if the milk solids are not in sealed containers and relative humid-
ity is at 60%. For 90% retention of protein quality for 1 2 months, milk
solids must be held in the freezer. Even if relative humidity is lowered
t o 4096,storage temperature must still be maintained at about 1 0 °C for
6 months of storage and little over -18°C for 1 2 months storage. If
stored in vacuum in hermetically sealed containers, however, protein
quality loss can be held to 10% for 1 year a t +14"C, but even under
these conditions freezer temperature storage of -15°C is needed t o
 EFFECT OF STORAGE ON NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FOOD 49

retain 90% of the protein quality for 2 years. In fact, cooler storage of
4°C is required to prevent more than 50% loss of protein quality of
milk solids if they are not adequately packaged o r stored at low humid-
ity for longer than one year (Ben-Gera, 1966). Similar results were
obtained with storage of protein concentrates, including fat-free milk
solids, casein, textured protein, and single-cell protein, even when pack-
aged in 4-ply paper bags with one 2-mil ply of polyethylene, as shown
in Table 9.

Table 9. Effect of storage temperature on bioavailability of protein (P.E.R.) in

some protein concentrates. (Reference casein adjusted to 2.7)
~ ~~

Protein Efficiency Ratio

Product Initial After 6 Months Storage at
22°C 0°C -20°C
TVP" 2.27 2.12 2.24 2.25
SCPb 2.23 1.79 2.12 2.23
MilkC 2.37 1.75 2.35 2.36

:Textured vegetable protein packed in carton with inner liner.

Single cell protein, produced from alcohol-yeast fermentation, packed in carton with inner
liner.
'Defatted milk solids packed in 4-ply paper bag with one 2-mil polyethylene ply.

Daoud and Luh (1967) found excellent retention of lysine in dehy-

drated bell peppers packed in aluminum-film combination pouches
when stored at 0°C for 1 2 months, and there was only a 10%loss after
1 2 months of storage a t 20°C. At 30°C, however, the retention of
lysine dropped t o not more than 13%.Retention of methionine at 0°C
was very good, but there was a 12% loss a t 20°C and a 75% loss a t 30°C
after 1 2 months of storage.
Loss of vitamins A and C in dehydrated vegetable products packed in
various containers is quite as serious if not greater than that of amino
acids, and the extent of the loss depends on the gas permeability of the
packaging film. For a storage life of 1 2 months, there is rarely more
than 10% loss of these vitamins if they are stored in good, tight film
pouches a t 0" C. At 20" C,however, there is frequently a loss of as much
as half of the vitamin content in six months and at a temperature of
30°C in 3-4 months (Daoud and Luh 1967)..

Dehydrated Meats
As with canned meats, the serious nutritional losses that might be
expected are in protein availability and the B vitamins. Thiamine
50 AMIHUD KRAMER

retention in stored dehydrated pork may serve as an example. To main-

tain 90% of the thiamine for just 1 month, storage temperature may
not exceed 13"C,substantially higher than the canned pork. For 12
months of storage, however, a cooler temperature of 0-5°C is adequate
for 90% retention of the thiamine for both dehydrated ad canned pork.
At ambient temperatures of 21"C, dehydrated pork will lose over 25%
within just 1 month, while a similar loss will not occur in canned pork
until after 6 months storage. It appears therefore that while cooler
storage is desirable for canned meats held for 6 months or longer, it is
practically a necessity for dehydrated meats even if they are to be held
in storage for only 2-3months (Table 10) (Rice and Robinson 1944).
Table 10. A comparison of canned and dehydrated pork maximum storage temper-
atures ("C) for limiting % loss of thiamine

Months in Storage
% loss 1 3 6 12

Canned 10% 30 9 3 0
25% - 27 25 17
50% -
38 34 21
Dehydrated 10% 13 11 9 8
25% 20 16 14 13
5 0% 31 24 22 20

Source: Adapted from Rice and Robinson (1944).

Dehydrated Eggs
Highly nutritious dehydrated eggs should be held in freezer storage if
satisfactory levels of nutrients, particularly vitamin A, are to be main-
tained for longer than one month. As shown in Table 11, maximum
temperature of storage for dehydrated eggs packed in barrels is 2 7 ° C if
there is to be 90% retention of vitamin A over a l-month storage
period. If 90% retention is required for a 1 2 month period, freezer
temperatures should be maintained at -24" C. If freezer temperature is
at -18"C, vitamin A loss during 1 year of storage will exceed 25%and
will reach 50%if storage temperature is about -12°C.
Requirements for thiamine retention in dehydrated eggs are not
quite as rigid, but -18°C storage is required for 90%thiamine retention
for a full year. If 25% loss of thiamine is permissible, then storage can
be maintained at 0°C. However, at this temperature there will be a 50%
loss in vitamin A.
 EFFECT OF STORAGE ON NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FOOD 51

For other vitamins such as B2,niacin, pantothenic acid, and D, there

is little change as a result of time or temperature of storage up t o nine
months. Beyond that there is a rapidly increasing loss of some of these
vitamins also (Klose e t al. 1943).

