Overview of Grid-Connected Solar PV

Dr. Herbert A. Wade

Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Republic of Palau
November 1-5,2010
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
What is Grid-Connected Solar
Palau - November

• Solar panels convert sunlight to DC electricity

IslandsofNovember

• An electronic inverter, converts the DC from the solar

Republic

panels to AC and synchronizes with the grid

Fiji

• Very simple physically with only two major

components
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

– Solar panels
– Inverter
e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Palau - November
Misconception about Grid Connected PV

• Grid connected solar does NOT feed its power to the

IslandsofNovember

building first then the surplus goes to the grid. All the
solar power goes into the grid and all the building
Republic

power comes from the grid.

Fiji

– The electricity the building uses from the grid is

offset by a credit for the energy fed into the grid
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

from the solar

 This typically is through the use of two meters,

Grid Connected

one for the energy coming into the building

from the grid and one metering the energy
/ PPA DSM

going into the grid from the solar

e8/PPA
e8
 e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Palau - November
IslandsofNovember 2-6, 20091-5, 2010

Image copyright © GSES Pty. Ltd. 2010)

Overall System for Grid-Connected PV
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Concept of Net Metering
Palau - November

• Net metering is intended to allow solar PV to send

energy into the grid at one time and for the user to take
IslandsofNovember

out the equivalent energy at another time

Republic

– Important for residences since daytime use when

Fiji

the sun is brightest is lowest. Most residential usage

is in the evening
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

– Not so important for buildings with high A/C loads

since then the maximum load occurs when the solar
is strongest
e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Net Metering Concept in the Pacific
Palau - November

• Usually net metering relies on two meters but one meter

can be used if it can run backward when power is going
IslandsofNovember

into the grid.

– Also special electronic meters that read energy
Republic

flows both ways can be obtained

Fiji

• Net metering needs to be arranged to send forward

credit for surplus energy delivered to the grid with an
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

annual accounting.
– Solar tends to be seasonal so some months there
may be a surplus sent into the grid from solar and
some months there will be more used from the grid
Grid Connected

than sent by the solar

/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Net Metering – Payment for Surplus
Palau - November

• Once a year the total energy delivered to the grid from

IslandsofNovember

the solar is subtracted from the total energy delivered to

the building from the grid. If there is a surplus of energy
Republic

sent to the grid by the solar over the year, a payment

Fiji

may be made based on the cost savings to the utility.

/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8 Workshop Solar PV Workshop
Grid Connected
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Payment for Surplus Energy from PV
Palau - November

– May be legally required or may be up to the utility

 May range from zero to more than the per kWh
IslandsofNovember

retail charge.
 If payment is zero, that encourages users to
Republic

keep the scale of PV small enough so there

Fiji

is never an annual surplus

 If greater than retail power rates, encourages
large installations to make money
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

 Real cost saving to the utility is in fuel as

adjusted for the cost of maintaining spinning
reserves and for grid maintenance
Grid Connected

» Major cost savings for PIC utilities since

the great majority of per kWh cost is fuel
/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Effect on Utility Rates
Palau - November

• If many residential customers were to add solar to their

buildings, as much as 20% of the load could be lost.
IslandsofNovember

This could affect the cost of electricity delivery since

investment and maintenance would not be reduced
Republic

though fuel requirements would be lower

Fiji

– PIC per kWh energy delivery costs are a

combination of fuel cost and the cost of operations
and maintenance
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

– Typically 60%-80% of per kWh costs are fuel for

PIC utilities
– Fuel cost would be reduced while the cost of
operations would stay the same but spread over
Grid Connected

20% fewer kWh sold

– Cost per kWh delivered could rise around 5%-10%
/ PPA DSM

according to what percentage of kWh cost is fuel

e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Palau - November Components – Solar Panels

• Solar Panels (modules)

IslandsofNovember

– Crystalline (single crystal

and polycrystal cells)
 Smallest physical size per
Republic

Wp of capacity
Fiji

 Proven useful life of 20+

years in the Pacific
– Thin film
 Cheapest type of panel
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

(currently ~US$2/Wp
 When new, may be a
better performer than
crystalline panels in the
Grid Connected

tropics for grid connected

systems
 Not proven for long life in
/ PPA DSM

the tropics
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Panel Connections for Grid-Connected Solar
Palau - November

• Panel interconnections
IslandsofNovember

– Panels connected in series “strings” to provide

proper voltage for inverter input
Republic

– Connections may be through the use of “quick

Fiji

connect” push-in connectors or screw-type

junction boxes
 Due to prior bad experiences there are
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

concerns about the long term quality of quick-

connect (MC-4) cable connections in the
highly corrosive and high temperature island
Grid Connected

environment
/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Palau - November

Connector Pair (- & +)

IslandsofNovember
Republic

Individual connectors
Fiji Workshop Solar PV Workshop

Melting of connector
in service in Fiji
Grid Connected

caused by resistance
heating due to salt
/ PPA DSM

corrosion
e8/PPA
e8
 e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Palau - November
IslandsofNovember 2-6, 20091-5, 2010

Panel

junction box
connections
using standard
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Palau - November
Panel Mounting

• Roof mount
– Lowest cost
IslandsofNovember

– No land needed
– Fastest installation
Republic

– Maintenance more difficult

Fiji

– May have orientation problems

– Replacing or repairing the roof means removing
and reinstalling the panels
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

• Ground mount
– Expensive
– Need significant land area
– Very flexible for array arrangement and
Grid Connected

orientation
– Easy to access for testing and maintenance
/ PPA DSM

– Panels remain cooler than on roof mount

e8/PPA
e8
 e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Palau - November
IslandsofNovember 2-6, 20091-5, 2010

Hospital ~31 kWp (bottom ground mount)

Niue School ~20 kWp (top roof mount) and
 e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Palau - November
IslandsofNovember 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Mounting on Flat Roof (Chuuk)
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Panel orientation
Palau - November
IslandsofNovember

• In most places, for the most kWh per year, tilt

panels at about the latitude angle and toward the
Republic

equator.
Fiji

– Provides output that peaks fairly sharply between 11am

and 1 pm. ~US$0.45 per kWh
– Some places (such as Palau) have seasonal solar
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

energy patterns that make the optimum tilt not equal to

the latitude angle
e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Palau - November
IslandsofNovember
Wiring

• Wire must be large enough to pass peak currents

without significant voltage drop
Republic

– Maximum energy loss of 2% is ok

Fiji

• Insulation must be able to withstand high

temperatures, high levels of weather exposure and
high levels of sunlight (UV) exposure as well as the
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

voltage of the string.

– Typically double insulated cable with the external
insulation highly resistant to UV and high
Grid Connected

temperatures
/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Palau - November
Inverter

• Converts DC from panels to grid quality AC

IslandsofNovember

• Automatically disconnects if grid fails

– Typically senses and disconnects due to
Republic

 Frequency variations
Fiji

 Voltage variations
 Excessive rate of frequency variation
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

 Excessive rate of voltage variation

 Other parameters such as over temperature,
over current, etc.
Grid Connected

• Reconnects automatically after sensing at least five

minutes of normal grid operation and there are normal
/ PPA DSM

conditions in the inverter itself

e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Palau - November
Inverter Characteristics

– Allowable input DC voltage varies with some

IslandsofNovember

models allowing less than 200V and others

accept over 1000V
– Output voltage and frequency programmable
Republic

– Most inverters can be easily paralleled or used in

Fiji

multi-phase configurations
– Often installed with many paralleled inverter units
in a rack or on a wall for larger systems
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

– May include an isolation transformer or be direct

connected
e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Republic
Fiji Palau - November
IslandsofNovember
Workshop Solar PV Workshop
Grid Connected
Small Inverters

Inside one residential sized inverter (1.7 kW).

Note the emergency DC disconnect handle at
/ PPA DSM

the bottom left and AC connection bottom right

e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Large Scale Inverter (over ~50 kW)
Republic
Fiji Palau - November
IslandsofNovember

• Rack of paralleled
inverters for larger
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

scale PV Grid
Connection
Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA

Fronius commercial inverter unit

e8
 e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Palau - November
IslandsofNovember 2-6, 20091-5, 2010

Photo by SMA
Bank of 100 kW inverters
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Republic
Fiji Palau - November
IslandsofNovember
Workshop Solar PV Workshop
Grid Connected
3 Phase Multiple Inverter Installation

Wall of eighteen 1.7 kW inverters (6 in parallel for

each phase) during wiring at the Niue hospital.
/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Palau - November
Inverters for the Pacific Islands
• Inverters should be sealed with no active components
exposed to the air, only heat exchangers and the
IslandsofNovember

transformer.
Republic
Fiji

– Absolutely avoid inverters with a cooling fan that

blows ambient air onto the circuit board if it is to
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

be installed where corrosion is a problem – most

Pacific Islands.
e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
DC Disconnects, Lightning, and Earthing
Palau - November
IslandsofNovember

• Electrical codes for Australia, New Zealand and

the US all require each string to have its own
Republic

DC disconnect switch
Fiji

• Lighting protection is optional but often installed

Workshop Solar PV Workshop

– Lighting surge suppressors do wear out so must be

monitored
Grid Connected

– Single earthing point for all components is required

/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8
 e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Palau - November
IslandsofNovember 2-6, 20091-5, 2010

switches for each string

Lightning surge suppressors and DC disconnect
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Palau - November
IslandsofNovember
System Circuit

• Typical circuit for one

inverter module
– Multiple strings per
Republic

inverter
Fiji

– Note two meters,

one for the solar
energy sent to the
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

grid and one for the

energy used by the
client from the grid
• More inverter strings
Grid Connected

equals more power

/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Niue Hospital System
Palau - November
IslandsofNovember

• 18 inverters (3 phase system)

Republic

• 36 strings of five 170 Wp panels each (total 1.7kW per

Fiji

inverter, 30.6kWp of panels)

Workshop Solar PV Workshop

• Ground mounting designed to resist category 5 cyclone

• 200V nominal DC feed voltage

• 3 phase feed-in at Hospital transformer

e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Palau - November
Maintenance

• Panels require very low maintenance and have a long

IslandsofNovember

life (20+ years). Most problems are with the

packaging.
Republic

– Clean when necessary (usually only if some

object blows onto the panels, dirt and dust usually
Fiji

is not a problem)
 Should be cleaned during installation or at
commissioning because manufacturing
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

residue may remain on glass

– String voltage and current should be checked for
consistency between strings at least weekly
through the data link to the inverter
Grid Connected

 if one string is consistently low relative to the

others, probably a connection or wiring
/ PPA DSM

problem exists
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Palau - November

Impossible d’afficher l’image.

Corrosion due to water entry

IslandsofNovember
Republic

Impossible d’afficher l’image.

Fiji

Discoloration of material used for

cell encapsulation
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

Impossible d’afficher l’image.

Grid Connected

Delamination of cells from the

glass cover
/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Palau - November
Inverter Failures
• Inverter failures follow the “bathtub” curve:
Most failures occur early (within 2 years) then
IslandsofNovember

maybe 10 years pass with very low failure

rates then the failure rate starts to rise rapidly.
Republic

• Prepare for 15% failures during the first couple

Fiji

of years by having spares in stock.

• Monitor inverter outputs for consistency
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

among inverters at least weekly and preferably

every afternoon
• Most inverter problems can only be fixed by
Grid Connected

replacement of the inverter with a spare. Local

repair of most problems is impossible.
/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Palau - November
Operational Maintenance
The key to operational maintenance is the use
of the data presentation capability of the
IslandsofNovember

inverters and associated data loggers for use

with a computer (e.g. SMA’s ‘Webbox’). Every
Republic

inverter and every string is constantly

Fiji

monitored and data made available to a laptop

or networked computer for checks of operation
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

and for initial troubleshooting.

The output of any string or inverter that is seen

Grid Connected

to be significantly different from the others is a

sign of a problem to be checked.
/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Other Maintenance
Palau - November
IslandsofNovember

• Check the status of lightning arresters monthly (indicator

color)
Republic
Fiji

• Clean heat exchanger surfaces and check fan operation

on inverters at least monthly
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

• Examine panels at least annually for corrosion,

delamination or discoloration and problems with
mountings
e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Palau - November
IslandsofNovember
Warranties

• Panels (read the fine print!!!)

– Physical problems 5 to 10 year warranty with
panel replacement
Republic

– Output warranty 20-25 years. Obligation is only to

Fiji

provide replacement of lost capacity

 Generally useless, mainly for PR purposes
• Inverter
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

– Typically 5 years with 10 years or more usually

available at extra cost
– Usually does not pay for shipping which can be
expensive
e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
Panels for Grid-Connected Solar PV
Dr. Herbert A. Wade

Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Republic of Palau
November 1-5,2010
 e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Palau - November
IslandsofNovember 2-6, 20091-5, 2010

Solar Panels
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Palau - November Photovoltaics

• The term photovoltaics (PV) refers to the conversion of

IslandsofNovember

light energy (in this case light from the sun) to DC

electricity.
Republic
Fiji

• The technology used today dates from the 1950s and

became commercial in the 60’s when power for space
craft was provided by solar photovoltaics
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

• Today PV generation is by combinations of solar panels

with size rated by the maximum Watts of electricity they
can produce under a set of standard conditions
e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010

Solar Panel Power Rating

Palau - November

• Panels are rated in Watts Peak (Wp).

IslandsofNovember

• This is the maximum number of Watts power that the

panel should produce if:
Republic

– it is exposed to 1000 W/m2 of sunlight

Fiji

– The sunlight is coming straight onto the panel

– The panel is clean
– There is a cell temperature of 25°C
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

– The sunlight passes through an air mass of 1.5

(about a 45° angle above the horizon)
– Power from the panel is delivered to the load at the
Grid Connected

maximum power point of the panel (the optimum

loading)
/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Actual Panel Output
Palau - November

• Solar energy is almost never is great enough to provide 1000 W/m2 of

IslandsofNovember

solar radiation. Typically 800-900 W/m2 is the highest seen on clear

days at noon.
Republic

• In the tropics, solar cells are 50C to over 60C. Higher cell temperatures
Fiji

result in lowered output of 10% to 15% over rated values

• Panels rarely face directly toward the sun, surface reflections increase
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

and output decreases as a result

• There is often a mismatch between the load and the panel resulting in a
few percent reduction from the rated value.
e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Panel Types
Palau - November

• Single Crystal construction. Each cell is a single crystal of silicon.

IslandsofNovember

This is the oldest design and provides the highest light to electricity
conversion efficiency. Round cells are made initially but they may be
cut square. Panel made up of many cells connected in series. Very
Republic

reliable.
Fiji

• Polycrystalline construction. Each cell includes several large

crystals of silicon. Cells can be any shape. Almost as high efficiency
as single cells. Panel made up of many cells connected in series.
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

Excellent reliability.

• Thin film construction. Silicon or other PV material is put in a very

thin layer onto metal or plastic. Mass production is relatively easy
Grid Connected

and theoretically can be cheaper than crystal based panels.

Efficiency low to medium. Reliability varies from poor to good.
Sometimes called “amorphous” panels.
/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8
 e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Palau - November
IslandsofNovember 2-6, 20091-5, 2010

Single crystal cell

Panel appearances

Cells
Polycrystalline

Thin Film panel

 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Palau - November Panel construction

• Top layer is glass or in some cheap panels, clear plastic.

IslandsofNovember

• The middle layer is the active PV material. In the case of crystalline

cells, many individual cells are connected in series to make a panel
Republic

(sometimes called a “module”). Each cell produces about 0.5 to 0.6

Fiji

volts. The area of the cell determines the Amperes it can produce with
modern cells providing 5-8A under full sun conditions.
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

• Backing for panels is typically a special plastic called Tedlar though

sometimes glass. Thin film panels may have a backing that is ceramic
or metal as well as possibly glass or plastic.

• Cells are embedded in a clear plastic material between the top layer
Grid Connected

and the bottom layer. This is called the encapsulant and serves to help
waterproof the panel and to reduce internal reflections that would lower
/ PPA DSM

panel efficiency.
e8/PPA
e8
 e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Palau - November
IslandsofNovember 2-6, 20091-5, 2010

Impossible d’afficher l’image.

Panel construction

cross section
Typical solar PV
panel construction
 e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Palau - November
IslandsofNovember 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Terminology
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Recommended Specifications
Palau - November

• Panels
IslandsofNovember

– Must be able to be connected to provide an output

appropriate to meet the input requirements of the
Republic

inverter
Fiji

– Screw type wire terminals with lock washers or polarized

MC-4 plugs and cables
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

– Monocrystalline or polycrystalline construction with glass

cover and aluminum or stainless steel frame
– Meet international standards for construction and are
certified by testing at an international test center
e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Palau - November Key Characteristics

• Number of cells determines the output voltage

IslandsofNovember

• Voc = the open circuit voltage which is the voltage across

the terminals with no load attached
• Varies little with the amount of sun but falls as cell
Republic

temperature goes up
Fiji

• 0.5V to 0.6V per cell

• Isc = Short circuit current which is the Amperes measured
directly across the terminals with no load attached
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

• Varies directly with the amount of sun

• Impp= Current delivered at the maximum power conditions
under standard test conditions (STC)
• Vmpp= Voltage delivered at the maximum power
Grid Connected

conditions under standard test conditions

Note that Impp x Vmpp = Wp
/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8
 e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Palau - November
IslandsofNovember 2-6, 20091-5, 2010

Drawing copyright GSES

Voltage-Ampere Relationship
 e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Palau - November
IslandsofNovember 2-6, 20091-5, 2010

Drawing copyright GSES

Solar Level Affects Mainly Amperes

Effect of changes in insolation on panel current and voltage

 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Palau - November
Connecting Panels

• Connecting panels in series (+ terminal of one panel

IslandsofNovember

connected to – terminal of the next) results in adding the

voltage of the series connected panels
Republic

• Easy with plug and cable type connections. The positive

Fiji

connector and the negative connector mate

• Connecting panels in parallel (+ terminal of one panel

Workshop Solar PV Workshop

connected to + terminal of the other and – terminal of one

panel connected to – terminal of the other) results in adding
the amperes produced by each panel.
Grid Connected

• Requires a junction box since cable plugs/sockets do not

mate
/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Increasing Array Voltage
Fiji Palau - November
IslandsofNovember
Republic Workshop Solar PV Workshop
Grid Connected

Drawing copyright GSES

Panels can be connected in series to increase output voltage. A series

/ PPA DSM

connection will work well only if the panels have the same ampere rating.
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Palau - November Ampere Rating of Panels

• Ampere rating depends on the type and size of the cells.

IslandsofNovember

– Monocrystalline cells have slightly higher ampere

output for the same size cell than polycrystalline cells
Republic
Fiji

– The surface area of the cell determines the amperes

for any given type of cell
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

• To match panels for Amperes if the Isc rating is not

known, choose panels with the same size and type of
cells.
e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Increasing Array Current
Fiji Palau - November
IslandsofNovember
Republic Workshop Solar PV Workshop
Grid Connected

Drawing copyright GSES

/ PPA DSM

To increase the amperes available, connect panels in parallel. As long as the

two panels have the same voltage (the same number of cells) it will work ok
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Voltage Rating of Panels
Palau - November

• Output voltage is determined by the number of cells

IslandsofNovember

connected in series on the panel and cell temperature.

– To match voltages for panels, the two panels should
have the same number of cells.
Republic

 It does not matter whether they are

Fiji

monocrystalline or polycrystalline, both have the

same voltage of about 0.5V-0.6V per cell
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

• Also rated according to the maximum voltage allowed

between the cells and the frame
– Typically 600V though some panels can handle
Grid Connected

over 1000 V
/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8
 e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Palau - November
IslandsofNovember 2-6, 20091-5, 2010

Drawing adapted from copyrighted drawing by GSES

Sun’s movements over the year
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Proper Orientation
Palau - November

• Facing toward the Equator (South in the North Pacific)

IslandsofNovember

- At low latitudes the direction of the tilt is not so

critical
Republic
Fiji

• Tilted about the same number of degrees as the latitude

of the site unless there are seasonal clouds then a
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

steeper tilt may be needed for maximum output if

maximum sun is during the time when the sun is furthest
from the equator
Grid Connected

• Never tilt less than 5° because fast water runoff is

/ PPA DSM

necessary for cleaning. 10° to 15° of tilt is best

e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Shading
Palau - November
IslandsofNovember

• Output from panels in the shade is a small fraction of the

Republic

output from a panel in the sun

Fiji

• Even shading a few cells on the panel will greatly reduce

the output from the panel
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

• No shade should be on the panel from 0900 to 1500

e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Shading on Small Panel Area
Palau - November

• Shading on even one cell greatly reduces panel output

Fiji IslandsofNovember
Republic Workshop Solar PV Workshop
Grid Connected

Drawing copyright GSES

/ PPA DSM

The shaded cell acts as a resistor and absorbs power from the string
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Seasonal Changes and Shade
Fiji Palau - November
IslandsofNovember
Republic Workshop Solar PV Workshop
Grid Connected

Solar panels may be free of shade during part of the

/ PPA DSM

year and fully in the shade another time of the year

e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Heat effects
Palau - November
IslandsofNovember

• Every two or three degrees C (3.6° – 5.4° F) of temperature rise in a PV cell

can lower the output of a PV panel by up to 1% due to lower voltage output.
• Cell output is standardized at 25°C (77°F). Under full sun in the tropics
Republic

the cell temperature may be 40°C (104°F) higher than ambient so

Fiji

panel output can fall as much as 20% over the Wp rating just due to
temperature
• Monocrystalline and polycrystalline panels lose much more power with
increased temperature than thin film panels
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

• Keep panels as cool as possible to prevent power loss due to overheating

• NEVER mount solar panels flush on any surface, if at all possible provide 150
mm (6 inches) or more of ventilation space underneath panels, especially on
metal roofs and never less than 60 mm (2.5 inches)
e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
 e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Palau - November
IslandsofNovember 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Temperature Effects – Crystalline Cells
 e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Palau - November
IslandsofNovember 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Spacing Under Panels for Ventilation

Panels mounted on rails to provide space for ventilation

 e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Palau - November
IslandsofNovember 2-6, 20091-5, 2010

Drawing copyright GSES

Crystalline panel voltage and current changes with temperature

 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Palau - November
IslandsofNovember
Panel Mounting for Best Output

• Face the equator and tilt to latitude or optimum clear sky

sun inputs but tilt no less than 10 degrees
Republic

• May need to take into consideration seasonal and

Fiji

diurnal solar energy patterns

Workshop Solar PV Workshop

• Must have ventilating air passing underneath the panel

• No shade any time of the year between 0900 and 1500

e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Mounting - continued
Palau - November
IslandsofNovember

• Mounting must use marine grade stainless steel

fasteners that isolate aluminum panel frames from the
Republic

roof. No aluminum can be allowed to touch a steel roof

Fiji

• Mounting arrangement must be strong enough to survive

Workshop Solar PV Workshop

storms yet simple enough to allow access to panel

connections without major dismantling of the array
e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Inverter Voltage and Ampere Inputs
Palau - November
IslandsofNovember

• Panels are arranged in series connected “strings” to reach

a voltage appropriate to meet the input requirements of
the inverter
Republic

– Don’t forget the MPP voltage is what you must use

Fiji

when calculating string voltages for normal operation

– Don’t forget to reduce the MPP voltage due to the
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

cell temperature being higher than 25°C (77°F)

• Strings can be paralleled to increase the current available

to meet the power capacity of the inverter
Grid Connected

– Each string must have a separate disconnect

/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Typical Panels Used in the PICs
Palau - November