Table 11. Maximum storage temperatures ("C) for limiting losses of thiamine and
vitamin A in dehydrated eggs

Months in Storage
1 3 2 12
-
Thiamine 10% 33 5 -1 8
-
25% 37 31 0
- -
5 0% 37 31
Vitamin A 10% 27 -1 5 -1 8 -24
25% 34 -1 2 -1 6 -1 9
- 18 2 -1 2
5 0%

Source: Klose e f al. (1943).

CONCENTRATED FOODS
Concentrated foods generally behave in a manner intermediate be-
tween the single strength and the dehydrated products. Tomato paste,
for example, loses vitamin C three times as rapidly as canned peeled
tomatoes or tomato juice; however, it should be pointed o u t that the
vitamin C concentration in the tomatoe paste is much higher than in
the single strength products (Hummel and Okey 1950).
Canned cheese, a concentrated milk product, retains vitamin A very
well for up t o two years a t 21°C. If, however, it is to be maintained for
longer than two years, it should be stored a t 10°C. Riboflavin losses in
the canned cheese reach about 15% at 21°C in 2 years, then increase
rather sharply beyond that time. It appears therefore that for canned
cheeses ambient temperature storage is adequate for one year or more,
but if the cheese is t o be stored for two years or longer, it should be
held in the refrigerator even if it is processed and hermetically sealed in
a can. Condensed milk, another concentrated milk product that is usu-
ally canned, shows n o appreciable losses of vitamins except for thia-
mine, which may be maintained a t reasonably high levels in prolonged
storage only a t refrigerator temperatures.
Vitamin C retention in marmalade (Lincoln and McCay 1945) and
thiamine retention in peanut butter (Cecil et al. 1963) are shown in
Table 12. It may be seen that from the standpoint of thiamine reten-
tion a t least, cold storage is not required for peanut butter unless it is to
52 AMIHUD KRAMER

Table 12. Maximum storage temperatures ("C) for limiting certain nutrient losses
of some concentrated foods

Months in Storage
Concentrated Food %Loss 1 3 6 12 18 24

Marmalade, citrusa
Vitamin C 10% 22 11 8 6 -
-
25% 38 23 18 12
5 0% - 34 27 18 -

Peanut butterb
Thiamine 10% - -
38 30 21 18
25% - - - - 38 32
Condensed milkC 10% -
21 10 5 1
25% 33 22 13 9 -

5 0% - 34 26 16 -

:Lincoln and McCay (1945).

Cecil and Woodroof (1963).
'Cecil and Woodroof (1962).

be held for well over one year. Rapid losses of vitamin C in citrus
marmalade on the other hand, indicate the need for refrigeration of this
product which is a very good source of vitamin C, even if it is t o be
stored for just a few months. At ambient temperatures of 21-27"C,
there is a 10% loss of vitamin C within one month, a 25% loss with 3
months, and 50%loss in little more than 6 months.

SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES

With the possible exception of ascorbic acid, there are insufficient

data t o predict the fate of the various nutrients during storage, although
there is good reason t o believe that with more than a few notable
exceptions, nutrient losses in storage follow a first-order reaction. Un-
doubtedly heat is the prime cause of nutrient losses, particularly ascor-
bic acid, thiamine, folic acid and the amino acid lysine. Riboflavin and
vitamin A are similarly influenced in some instances, but not in others,
while niacin, gross protein content and carotene in most cases are time-
temperature independent.
Long term effects of temperature may be attenuated by prompt,
short, high-temperature treatment which inactivates enzymes in the
fresh foods and in the microorganisms in the food environment. While
the heat treatment may cause an immediate moderate reduction in
nutrients, remaining nutrients may be stabilized so that their subse-
quent rate of destruction during prolonged storage is reduced.
 EFFECT OF STORAGE ON NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FOOD 53

The most direct method of preventing nutrient losses in storage, is

low temperature. Q l o is rarely two or even three. While it is frequently
4, it may be as high as 50 (Kramer and Farquhar 1976, Labuza 1976).
Thus fresh foods which do not suffer frost damage, should be stored at,
or slightly above their freezing point. Foods containing low moisture
levels, rarely suffer appreciable nutrient losses even in prolonged storage
at or below -10°C. Some high-moisture foods may sustain nutrient
losses even a t -1O"C, or lower.
Moisture content, and presence of oxygen in the environment (with-
in the package) are also important in nutrient retention, particularly of
low-moisture foods. pH level has variable effects on different nutrients
in different food media.

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