• Type = Monocrystalline
IslandsofNovember

• Wp = 170 Watts
Republic
Fiji

• Voc = 43.3V

• Isc = 5.0 A
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

• Vmpp = 36.1V
Grid Connected

• Impp = 4.7 A
/ PPA DSM

• Voc temperature coefficient = -165mV/°C (-

e8/PPA

91.7mV/°F)
e8
Grid-Connected Solar PV – Inverters
and Strings
Dr. Herbert A. Wade

Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Republic of Palau
November 1-5,2010
 e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Palau - November
IslandsofNovember 2-6, 20091-5, 2010

Inverter Characteristics and Specifications

 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Anti-Islanding
Palau - November

• Islanding refers to the idea of a PV system generating

IslandsofNovember

power for input to the grid when the main grid supply is
off
Republic

– The creation of an “island” of power

Fiji

– Serious safety hazard if a PV system “islands”

• Multiple redundant circuits prevent islanding
– Voltage excursions beyond the acceptable range
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

– Frequency excursions beyond the acceptable range

– Rate of voltage change
– Rate of frequency change
Grid Connected

– Effective loading
/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Palau - November

• Millions of grid connected inverters are in service and

IslandsofNovember

islanding has not been a problem

 Inverters must be certified for anti-islanding by an
Republic

international certification body

Fiji

 Never allow the use of uncertified inverters

 Where there are few installations in service,
utilities that are not familiar with the exemplary
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

safety record for certified inverters may choose to

manually disconnect PV systems from the grid
when the grid is going to be serviced.
e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
General Types of Inverter Installations
• Single large inverter for the entire installation
Palau - November

– May be single phase or three phase

IslandsofNovember

– Often custom made and not locally maintainable

– Common in Japan and the USA
• Multiple smaller inverters connected in parallel
Republic

– Rapidly becoming the international standard

Fiji

 Common in Europe
– One inverter fails and only a part of the output is lost
– Spare parts are not expensive and are easily stocked for
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

quick replacement
– Maintenance does not require special skills or training
for the specific type of inverter being used
– Slightly higher overall cost than a single large inverter
Grid Connected

but the life cycle cost is lower for the Pacific Islands due
to the cost of repair and shipping for single large
inverters
/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010 Typical Inverter
SMA Sunny Boy 3300
Fiji Palau - November
IslandsofNovember
Republic Workshop Solar PV Workshop
Grid Connected

Utilities that follow specific (Australia, NZ, USA) power standards must be sure
to require the installation of inverters that follow those same power standards.
/ PPA DSM

Most commercial inverters can be programmed to fit different standards but

e8/PPA

some may have peculiarities that keep them from fitting the standards exactly.
e8
 e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Palau - November
IslandsofNovember 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Sample Inverter Specification Sheet
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Primary Specifications
Palau - November

• DC input voltage range

– Rarely below 100V and may go as high as 1000V
IslandsofNovember

 The number of panels in a string must be

sufficient for the MPP string output voltage to
Republic

never go below the minimum for the inverter

Fiji

after voltage reduction due to temperature is

considered.
 The number of panels in a string must not
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

exceed the number needed to reach the

maximum MPP allowable voltage for the
inverter before voltage reduction due to
temperature is considered.
e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Power Rating
Palau - November
IslandsofNovember

• Output Power
Republic

– Maximum output and input Watts

Fiji

 Allowable DC input Wp of panels is typically somewhat higher than

the maximum AC output power rating
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

 Wp ratings of panels are always substantially higher than what

is actually observed in practice
e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Palau - November
IslandsofNovember Efficiency

• Efficiency in percent equals:

Republic

(Watts out/Watts In) X 100

Fiji Workshop Solar PV Workshop

Over the useful output range of modern inverters

efficiency may range from about 85% to 98%
e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
 e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Palau - November
IslandsofNovember 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Sample Inverter Efficiency Curves
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Transformer type inverter
Palau - November
IslandsofNovember

• Grid isolation using an inverter with a transformer

Republic

– Transformer included
Fiji

 Fully isolates DC from AC

 Safest and least likely for seeing an unwanted mix DC and

Workshop Solar PV Workshop

AC power

 Adds some cost, slightly lowers efficiency, heavy

 Does not have to be grounded but can be if the circuitry

Grid Connected

requires it
/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Transformerless Inverters
Palau - November

– Semiconductor based isolation of the grid and the solar array

IslandsofNovember

 No transformer and no electrical isolation between DC and AC

sides
Republic
Fiji

 Possible for AC grid power to feed back to the DC side

under rare modes of failure
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

 Possible for DC power to feed to the grid under some

circumstances

 Cheaper, higher conversion efficiency, light in weight

Grid Connected

 Must be grounded
/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Palau - November
Inputs from the PV Array

• Number of string inputs

IslandsofNovember

– Each string input has its own MPPT device and DC

inputs are not mixed
Republic
Fiji

• DC disconnects that can isolate the inverter from the solar

strings may be in the inverter or separate
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

– Must use DC switches or circuit breakers rated for

1.25 times the string maximum voltage (number of
panels times Voc of one panel) and current (Isc) of
Grid Connected

the string
/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Arcing
Palau - November

• Small arcs are seen when switching an AC circuit with

the arc bigger with higher voltages and amperes
IslandsofNovember

– AC arcs are self-extinguishing because with AC the

voltage reverses polarity twice for every cycle (100
Republic

times per second for 50 Hz power and 120 times

Fiji

per second for 60Hz power)

• DC arcs flow only in one direction and are not self-
extinguishing. They also become bigger as the voltage
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

and amperes increase.

– When a DC spark occurs due to switching a DC
load or power supply on and off, the resulting spark
heats the air and ionizes it making a low resistance
Grid Connected

path through the air. This makes the arc even

bigger and can extend much farther than an AC arc
/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Connecting and Disconnecting the PV
Palau - November

• The power from the PV array is DC at voltages high

enough to sustain a long, very hot arc
IslandsofNovember

– Fires can be started and switch or contacts melted

Republic

or ruined due to the arc that forms when the contact

Fiji

is broken

– To avoid arcing, special DC switches, circuit

Workshop Solar PV Workshop

breakers and other load disconnecting devices must

be used.
Grid Connected

 NEVER use an AC circuit breaker as an array

string disconnect
/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8
 e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Palau - November
IslandsofNovember 2-6, 20091-5, 2010

motion)

Do not try this at home……

Arcing at the DC Disconnect (slow
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
AC Disconnect
Palau - November

• AC disconnects may be in the inverter or separate

IslandsofNovember

– May be a standard circuit breaker at least 25%

higher in capacity than the maximum Amperes that
Republic

the inverter can deliver to the grid

Fiji

– Should be lockable (switch or the box cover) for

safety purposes
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

– Should be located near the inverter for safety and

convenience of maintenance (the utility may require
Grid Connected

a second disconnect at the meter)

/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Inverter Data Access
Palau - November

• Data delivery mechanism

IslandsofNovember

– Usually data is through a LAN type cable with a

standard computer interface
Republic
Fiji

 May be included in the inverter or may require

an additional plug in card to be inserted in the
inverter
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

 Unless there is a data logger attached (e.g. the

SMA “Webbox”) or there is a computer
Grid Connected

dedicated to collecting inverter data connected

to the data line, only recent data will be available
/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Data Available from the Inverter
Palau - November

• Most quality inverters make available at least

– Date and time of data packet
IslandsofNovember

– Amperes coming from each PV string

– Voltage at each string
Republic

– AC Watts or VA from the Inverter

Fiji

– kWh delivered to the grid since installation

– Status of the inverter (standby, off line, delivering
power to the grid, etc.)
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

– Any error conditions that currently exist

• Other data that may be available may include
– Heatsink temperature
Grid Connected

– Fan operation
– Time and date of last restart
/ PPA DSM

– And many other parameters relating to the Inverter

e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Harmonic Distortion
Palau - November
IslandsofNovember

• The presence of frequencies that are a multiple of the

utility frequency present in the AC output
Republic
Fiji

– Less than 5% is reasonable for modern inverters

– Most utility grids already have more than 5%

Workshop Solar PV Workshop

harmonic distortion in their power delivered to

customers
e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
String Design Procedures
Palau - November

• Determine the maximum cell temperature

IslandsofNovember

– Usually occurs at the time of maximum solar input

combined with high air temperature so it is usually
the middle of the day and early afternoon
Republic

– If actual measurements are not available, assume

Fiji

65°C which is 40°C above the standard 25°C

temperature
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

– Can use an infra-red thermometer for measurement

• Determine the minimum cell temperature (the same as

the minimum air temperature since that occurs just
Grid Connected

before sunrise)
– If actual data are not available assume 19°C
/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Palau - November

• Determine the maximum possible voltage from one panel

– Will equal the Voc that occurs at sun-rise since that is
IslandsofNovember

when the cells are coldest (for the sample panels that
is 43.3V
Republic

 Will occur at the lowest cell temperature when sun

Fiji

is shining on the panel

– Determine the adjustment in voltage needed for the
minimum temperature (19°C an be assumed)
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

 For our panels, each °C the temperature is

different from 25°C, the voltage will change
0.165V. 19°C is 6°C colder than 25°C so the
voltage will rise by 0.165 x 6 = 0.99V. So for our
Grid Connected

panels the maximum Voc will be:

/ PPA DSM

43.3V + 0.99V = 44.29V

e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Panel Data
Palau - November
IslandsofNovember

Data needed to determine

string characteristics is usually
available on the panel label. If
not the manufacturer’s website
Republic

should have the listings for:

Fiji

Voc
Isc
Vpmax = Vmpp
Ipmax = Impp
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

Maximum array voltage = number of

series panels x Voc
Maximum system voltage
Series fuse = max reverse current
Voltage change per degree C
e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Palau - November
Maximum Panels in a String

• Determine the maximum number of panels that can be

IslandsofNovember

put in series without exceeding the maximum input

voltage of the inverter
Republic

– Our sample inverter has a 500V maximum voltage

Fiji

input

• Divide the maximum inverter voltage by the maximum

Workshop Solar PV Workshop

Voc of one panel and you get the maximum number of

panels that can be in a string
– For our case that will be 500V / 44.29V = 11.29 or in
Grid Connected

a practical sense 11 panels maximum in a string

(round the result of the division down to the nearest
/ PPA DSM

whole number)
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Minimum Panels in a String
Palau - November

• Determine the minimum number of panels that can be in a string and

still keep the inverter producing power:
IslandsofNovember

– Assume the maximum cell temperature and therefore the

minimum output voltage
– At our assumed 65°C cell temperature there is a 40°C higher
Republic

temperature than the standard 25°C

Fiji

• Determine the adjustment in voltage for temperature by multiplying

the voltage change per °C times the number of °C the cell is hotter
than 25°C
– For our case that is 40°C x -0.165V/°C = -6.6V
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

– So the Vmpp minimum per panel will be 36.1 – 6.6 = 29.5V

– Assume a 2% voltage drop in the wires = 29.5V x .02 = ..0.59V
– Minimum V at the inverter = 29.5V – 0.59V = 28.91V
• Divide the minimum input voltage for the inverter by the minimum
Grid Connected

Vmpp per panel to get the minimum number of panels

– In our case that is 200V / 28.91V = 6.92 (7) panels (round the
result of the division UP to the next whole number)
/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Maximum Power Point Conditions
Palau - November
IslandsofNovember

• MPP conditions will be providing the most energy to the

grid.
Republic

• Determine the maximum Vmpp of one panel

Fiji

– Vmpp + adjustment in voltage for minimum °C

– For our panels 36.1V + 0.99V = 37.09V
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

• Divide the maximum MPP input voltage (400 V for our

sample inverter) by the maximum volts per panel
– For our components that will be 400 V / 37.09 V =
10.78 (10) panels (round the number from the result
Grid Connected

of the division down to the nearest whole number)

/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Palau - November Summary of Values

• Choose the smaller of the number of panels for

IslandsofNovember

maximum Vmpp or Voc

– In our case maximum Vmpp value is 10 panels. For
Republic

maximum Voc it is 11 panels so we choose 10

panels as the maximum for a string
Fiji

• Choose the number of panels for minimum Vmpp

– In our case that is 7 panels.
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

• The number of panels in a string should have no less

than 7 strings or the inverter will cease producing power
at low sun. A string can have no more than 10 panels or
the MPPT unit will not work at maximum sun and optimal
Grid Connected

power will not be produced.

/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Palau - November String Design for the Sample Equipment

• 10 panels per string

IslandsofNovember

• Maximum MPP voltage at 19°C = 370.1V

Republic

– Acceptable, maximum string MPP voltage = 400

Fiji

• Minimum MPP voltage at 65°C = 295V

– Acceptable, minimum string MPP voltage = 200V
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

• Maximum Voc at 19°C = 442V

– Acceptable, maximum string Voc = 500V
Grid Connected

• So our 10 panel string will provide efficient inverter

/ PPA DSM

power at all site conditions

e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Paralleling Strings
Palau - November

• Additional Amperes can be obtained by putting strings in

parallel however there are some added requirements:
IslandsofNovember

– Each string has to have its own DC disconnect

 This allows testing of an individual string
 Provides a means of isolating that string so repairs
Republic

can be made
Fiji

– Each string must be protected from receiving excess

current from other paralleled strings that may cause
damage
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

 Usually in the form of a fuse that is rated below the

maximum current allowed to flow through the panel
from external sources
 A suitable fuse rating is 1.56 x Isc of a panel
Grid Connected

 Called the reverse current rating or maximum

series fuse rating
/ PPA DSM

 Fuse must be of a type acceptable for DC use

e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Fusing of Strings in Parallel
Palau - November
IslandsofNovember

The sample panel (or string

of sample panels) is rated for
a maximum of 15A reverse
Republic

current (maximum series fuse

rating) and an Isc of 5A
Fiji

So with each panel (or string)

capable of putting out 5.5A,
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

up to three panels (or strings)

can be connected in parallel
without concern for damage
to a shaded or non-
functioning panel.
Grid Connected

With four or more in parallel,

fuses on each panel (or
/ PPA DSM

string) of 15A will be required

e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Layout of Panel Wiring
Palau - November

• To minimize damaging voltage surges caused by nearby

lightning strikes, string wiring must not include any open
IslandsofNovember

loops
CORRECT
Republic
Fiji

INCORRECT
Workshop Solar PV Workshop
Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM

6 panel string wired 6 panel string wired to minimize

with an open loop
e8/PPA

lightning induced voltage surges

e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Balance of System Components
Palau - November

• Besides the panels and inverter, additional components

are needed to comply with safety and operational
IslandsofNovember

requirements:
– A DC disconnect for each string
Republic

 Whether strings go directly to the inverter or are

Fiji

paralleled with other strings, each string requires

its own DC disconnect
/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8 Workshop Solar PV Workshop
Grid Connected
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Palau - November
Overall Design for a Residence (3.4 kWp)

• One SMA SB3300 inverter

IslandsofNovember

• Two strings of 10 – 170 Wp monocrystalline panels

Republic

– Each feeding a separate inverter input

Fiji

• Two DC disconnects (one for each string)

Workshop Solar PV Workshop

• One AC disconnect near the inverter

– The utility may require an additional one near the
meter
e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Palau - November
Power Requirement

• Each panel is 170Wp in size but derated due to high

IslandsofNovember

temperature (which occurs at peak solar input) to:

29.5Vmpp x 4.7Ampp = 138.65 Wp
Republic

• Each string input allows for 1875 Watts input

Fiji

• So at mid-day the maximum input power from the 10

panel string = 10 x 138.65 = 1386.5Wp
– Proposed design is within an acceptable power
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

range
e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Sample Basic Residential System
Palau - November
IslandsofNovember

• 10 panels
• SMA Sunny Boy 3300 inverter
Republic

• Watts = 1700 Wp
Fiji

• Maximum DC Volts = 442 (at 19°C)

• DC Amperes = 4.7A
/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8 Workshop Solar PV Workshop
Grid Connected
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
System Possibilities with one inverter
Palau - November

• SMA SB3300 inverter with 2 string inputs

IslandsofNovember

• System can have as few as 7 panels per string so the

range of rated powers possible with that sample inverter
Republic

and the sample 170Wp panels will be:

Fiji

7 x 170 = 1190 Wp (one string min volts) to

20 x 170 = 3400 Wp (two strings max volts)
/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8 Workshop Solar PV Workshop
Grid Connected
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Output Estimation
Palau - November

• The output from a grid connected installation can be

estimated using average annual solar energy data for the site
IslandsofNovember

– Accuracy is ±15% or so because of the variability of

solar energy at a specific site from year to year
• Calculation of the annual system output must include:
Republic

– Average solar energy available at the site at the

Fiji

orientation of the solar array

 Most solar data is measured on a horizontal surface,
that must be converted to the energy that is received
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

on the tilted surface of the solar panels

 NASA provides information for conversion of
horizontal to tilted surfaces at:
Grid Connected

http://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/cgi-
bin/sse/grid.cgi?email=
/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Input estimation
Republic
Fiji Palau - November
IslandsofNovember
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

Energy = kW x hours = kWh

Area under the blue curve = kWh from the sun on a 1 m2 surface
Convert that area to a rectangular area with 1000 W/m2 as the top
Grid Connected

The width of the rectangle = “peak sun hours” or the hours that
the sun would have to shine at 1000 W/m2 to provide the same
energy as it actually did over the day. That will be the same number
/ PPA DSM

as the value measured by a solarimeter. So if the measurement is

e8/PPA

4 kW/m2/day that means a “peak sun hours” of 4 hours per day

e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Panel Output Estimation
• Panels have their Wp rating at 1000 W/m2 so multiplying the Wp
Palau - November

rating times “peak sun hours at 1000 W/m2 gives the output from
IslandsofNovember

the panel over the day in Wh at STC

• To get the real output from the panel, adjustments have to be
made because the panel is not actually at STC. Typical values
Republic

would be:
Fiji

– Temperature = -15% = 85% left

– Orientation error = -5% = 95% left
– Surface reflections = -7% = 93% left
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

– Dirt = 3% = 97% left

– Shading = 0% = 100% left
• Total correction to STC values = .85x.95x.93x.97x1.0 = .73
Grid Connected

– Actual output = Wp x Peak hours x .73

• So for a 170 Wp panel in a place with 5.1 kWh/m2/day of solar
/ PPA DSM

the actual output will be about 170 x 5.1 x .73 = 633 Wh/day
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Adjustment for System Losses
Palau - November

• Additional losses that need to be considered have

typical values of:
IslandsofNovember

– Wiring loss = 2% = 98% left

– Inverter loss = 8% = 92% left
Republic

• Total additional adjustment = .98 x .92 = .90

Fiji

• So the output from the system can be estimated at:

– Output from the panels x system loss factor
– For the 170 Wp panel in the 5.1kWh/m2/day solar
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

environment = 633 Wh/day x .9 = 570 Wh/day or

– 570 x 365 = 208,050 Wh/year = 208 kWh/year
e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Simplified System Output Estimate
Palau - November

• A reasonable estimate of the daily output from an

unshaded grid-connected PV system within about 10°
IslandsofNovember

of the equator will be:

Republic

Wp of panel x kWh/m2/day of solar x 0.73

Fiji

Where 0.66 = 0.73 x 0.90 or the total system loss factor

Workshop Solar PV Workshop

Since the solar input varies considerably from year to

year, this simplified estimate will be adequate as it will
fall within the range of values that will actually be seen
e8/PPA
e8 Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Additional Corrections to Apply
Palau - November

• The assumption for the simplified estimation formula

includes panels oriented toward the equator and tilted at
IslandsofNovember

about 10° and the site being within 10° of the equator.
For sites with a latitude higher than 10° the tilt should
Republic

be about the latitude angle in most cases. For

installations with large errors in orientation or with some
Fiji

shading over the day, additional corrections will need to

be made to the estimate.
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

• The effect of orientation error increases as distance from

the equator increases so higher latitude sites will be
more affected by the roof not pointing its slope toward
Grid Connected

the equator
/ PPA DSM
e8/PPA
e8
 2-6, 20091-5, 2010
Shading
Palau - November

• Shading of any kind causes serious reduction in panel

output at the time of day that the shading occurs. If the
IslandsofNovember

shading occurs before 0800 or after 1600 it will not

cause more than 10% output reduction but the reduction
Republic

increases rapidly as the shade time gets closer to mid-

day
Fiji

– Small areas of shade can reduce panel output much

more than the small area would imply. Even a mast
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

to hold up a TV antenna that shades a small part of

the PV array can reduce the array output 20% or
more.
 Some remote telecom installations have not
Grid Connected

worked well because the solar panels are

mounted so that sometimes they are shaded by
/ PPA DSM

the mast holding the telecom antenna

e8/PPA
e8
Installing Grid-Connected Solar PV
Dr. Herbert A. Wade

Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Republic of Fiji
November 21-26,2010
 21-26, 2010
Sample Residential System
2-6, 2009
Fiji – November

• To illustrate installation of a grid-connect PV system, a simple

ofNovember

residential installation that was installed on the Small

Business Development Center in Palau will be used as the
Islands
Republic

example. The installation has as its characteristics:

Fiji

– 10 panels in one string, 170 Wp per panel

– SMA SB3000US inverter with attached DC disconnect
– AC disconnect with standard AC two pole circuit breaker
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

– Single phase output to a 240V 60 Hz grid connection

with central neutral/ground (120V each side of ground)
– SMA “Webbox” data logger
– SMA “Sensor Box” for solar radiation and cell
DSMConnected

temperature measurement
/ PPA Grid
e8/PPA
e8
 21-26, 2010
The Building at 0845 on a Clear Day
Republic
Fiji ofNovember
Islands 2-6, 2009
Fiji – November
Workshop Solar PV Workshop
DSMConnected

The roof peak runs NW-SE and the slope is about 15°. Wood truss
/ PPA Grid

roof structure with enameled steel roofing. No shade between 0800-

1700 except for light pole to the west and a power entry mast on the
e8/PPA

east.
e8
 21-26, 2010
Choice of Roof side
2-6, 2009

• The maximum sun over the year falls on a south facing roof. The
Fiji – November

maximum output from the panels will occur when the

ofNovember

temperature is lowest.
– Morning will be when the panel temperature is lowest so
Islands

facing the panels on the NE roof would provide higher

Republic

efficiency of energy conversion

Fiji

– The most energy will fall over the year on the SW roof
because of the sun being lower in the south sky during the
dry season when there is high sun input
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

– There is a light pole on the western side that may cause

afternoon shade on some panels some part of the year

• So both roofs have advantages. In this case the choice of the

DSMConnected

east roof was made partly because the output reducing effect of
high afternoon temperature will be high in this environment and
partly because of the shading that may be introduced by the light
/ PPA Grid

pole on the western side of the roof

e8/PPA
e8
 21-26, 2010
Laying Out Panel Rails
2-6, 2009

• Panels were kept as close to the south end of the roof as

Fiji – November

possible to avoid any shade from the power entry mast

ofNovember

near the center of the roof

• Panels were mounted as close to the ridge as possible
Islands
Republic

to reduce the possibility of leaks and reduce the possible

Fiji

morning shade from trees to the east

Workshop Solar PV Workshop

Lay the rails on the

roof to better visualize
any layout problems or
DSMConnected

Possible shading.
/ PPA Grid
e8/PPA
e8
 21-26, 2010
Laying out the Inverter Installation
2-6, 2009

• It is convenient for repair and troubleshooting to have

Fiji – November

the inverter near the grid connection. In this case the AC

ofNovember

disconnect, DC disconnect and Inverter could be

mounted side by side
Fiji Islands
Republic
e8/PPA
e8 Workshop Solar PV Workshop
DSMConnected
/ PPA Grid
 e8/PPA
e8 / PPA Grid
DSMConnected
Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Islands Fiji – November
ofNovember 21-26, 2010
2-6, 2009
Inverter, DC & AC Disconnects, Meters
 21-26, 2010
Mounting Panels
2-6, 2009

• After rails are screwed to the roof, panels are clamped in

Fiji – November

place on the rails. In this case, two rows of five was the
ofNovember

best layout to avoid shade and for wiring to the inverter

Fiji Islands
Republic
e8/PPA
e8 Workshop Solar PV Workshop
DSMConnected
/ PPA Grid
 e8/PPA
e8 / PPA Grid
DSMConnected
Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Islands Fiji – November
ofNovember 21-26, 2010
2-6, 2009

• Teamwork
On the Roof Mounting Panels
 e8/PPA
e8 / PPA Grid
DSMConnected
Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Islands Fiji – November
ofNovember 21-26, 2010
2-6, 2009
Clamping Panels to Rails
 e8/PPA
e8 / PPA Grid
DSMConnected
Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Islands Fiji – November
ofNovember 21-26, 2010
2-6, 2009
Wiring the String to the Inverter
• Mounting the junction boxes (for + and − to DC disconnect)
 e8/PPA
e8 / PPA Grid
DSMConnected
Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Islands Fiji – November
ofNovember 21-26, 2010
2-6, 2009
Why not crimp on connectors?
 21-26, 2010
Wiring the String to the Inverter
2-6, 2009

• Wiring to the inverter with + connection in one junction

Fiji – November

box. A − junction box is at the other end of the string with

ofNovember

its wire going around the string to go through the +

junction box on to the inverter but with no connection in
Islands

the box. The − wire goes through the + box just to enter
Republic

the conduit to the inverter

Fiji
/ PPA Grid
e8/PPA
e8 Workshop Solar PV Workshop
DSMConnected
 21-26, 2010
Mount the Sensor Box
2-6, 2009

• The sensor box should be mounted on the same slope

Fiji – November

as the panels so the solar measurement shows the

ofNovember

amount actually falling on the panels. Glue the cell

temperature sensor to the back of one panel. Do not cut
Islands
Republic

or extend the temperature sensor wire, it is special wire.

The data line goes down the same conduit as the wires
Fiji

to the inverter from the string.

/ PPA Grid
e8/PPA
e8 Workshop Solar PV Workshop
DSMConnected
 21-26, 2010 Attach Frame Ground Wires and Tie Up
Wires off the Roof
2-6, 2009

• Attach ground wire to rails using stainless steel or

Fiji – November

copper hardware. Tie up all panel wiring to rails so none

ofNovember

touches the roof. Run the ground wire through the main
conduit along with the string connection wires.
Fiji Islands
Republic
e8/PPA
e8 Workshop Solar PV Workshop
DSMConnected
/ PPA Grid
 e8/PPA
e8 / PPA Grid
DSMConnected
Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Islands Fiji – November
ofNovember 21-26, 2010
2-6, 2009
Finished on the Roof
 e8/PPA
e8 / PPA Grid
DSMConnected
Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Islands Fiji – November
ofNovember 21-26, 2010
2-6, 2009
Wire AC and DC disconnects and Ground
 21-26, 2010
Connect the Final Panel Connection
2-6, 2009

• Check the voltage and polarity of the DC wires from the

Fiji – November

string. If the polarity is wrong, disconnect the panel wire

ofNovember

on the roof and switch the wires in the disconnect then

reconnect and check again. If voltage is wrong, there is
Islands
Republic

an error wiring the panels.

Fiji
/ PPA Grid
e8/PPA
e8 Workshop Solar PV Workshop
DSMConnected
 e8/PPA
e8 / PPA Grid
DSMConnected
Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Islands Fiji – November
ofNovember 21-26, 2010
2-6, 2009
Typical Inverter Start Up Sequence
 e8/PPA
e8 / PPA Grid
DSMConnected
Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Islands Fiji – November
ofNovember 21-26, 2010
2-6, 2009
Install and Wire the Data Logging Unit
 e8/PPA
e8 / PPA Grid
DSMConnected
Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Islands Fiji – November
ofNovember 21-26, 2010
2-6, 2009
Inverter Installation Complete and Running
 SHS, Mini grid
(PV mini grid)

Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Fiji
November 22-26,2010
 22-26, 2010
Introduction
2-6, 2009

Quiz - Fill in the blanks

Fiji - November
IslandsofNovember

Q1. Energy consumption for one year in the whole

world
Republic

= Solar power energy showering to the earth

Fiji

for minutes / hours / days / months

Workshop Solar PV Workshop

Q2. Energy consumption in the whole world.

= Generation energy by PV, when PV is installed

Grid Connected

on the % area of Gobi desert.

■Gobi desert = 1.3 million km2
/ PPA DSM
e8e8/PPA

(Desert in the world = total 18 million km2)

1
 22-26, 2010
Introduction – About Q1.
2-6, 2009

Solar power is enormous!

Fiji - November
IslandsofNovember

Source Energy

Solar 176 PW(1015)

Republic

Hydro 2 TW (1012)
176PW = 176 Х1015
Fiji

Reach
to the earth (peta Watt)
Tidal force 3 TW
defined as 100%
Geothermal 32 TW
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

Wind 3.7 PW

Storage in the sea Reflect to the space

42PW (23%) 50PW (30%)
Grid Connected

Storage in the earth

83PW (47%)
/ PPA DSM

The earth
e8e8/PPA

2
 22-26, 2010
Introduction – About Q2.
2-6, 2009

Desert will be useful !?

Fiji - November
IslandsofNovember

PV is installed on the half the

Solar pyramid area of Gobi desert.
(Case; conversion efficiency = 15% )
Republic

Gobi desert
Fiji

Refer to next slide

130M km2
Sahara desert PV generate 412 EJ (Exa; 1018)
860M km2
for one year
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

Total of land
surface

Total Energy consumption

Grid Connected

for one year in the world

Total of the is 433 EJ (at 2002)
earth surface
/ PPA DSM
e8e8/PPA

3
 22-26, 2010
Introduction – About Q2.
2-6, 2009

PV conversion efficiency development

Fiji - November
IslandsofNovember

Conversion efficiency (%) monocrystal silicon

30
Republic

25%
Fiji

20
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

10
6%

0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Grid Connected

The New York Times: April 26, 1954

“Vast Power is Tapped by Battery Using Sand Ingredient”
…may mark the beginning of a new era, leading eventually to the
/ PPA DSM

realization of one of mankind’s more cherished dream —the harnessing of

e8e8/PPA

the almost limitless energy of the sun for the uses of civilization”.
4
 22-26, 2010
Introduction
2-6, 2009

PV is installed rapidly!
Fiji - November
IslandsofNovember

PV capacity of the world

Power (MW)
Republic

16000
14000
Fiji

12000
10000
FIT (Feed-In-Tariff) started in
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

8000 Germany.
6000

4000
2000
Grid Connected

0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
/ PPA DSM

Year
e8e8/PPA

5
 22-26, 2010
Introduction – What is FIT (Feed-In-Tariff)
2-6, 2009

FIT - - - Scope PV only or Renewable energy

Fiji - November

▪Tariff of PV or renewable energy is guaranteed by law.

IslandsofNovember

▪Tariff is fixed at the time purchase of electricity starts.

Ex.) Germany
▪Tariff of renewable energy is higher than twice usual electric
Republic

power rate.
Fiji

▪Tariff is fixed for 20 years at the time that purchase of

electricity starts.
▪Fixed tariff is decreasing yearly. (refer to the following graph)
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

Tariff of renewable energy in German

Euro cents ▪FIT accelerates installation of
60 57.4
54.5
PV. PV capacity in Germany
51.8 has been largest in the world
49.2
46.8 43.0
39.6 since 2005.
Grid Connected

40 36.0
▪But electric power company’s
32.8 29.8
27.1
24.7 burden becomes large, and
20 usual electric power rate is
/ PPA DSM

increasing.
e8e8/PPA

0
2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016
6
 22-26, 2010
Introduction – FIT in Japan
2-6, 2009

Japanese Feed-In-Tariff
Fiji - November
IslandsofNovember

Japan Germany
(since 2009) (since 2004)
Republic

purchase
10 years 20 years
period
Fiji

42 euro cents 57 euro cents

tariff
(in 2009) (in 2004)
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

PV scope Renewable Energy

▪ 100 yen = 0.87 euro (at 2010 11.04)

Grid Connected

▪ Yen is getting stronger recently.

■Japan introduced FIT system so as to accelerate PV installation. But Japan
/ PPA DSM

keeps down tariff of PV than Germany because this system makes electricity
e8e8/PPA

power rate increase, and customers without PV pay more money.

7
 22-26, 2010
Introduction – Installation cost of PV
2-6, 2009

Japanese example (residence)

Fiji - November
IslandsofNovember

income by generation electricity

selling electricity electricity consumption 0.42€
Republic
Fiji

Installation cost = 1.61 M€

(typical case of installing 3.5kW PV)

Ten years operation

Workshop Solar PV Workshop

before 0.37M€ 0.17M€ 0.30M€ 0.44M€

introducing government's Municipal 0.33M€
electricity Income by
subsidy subsidy
FIT consumption selling electricity
lower tax
Grid Connected

after 0.37M€ 0.17M€ 0.30M€ 0.88M€

introducing
/ PPA DSM

government's Municipal electricity Income by

subsidy subsidy
FIT consumption selling electricity
e8e8/PPA

lower tax

8
 22-26, 2010
Introduction Features of PV system
2-6, 2009
Fiji - November

Advantage Disadvantage
IslandsofNovember

1.Clean generation system 1.Generation depends on

sunshine duration.
2.No moving and high 2.Need wide footprint for large
Republic

temp/pressure parts, possible output because of low energy

automatic/unattended density
Fiji

operation and easy

maintenance
3.Non-depletion energy 3.Still high cost under the
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

present situation
4.Possible mass production 4. DC output (can be advantage
because of modular structure in some case)
5.Free and easy design from
Grid Connected

small to large scale in

accordance as needed, and
small limitation on installing
/ PPA DSM
e8e8/PPA

Source: ANRE, NEDO

9
 22-26, 2010
Type of power system
2-6, 2009

Interconnection to Main Grid: Off, On

Fiji - November

(1) Solar Home System (Capacity: 50W )

IslandsofNovember

PV
Install a renewable energy system
PV PV in each household separately
This system is applied mainly for a
Republic

non-electrified region or a rural area.

Off
Fiji

(2) Mini grid system (Capacity:10 to 500kW )

Install a renewable energy system
DG in a small community, sometimes
DG
combined with diesel generators.
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

In case of combined system,

it can save diesel fuel consumption
and enhance power supply.
(3) Normal grid power system (Capacity: > 500kW )
Grid Connected

Main Grid Install a renewable energy system

( > 500 kW ) On
to the main grid.
G
/ PPA DSM
e8e8/PPA

10
 22-26, 2010
Off Grid: Solar Home System (SHS)
2-6, 2009
Fiji - November

No Title Sub-title Main Grid Supplied Gen Size Genset Other Battery Note
IslandsofNovember

connection power (approx.) RNE system

(1) SHS DC SHS Off DC < 1kW No No Yes
AC SHS Off AC < 1kW No No Yes
(2) Mini grid PV Mini Off AC 1 - 50kW No No Yes 50 to 600
Republic

grid Households
Battery
Fiji

charge
station
PV hybrid Off AC 10 - 500kW Optional Wind Optional New
systems (a few biomass components
within hours micro-hydro
mini-grid per day) etc.
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

(3) Grid Grid On AC > 40kW No No Optional With reliable

connected connected grid
Large PV large PV (24H supply)
system & system
Hybrid Grid On AC > 100kW Basically Wind Optional With reliable
system connected No. biomass grid
hybrid Optional micro-hydro (24H supply)
system (a few
Grid Connected

etc.
hours
per day)
/ PPA DSM
e8e8/PPA

11
e8e8/PPA Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Fiji - November
IslandsofNovember 22-26, 2010
2-6, 2009

PV
Modules

Calculators
<Example>
DC
Solar Direct System

Load

Fans

(car accessory)
Off Grid: Solar Home System (SHS)

Water pump

12
 22-26, 2010
Off Grid: Solar Home System (SHS)
2-6, 2009

Stand Alone DC System

Fiji - November
IslandsofNovember

PV Charge
Battery Load
Modules Controller DC
Republic
Fiji

<Example>
Message Board Outdoor Light
/ PPA DSM
e8e8/PPA Workshop Solar PV Workshop
Grid Connected

13
 22-26, 2010
Off Grid: Solar Home System (SHS)
2-6, 2009

Stand Alone AC System

Fiji - November

If any
IslandsofNovember

PV Charge
Battery Load
Modules Controller DC
Republic

<Example> Remote home

inverter Load
Fiji

Solar array AC
/ PPA DSM
e8e8/PPA Workshop Solar PV Workshop
Grid Connected

14
 22-26, 2010
Off Grid: Solar Home System (SHS)
2-6, 2009

Stand Alone AC System

Fiji - November

<Example> Light house

IslandsofNovember

In Japan, there were 250

manned light houses because
Republic

power source was diesel engine.

Fiji

Light house operator manage it.

Workshop Solar PV Workshop

The solar system enable light

house unmanned. In 2006, last
Grid Connected

manned light house became

unmanned one.
/ PPA DSM
e8e8/PPA

15
 22-26, 2010
Off Grid: Solar Home System (SHS)
2-6, 2009

Quiz
Fiji - November
IslandsofNovember

Q3. The number of people without electricity

= million / billion (in 2015)
Republic
Fiji Workshop Solar PV Workshop

One countermeasure → go to next slide

Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
e8e8/PPA

16
 22-26, 2010
Off Grid: Solar Home System (SHS)
2-6, 2009

Stand Alone AC System

Fiji - November

<Example> Yurt (GER)

IslandsofNovember

Photovoltaic Program “100,000

Solar House (GER) in Mongolia”
Mongolia government promote to
Republic

raise electrification rate of Mongolian

Fiji

nomad.
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

Electrification rate of Mongolian nomad.

Grid Connected

10.7% (in 2000) 29% (in 2005)

/ PPA DSM
e8e8/PPA

17
 22-26, 2010
Off Grid: Solar Home System (SHS)
2-6, 2009

Stand Alone AC System

Fiji - November

<Example> PV on a camel
IslandsofNovember
Republic

solar panel
Fiji Workshop Solar PV Workshop
Grid Connected

This system is used for medical act, too.

Vaccine is in .
/ PPA DSM
e8e8/PPA

18
 22-26, 2010
Off Grid: DC and AC supply system
2-6, 2009
Fiji - November

No Title Sub-t.itle Main Grid Supplied Gen Size Genset Other Battery Note
IslandsofNovember

connection power (approx.) RNE system

(1) SHS DC SHS Off DC < 1kW No No Yes
AC SHS Off AC < 1kW No No Yes
(2) Mini grid PV Mini Off AC 1 - 50kW No No Yes 50 to 600
Republic

grid Households
Battery
Fiji

charge
station
PV hybrid Off AC 10 - 500kW Optional Wind Optional New
systems (a few biomass components
within hours micro-hydro
mini-grid per day) etc.
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

(3) Grid Grid On AC > 40kW No No Optional With reliable

connected connected grid
Large PV large PV (24H supply)
system & system
Hybrid Grid On AC > 100kW Basically Wind Optional With reliable
system connected No. biomass grid
hybrid Optional micro-hydro (24H supply)
system (a few
Grid Connected

etc.
hours
per day)
/ PPA DSM
e8e8/PPA

19
 22-26, 2010
DC and AC supply system (PV system)
2-6, 2009
Fiji - November

50 – 70 W
IslandsofNovember

Solar Home System(SHS)

DC 12V DC 12V Do you have
Republic

Module Battery Controller

Appliance?
(DC)
Fiji

For every household

Battery
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

1 to 50 kW
Stationary PV system

DC 300V Power Conditioner AC 200V

Grid Connected

Array (DC -> AC)

/ PPA DSM

For Community Battery

e8e8/PPA

20
 22-26, 2010
Feature of DC and AC supply system
2-6, 2009
Fiji - November
IslandsofNovember

Supplied power Characteristics Disadvantages

DC Connection of • Main energy sources • Expensive DC

sources and connected on DC bus installation
Republic

loads via DC • Charger are needed for • Poorly expandable

Fiji

distribution different energy sources • Not easy to find

line • For illumination and DC standard products
loads
• Short distance between
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

components
AC Connection of • Free selection of energy • Necessity of Inverters
sources and sources (standard grid
loads via AC components)
distribution • Long distances between
Grid Connected

line components
• Simple extendibility, future-
proof
/ PPA DSM
e8e8/PPA

21
 22-26, 2010
Off Grid: PV mini grid
2-6, 2009
Fiji - November

No Title Sub-t.itle Main Grid Supplied Gen Size Genset Other Battery Note
IslandsofNovember

connection power (approx.) RNE system

(1) SHS DC SHS Off DC < 1kW No No Yes
AC SHS Off AC < 1kW No No Yes
(2) Mini grid PV Mini Off AC 1 - 50kW No No Yes 50 to 600
Republic

grid Households
Battery
Fiji

charge
station
PV hybrid Off AC 10 - 500kW Optional Wind Optional New
systems (a few biomass components
within hours micro-hydro
mini-grid per day) etc.
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

(3) Grid Grid On AC > 40kW No No Optional With reliable

connected connected grid
Large PV large PV (24H supply)
system & system
Hybrid Grid On AC > 100kW Basically Wind Optional With reliable
system connected No. biomass grid
hybrid Optional micro-hydro (24H supply)
system (a few
Grid Connected

etc.
hours
per day)
/ PPA DSM
e8e8/PPA

22
 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV mini grid:
System configuration
2-6, 2009
Fiji - November
IslandsofNovember

PV panel (≅ 50 kWp)
Republic
Fiji

For a community that

Inverter is not too scattered.
Usually 50 to 600
households.
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

Isolated, AC supply,
no genset
Grid Connected

PCS Delivers the power to

the households and
/ PPA DSM

Battery common equipments

e8e8/PPA

through a grid

23
 22-26, 2010

Off Grid: PV mini grid: System configuration

2-6, 2009

Rough system configuration

Fiji - November

DC → AC
IslandsofNovember

Peripheral equipments
PV array Junction box Power Conditioner
Republic

AC
DC
Fiji

grid

DC/DC chopper
PV mounting Insulation transformer
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

Protection system
structure Wh meter
For buying
For selling
For wiring
Maintenance clerk Battery It’s important for
Grid Connected

repair and us (EPC)!!

maintenance easily!
For storage
/ PPA DSM
e8e8/PPA

24
 22-26, 2010

Off Grid: PV mini grid: Necessary components

2-6, 2009
Fiji - November

• Junction box
IslandsofNovember

– MCCB for PV array

– Back-flow prevention device for each string
– Main CB
Republic

– Lightning protection/Arrester
Lightning protection
Fiji

– Terminal block
– Box Reverse flow protection
PV array Junction box
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

• Distribution board P1 P
N1 To
• Wh meter From N
inverter
• Battery PV Main CB
P2
array N2
Grid Connected

Pn
/ PPA DSM

Nn
e8e8/PPA

25
 22-26, 2010

Off Grid: PV mini grid: System configuration

2-6, 2009

System configuration (residence)

Fiji - November
IslandsofNovember

DC Solar panel
AC
Republic

Selling
Fiji

Buying inverter
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

Junction
Wh meter
box

Distribution
Grid Connected

board
/ PPA DSM
e8e8/PPA

26
e8e8/PPA Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Fiji - November
IslandsofNovember 22-26, 2010
2-6, 2009

Household demand (kWh)

0.5

0
1.5

1
2

1
3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
0
50
3kW PV output and household demand (in Japan)

100
150

Source: METI

Countrywide demand (GWh)

Off Grid: PV mini grid:PV output and demand

27
 22-26, 2010
Off Grid: PV mini grid: Examples
Republic
Fiji 2-6, 2009
Fiji - November
IslandsofNovember
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

Source: GTZ-ZSW

Installed in 2003 at Suohourima, Qinghai, China by GTZ

70 km from the next electricity line
Grid Connected

Between 300 and 400 households

/ PPA DSM

Old Diesel generator set is no longer in operation.

e8e8/PPA

Electricity is delivered according to energy availability (not for 24/24 hours)

28
 22-26, 2010

Off Grid: PV mini grid: Examples

2-6, 2009
Fiji - November

PV- 40 kW, 26 parallel strings with 18 modules, 85 W per module,

IslandsofNovember

generator manufacturer Qinghai Gaofai, cells from Astropower, US

Charge 13 channels, μC-controlled, sub arrays are switched off at the end of
controller charge voltage of the battery, manufacturer Hefei Sunlight Power
Republic

Battery Sealed (AGM) lead acid battery, cells 2 V/1300 Ah, 3 parallel strings with
Fiji

110 cells, 858 kWh, manufacturer Enersys Huada Solar

Inverters PWM with transformer and μC-control, 220 VDC/220 VAC, 1 inverter with
16 kW, 1 inverter with 24 kW, manufacturer Hefei Sunlight Power
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

AC 2 isolated and not grounded single phase grids supply different parts of
Distribution the township. The single households have electronic energy Meters
Households All electrified households have electric light (fluorescent lamps (9W) or
incandescent lamps (40W)), 90 % of the households have colour TV +
satellite receiver + DVD player, and chest freezer to store meat, more
Grid Connected

and more households have electric heating blankets and pillows, some
have washing machines (for external hot water supply)
/ PPA DSM

Source: GTZ-ZSW
e8e8/PPA

29
 22-26, 2010

Off Grid: PV mini grid: Examples

2-6, 2009

16kW 24kW
Fiji - November

220V DC / 220V AC 220V DC / 220V AC

Source: GTZ-ZSW 13ch
Fiji IslandsofNovember
Republic Workshop Solar PV Workshop

40kW
18module (85W)
×26 strings

2V / 1300 Ah <AC distribution>

Grid Connected

858kWh 2 isolated and not grounded single phase grids supply different parts of the
3 parallel strings township.
with 110 cells. <Household>
All electrified households have electric light (fluorescent lamps (9W) or
/ PPA DSM

incandescent lamps (40W)), 90 % of the households have color TV + satellite

e8e8/PPA

receiver + DVD player, and chest freezer to store meat, more and more
households have electric heating blankets and pillows, some have washing
machines (for external hot water supply) 30
e8e8/PPA Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Fiji - November
IslandsofNovember 22-26, 2010
2-6, 2009

BCS at suburb of Phnom Penh, Cambodia

Off Grid: PV mini grid: Battery charging station

31
 22-26, 2010

Off Grid: PV mini grid: Battery charging station

2-6, 2009
Fiji - November
IslandsofNovember

Kanchanaburi Province, Thailand: 1992-1997

Budget: 316 million yen
Republic

The Sunlight made

Fiji

Nighttime Pleasant!
Workshop Solar PV Workshop
Grid Connected

Battery-Charging Station A fully charged

battery provides
/ PPA DSM

lighting for a week

e8e8/PPA

Source: NEDO

32
e8e8/PPA Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Fiji - November
IslandsofNovember 22-26, 2010
2-6, 2009

Battery-Charging Station

Source: NEDO

Using a charged battery at home

Off Grid: PV mini grid: Battery charging station

33
 22-26, 2010
2-6, 2009
Design procedure
• Significance
Fiji - November

• Concept
IslandsofNovember

• Feasibility study
– Generation
Republic

– Distribution
– Demand forecast and dispatching
Fiji

– Environmental assessment
– Economical evaluation
• Design
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

– System configuration
– Design
– Regulation
– Specification of components
Grid Connected

– How to select
– Installation
/ PPA DSM

• O&M
e8e8/PPA

34
 22-26, 2010
Planning & design
2-6, 2009

System, equip. spec., supplier, capacity, supply

Fiji - November

Survey of various REN characteristics, reliability, cost and so on.

IslandsofNovember

Concept design of the system Demand characteristics, energy cost, electricity tariff

Investigation of target site REN main unit, inverter, grid connection, battery, env.
measure
Republic

Determination of equipment spec.

Fiji

Estimate supplied power and energy

Estimate project cost

Generation cost,
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

Determine operation pattern

distribution cost,
Estimate maintenance cost
cash flow

Estimate total running cost

Analyze cost/benefit
Grid Connected

Effect on environmental protection

Effect on energy conservation

/ PPA DSM
e8e8/PPA

Implementation

35
 22-26, 2010
Check list on planning (1)
2-6, 2009

• Concept and purpose

Fiji - November

– For what?
IslandsofNovember

 Purposed should be shared among concerned

parties.
Republic

– Where?
 Is existing facility or not? Exact location.
Fiji

– What load?
 Characteristics and size of load. Enough space
for installed equipment?
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

– Which system?
 Isolated or grid-connected? With battery or not?
– When and how much?
 Construction schedule and cost. Can it be
Grid Connected

available?
/ PPA DSM
e8e8/PPA

36
 22-26, 2010
Check list on planning (2)
2-6, 2009

• Project team
Fiji - November

– Establish team and assign project manager

IslandsofNovember

– How to select the designer?

– What is bidding strategy of construction work?
– How can we maintain and manage the system?
Republic
Fiji Workshop Solar PV Workshop
Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
e8e8/PPA

37
 22-26, 2010
Check list on planning (3)
2-6, 2009

• Site survey
Fiji - November

– Ambient environment
IslandsofNovember

 Any obstacles to receive sunlight?

 Shadow of building, tree, mountain, stack, utility pole, steel
tower, sign board and so on.
Republic

 Effect of fallen leaves and sand dust, snow cover (depth and
frequency)
Fiji

 Salt and/or lightning damage, wind condition – collect all

the possible obstacles
– Installed site
 Shape, width, direction, drainage, condition of foundation,
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

volume of construction work, carry-in route, Waterproof of

the building, effect on landscape
– Electrical facility
 Existing diagram and plot plan, space availability, wiring
route and space carry-in route
Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
e8e8/PPA

38
 22-26, 2010
Check list on planning (4)
2-6, 2009

• Preliminary consultation
Fiji - November

– Local authority – Construction work, fire

IslandsofNovember

department, necessity of permission

– Available subsidy
Republic

– Information collection from expert/consultants

Fiji

• Concept check
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

– Is it firm concept? Site, load, system size and

configuration
– Is schedule fixed?
– Is budget made based on expected generation
Grid Connected

output and its cost?

/ PPA DSM
e8e8/PPA

39
 22-26, 2010
Check list on design (5)
2-6, 2009

• Reconfirmation of design condition

Fiji - November

– Firm policy? – For what? Where? How big? How is the system?
When? How much?
IslandsofNovember

– Constraints – Ambient environment, Site condition, existing

electrical equipment, regulation, necessary procedure
• Design
Republic

– Direction and angle of PV panel – maximize output under the given

condition
Fiji

– Array configuration and its installation

– Battery configuration and its capacity
– Foundation, mounting frame, waterproof, intensity calculation
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

– Material, antirust and anti-corrosion of mounting frame material

– Compliance with regulation
– In accordance with the project purpose
– Established schedule, expected result and project cost.
• Application
Grid Connected

– Subsidy
– Application for local authority
• Design check
/ PPA DSM

– Fixed detail design, budget, construction schedule?

e8e8/PPA

– Finish all the necessary application?

– Completed adequate bidding? 40
 22-26, 2010
Key issue ; Ambient environment
2-6, 2009

• Surrounding environment and anticipated damage

Fiji - November

Should avoid Hot Spot!

IslandsofNovember

Partial light block

Leaf
Dung - - -
Republic

Cover glass
Fiji

Electrode
Bird
Falling dung
leaf
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

PV cell

Current flow to shade

hotspot
Grid Connected

makes solar panel hot

partially.
/ PPA DSM

HOT SPOT!
e8e8/PPA

41
 22-26, 2010
Key issue ; Ambient environment
2-6, 2009

• Surrounding environment and anticipated damage

Fiji - November

Should avoid hard hit and scratch!

IslandsofNovember

Stone
throwing Falling nuts
Republic
Fiji

Sand breeze
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

Example of countermeasure

Sand scratch
(like frosted grass)
Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM

Sand-break forest
e8e8/PPA

42
 22-26, 2010
Key issue ; Ambient environment
2-6, 2009

• Surrounding environment and anticipated damage

Fiji - November

Should measure contamination electrically grounding!

IslandsofNovember
Republic
Fiji

SOx Contamination
Electrically
Sea breeze grounding
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

■ Insert insulator between different kind of metal.

Grid Connected

■ Thicken Zn (Zinc) coat on steel structure.

- Usual area 400g / m2
/ PPA DSM

- Coastline, heavy industrial area 550 – 600g / m2

e8e8/PPA

43
 22-26, 2010
Key issue ; Ambient environment
2-6, 2009

• Surrounding environment and anticipated damage

Fiji - November

Should be strong enough for various weather!

IslandsofNovember

Rain Heavy snow

Lightning
Republic
Fiji

Lightning rod
Strong enough
for stormy wind
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

Heat up
Enough ventilation
for cooling
Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM

Trench for heavy rain

e8e8/PPA

44
 22-26, 2010
Key issue ; Ambient environment
2-6, 2009

• Surrounding environment and anticipated damage

Fiji - November
IslandsofNovember

Should be appropriate ventilation!

Republic
Fiji Workshop Solar PV Workshop

Within 10 degree 10 – 90 degree Over 45 degree

Select ventilation
Wash efficiency is low. Ventilation is over 45
according to purpose
Rain fall can’t clean solar degree, then snow
panel enough Output decrease ratio cover slide by its own
(Usually < 5%) weight.
Grid Connected

0
-1 Slide is starting when
-2 thickness of snow cover
-3
/ PPA DSM

is over 20 – 30 cm.
-4 Rain
e8e8/PPA

Days
10 20 30
45
 22-26, 2010
Key issue ; Installed site
2-6, 2009

Should decide installed site with due consideration of

Fiji - November

sunshine condition Attitude angle

IslandsofNovember

80 Sun chart (35º N)

Direct sunlight
Republic

don’t shines on Jun

Fiji

solar panel, which March, September

pose 10 – 20 December
efficiency 50
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

decrease of PV.

Build
Grid Connected

ing Mountain

-90 (East) 0 (South) 90 (West)

/ PPA DSM

You should research construction Azimuth angle

e8e8/PPA

plan of buildings around installed site.

46
 22-26, 2010
Key issue ; Installed site
2-6, 2009

Should decide direction of PV

Fiji - November
IslandsofNovember

Average solar radiation (kWh / m2 ▪ day) Japan

Republic

4
<Typical type of Japanese roof>
Fiji

south
north
3
east west east
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

2 west

north south
1
(ventilation = 30 degree)
Grid Connected

0
20 40 60 80
/ PPA DSM

Ventilation (degree)
e8e8/PPA

47
 22-26, 2010
Key issues; Design of operation pattern
2-6, 2009

• Estimate daily load curve

Fiji - November

• Daytime: PV for load and battery charge

IslandsofNovember

• Nighttime: Battery discharge for load

• Investigate charge/discharge time
Republic

• Calculate required PV and battery capacity

• Adjust charge/discharge energy in accordance with varying load.
Fiji

Generation curve
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

Store energy Load curve

in the battery
Supply
from the battery
Grid Connected

Wee hours Daytime Nighttime

AM PM
/ PPA DSM

Supply from PV Charge to battery Supply from battery

e8e8/PPA

48
 22-26, 2010
Key issues: operation & maintenance
2-6, 2009

• Load forecasting is most important.

Fiji - November

• Aim to full utilize PV power.

IslandsofNovember

• Reserve battery energy for emergency case.

Republic

Load forecast Generation curve

Need Expandability
Fiji

in the future (shortage in the future?)

PV panel PV panel

Load curve
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

Inverter

Wee hours Daytime Nighttime Expanded

Grid Connected

facility
AM PM PCS

Supply from PV Charge to battery

/ PPA DSM

Battery
Supply from battery
e8e8/PPA

49
 22-26, 2010

Key issues: Calculation of PV array output

2-6, 2009

• First, estimated the total size of load EL Calculate from

Fiji - November

• Array output PAS: electric energy

IslandsofNovember

EL Х D Х R
PAS =
(HA / GS) Х K
Republic
Fiji

EL : Average load size (consumed energy kWh / duration)

D : Load’s dependency rate on solar energy
HA: Amount of solar radiation during a given interval [kWh/m2 ▪ duration]
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

GS: Intensity of solar radiation at normal condition [kW/m2]

R : Design margin ratio
K : of integrated design factor (0.65 – 0.8, loss and equipment variation)
Grid Connected

Array Glass Packing

Module
Cell
/ PPA DSM

Backside film Cell Filling

e8e8/PPA

Bracket

50
 22-26, 2010

Key issues: Calculation of PV array output

2-6, 2009

• First, estimated the total size of load EL Calculate from

Fiji - November

• Array output PAS: EL Х D Х R margin electric energy

IslandsofNovember

PAS =
Considering (HA / GS) Х K Loss, etc
margin, loss
Republic

PAS ; Array output in standard condition Electricity shared by PV

Fiji

■standard condition (in Japan)

AM 1.5, intensity of solar radiation 1kW/m2 EL = Load (kWh)
Temperature of solar cells 25℃

Electric energy Energy of solar radiation

Workshop Solar PV Workshop

(kWh) (kWh)
On site Wee hours Daytime Nighttime
EL condition HA ХGS/HA AM PM

Electricity (kW) Intensity of solar radiation D = 1 – (dependency rate on backup)

In standard
PAS Gs
Grid Connected

condition

PAS = EL ХGS / HA Grid

/ PPA DSM

back up
= EL / (GS / HA)
e8e8/PPA

generator
51
 22-26, 2010

Key issues: Calculation of PV array output

2-6, 2009

Calculate from
Fiji - November

Exercise1
electric energy
IslandsofNovember

EL Х D Х R
PAS = = kW
(HA / GS) Х K
Republic
Fiji

EL : Average load size (consumed energy kWh / duration)

EL = 120 kWh / day
D : Load’s dependency rate on solar energy
D = 1 - (without back up generator)=1
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

HA: Amount of solar radiation during a given interval [kWh/m2 ▪ duration]

HA = 4.55kW / m2 ▪ day
in Tokyo, summer direction south inclination angle 30 º
GS: Intensity of solar radiation at normal condition [kW/m2]
GS = 1kW / m2
Grid Connected

R : Design margin ratio

R = 1.2
K : of integrated design factor (0.65 – 0.8, loss and equipment variation)
/ PPA DSM

K = 0.7 (typical)
e8e8/PPA

52
 22-26, 2010

Key issues: Calculation of PV array output

2-6, 2009

• Possibility quantity of generation EP: Calculate from

Fiji - November

square measure
IslandsofNovember

EP = HA Х K ХPAS
Republic

HA: Amount of solar radiation during a given interval [kWh/m2 ▪ duration]

PAS : Electricity output of solar power system
Fiji

K : of integrated design factor (0.65 – 0.8, loss and equipment variation)

Workshop Solar PV Workshop

Array Glass Packing

Module
Grid Connected

Cell
Backside film Cell Filling
Bracket
/ PPA DSM
e8e8/PPA

53
 22-26, 2010

Key issues: Calculation of PV array output

2-6, 2009

Calculation Example Calculate from square measure

Fiji - November

▪ residence
IslandsofNovember

▪ roof top mount

Republic

Direction of PV = directly south

Inclination angle of PV = 30 º
Fiji

K (of integrated design factor)

K = 0.70 (in summer)
= 0.75 (in winter)
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

Decreasing rate of electricity on the eastern and western face = 20%

PV module
- Nominal maximum output = 102W
- Nominal operation voltage at a point of maximum output = 34V
- maximum installation number of PV module → refer to next slide
Grid Connected

PCS (Power Conditioning Subsystem)

- Nominal DC input 200V
/ PPA DSM

- Nominal AC 210 / 105V, 3 wire

e8e8/PPA

54
 22-26, 2010

Key issues: Calculation of PV array output

2-6, 2009

solar radiation
Calculation Example
Fiji - November

month (in Tokyo)

▪ residence
IslandsofNovember

[kWh / m2 ▪ day]
▪ roof top mount 1 3.67
Republic

north 2 3.73
Fiji

3 4.14
4 4.12
south In Japan 5 4.39
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

Avoid installing on the north face 6 3.77

7 3.74
Maximum
installation 8 4.22
Grid Connected

9 3.39
10 3.32
/ PPA DSM

11 3.10
e8e8/PPA

12 3.29
55
 22-26, 2010

Key issues: Calculation of PV array output

2-6, 2009

Calculation Example
Fiji - November

Please modify
IslandsofNovember

(1) The number of modules of one string

= DC input / nominal operation voltage at a point of maximum output
= 200V / 34 V = 5.9 → 6 cells
Republic

(2) Electricity output of one string

Fiji

= 102W Х 6 = 612W
(3) Output voltage of one string
= 34V Х 6 = 204V
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

(4) The number of strings, which can be installed on the roof top
= 4 strings (refer to previous slide)
(5) electricity output of this solar power system (in standard condition)
= 612W Х 4 = 2448W → about 2.4kW (PAS)
Grid Connected

(6) Possibility quantity of generation (in January)

= 3.67 Х 0.75 Х 2.4 = 6.6 kWh / m2 ▪ day (on the southern face)
/ PPA DSM

= 3.67 Х 0.75 Х 2.4 Х 0.8 = 5.3 kWh / m2 ▪ day

e8e8/PPA

(on the eastern and western face)

56
 22-26, 2010

Key issues: Calculation of PV array output

2-6, 2009

Exercise 2 Calculate from generation capacity

Fiji - November

▪ Condo
IslandsofNovember

▪ roof top mount

Republic

Total generation capacity of PV in standard condition = 10kW

Fiji

Direction of PV = directly south

Inclination angle of PV = 30 º
K (of integrated design factor)
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

K = 0.70 (in summer)

= 0.75 (in winter)
PV module
- Nominal maximum output = 50W
- Nominal operation voltage at a point of maximum output = 17.5V
Grid Connected

PCS (Power Conditioning Subsystem)

- Nominal DC input 300V
/ PPA DSM
e8e8/PPA

57
 22-26, 2010

Key issues: Calculation of PV array output

2-6, 2009

solar radiation
Exercise 2
Fiji - November

month (in Tokyo)

▪ Condo
IslandsofNovember

[kWh / m2 ▪ day]
▪ roof top mount 1 3.67
Republic

2 3.73
north
Fiji

3 4.14
4 4.12
5 4.39
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

south 6 3.77
7 3.74
--- 8 4.22
Grid Connected

--- 9 3.39
10 3.32
---
/ PPA DSM

11 3.10
e8e8/PPA

12 3.29
58
 22-26, 2010

Key issues: Calculation of PV array output

2-6, 2009

Exercise 2
Fiji - November
IslandsofNovember

(1) The number of modules of one string

= Cells
Republic

(2) Electricity output of one string

Fiji

= W
(3) Output voltage of one string
= V
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

(4) The number of strings so that total generation capacity is 10kW

= strings
(5) electricity output of this solar power system (in standard condition)
= kW
Grid Connected

(6) Possibility quantity of generation (in January)

kWh / m2 ▪ day
/ PPA DSM

=
e8e8/PPA

59
 22-26, 2010

Key issues: Battery capacity

2-6, 2009

• Lifetime of battery heavily depends on Depth Of Discharge

Fiji - November

(DOD), number of discharge and ambient temperature.

IslandsofNovember

• In application with PV, set the average DOD because of fluctuating

charging/discharging energy by weather.
• Key point
Republic

– Estimate accurate load size

– Optimize PV capacity, battery capacity and operational parameter of
Fiji

PCS
• Procedure
– Decide purpose of battery system
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

– DC input power necessary for load

– Understand inverter input power
– Acquire amount of solar radiation at the site
– Set number of days without sunshine based on solar radiation
condition and importance of load
Grid Connected

– Set DOD from expected lifetime of battery

– Even in month with min solar radiation, determine capacity and angle
of PV array to make charging energy cover discharge for load.
/ PPA DSM

– Calculate battery capacity

e8e8/PPA

60
 22-26, 2010

Key issues: Battery capacity

2-6, 2009

• Lifetime of battery heavily depends on Depth Of Discharge

Fiji - November

(DOD), number of discharge and ambient temperature.

IslandsofNovember

Battery discharge
DOD ( Depth of Discharge) = Х100
Nominal battery capacity
Republic

Need to decide battery capacity considering DOD.

Fiji

Example of DOD
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

Cycle life is
decreasing with
increase of DOD.
Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
e8e8/PPA

61
 22-26, 2010

Types of battery (For accident prevention)

2-6, 2009

Normal time Load for

Fiji - November

Accident prevention
IslandsofNovember

PCS Grid
Republic

Charger Electricity flow

Fiji

Day time
Night time
Battery
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

Emergency Load for

Accident prevention

PCS Grid
outage
Grid Connected

Charger Electricity flow

/ PPA DSM

Secure load for Day time

emergency
e8e8/PPA

Battery Night time

62
 22-26, 2010

Types of battery
2-6, 2009

For Peak Shift

Fiji - November

Pleas modify text (arrow)

IslandsofNovember

PCS Grid
Republic

Electricity flow
Fiji

Peak time
Off peak time
Battery
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

Stand Alone Type

Charger PCS AC Load

Grid Connected

DC Load

Electricity flow
/ PPA DSM

Day time
Battery
e8e8/PPA

Night time
63
 22-26, 2010

Key issues: Battery capacity

2-6, 2009

For accident prevention

Fiji - November

■Discharge current Id ;
IslandsofNovember

▪ T ; Keep time of discharge (h)

▪ P ; Average Load (W)
Id = P ▪ Vi ; Minimum DC input voltage of inverter (V)
Republic

Ef (Vi + Vd) ▪ Vd ; Line drop voltage between battery

Fiji

and inverter (V)

▪ Ef ; inverter efficiency (%)
■Required number of battery connected in series N ;
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

▪ Vf ; Final discharge voltage of battery (V)

N= Vi + Vd ▪ Vi ; Minimum DC input voltage of inverter (V)
Vf ▪ Vd ; Line drop voltage between battery
and inverter (V)
■Battery capacity C ;
Grid Connected

▪ K ; Conversion time of capacity (h)

C= K▪I
▪ I ; Average discharge current (A)
/ PPA DSM

L ▪ L ; Maintenance factor (Capacity decrease ratio

e8e8/PPA

at the end of life.)

64
 22-26, 2010

Key issues: Battery capacity

2-6, 2009

Calculation Example
Fiji - November
IslandsofNovember

▪ T ; Keep time of discharge (h) = 12h

▪ P ; Average Load (W) = 3kW
▪ Vi ; Minimum DC input voltage of inverter (V) = 250V
Republic

▪ Vd ; Line drop voltage between battery and inverter (V) = 2V

▪ Ef ; inverter efficiency (%) = 90%
Fiji

▪ Vf ; Final discharge voltage of battery = 1.8V / cell Most severe

▪ Minimum operation temperature of battery = 5℃ condition
Emergency
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

Load for
Vd = 2V Ef = 90%
Accident prevention

PCS Grid
outage
Grid Connected

Vi = 250V P = 3kW
Should discharge
Charger
for 12 hours (T)
/ PPA DSM

1.8V
e8e8/PPA

Battery 5℃
65
 22-26, 2010

Key issues: Battery capacity

2-6, 2009

Calculation Example
Fiji - November

K ; Conversion time of capacity (Example)

IslandsofNovember

Discharge Final discharge voltage of battery

temperature
time 1.9V 1.8V 1.7V 1.6V
Republic

25 2.40 1.90 1.65 1.55

Fiji

1h 5(outside) 3.10 2.05 1.80 1.70

-5(inside) 3.50 2.20 1.95 1.80
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

1.5-9.5h
25 11.50 10.00 9.40 8.90
10h 5(outside) 12.70 10.50 10.00 9.70
-5(inside) 14.00 12.00 11.00 10.60
Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
e8e8/PPA

66
 22-26, 2010

Key issues: Battery capacity

2-6, 2009

Calculation Example
Fiji - November

3000W = 13.2A
IslandsofNovember

(1)Discharge current Id =
0.9 Х(250V + 2V)
(2)Required number of battery connected in series N
Republic

250V + 2V
= = 140
Fiji

1.8V
(3)Convertion time of capacity K
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

There isn’t K value over 10 hours.

<In the case that T is over 10 hours.>
K = K value of 10 hours + (discharge time – 10hours)

K = 10.50 + 12 – 10 = 12.50
Grid Connected

(4)Battery capacity C
12.50h Х13.2A
/ PPA DSM

= = 206Ah
0.8
e8e8/PPA

67
 22-26, 2010

Key issues: Battery capacity

2-6, 2009

For peak shift Same formula as

Fiji - November

prevention accident case

■Discharge current Id ;
IslandsofNovember

▪ T ; Operating hours of discharge (h)

▪ P ; Output electricity (W)
Id = P ▪ Vi ; Minimum DC input voltage of inverter (V)
Republic

Ef (Vi + Vd) ▪ Vd ; Line drop voltage between battery

Fiji

and inverter (V)

▪ Ef ; inverter efficiency (%)
■Required number of battery connected in series N ;
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

▪ Vf ; Final discharge voltage of battery (V)

N= Vi + Vd ▪ Vi ; Minimum DC input voltage of inverter (V)
Vf ▪ Vd ; Line drop voltage between battery
and inverter (V)
■Battery capacity C;
Grid Connected

▪ K ; Conversion time of capacity (h)

C= K▪I
▪ I ; Average discharge current (A)
/ PPA DSM

L ▪ L ; Maintenance factor (Capacity decrease ratio

e8e8/PPA

at the end of life.)

68
 22-26, 2010

Key issues: Battery capacity

2-6, 2009

Exercise 3
Fiji - November
IslandsofNovember

▪ T ; Operating hours of discharge (h) = 2h

▪ P ; Output electricity (W) = 100kW
▪ Vi ; Minimum DC input voltage of inverter (V) = 250V
Republic

▪ Vd ; Line drop voltage between battery and inverter (V) = 2V

▪ Ef ; inverter efficiency (%) = 92%
Fiji

▪ Vf ; Final discharge voltage of battery = 1.8V / cell Most severe

▪ Minimum operation temperature of battery = 5℃ condition
Peak shift
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

P = 100kW Vi = 250V Ef = 92%

PCS Grid
Grid Connected

Vd = 2V

1.8V Should operate

/ PPA DSM

5℃ for 2 hours (T)

e8e8/PPA

Battery
 22-26, 2010

Key issues: Battery capacity

2-6, 2009

Exercise 3
Fiji - November

K ; Conversion time of capacity (Example)

IslandsofNovember

Discharge Final discharge voltage of battery

temperature
time 1.9V 1.8V 1.7V 1.6V
Republic

1-1.5h
Fiji

25 3.70 3.05 2.75 2.60

2h 5(outside) 4.50 3.30 3.00 2.80
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

-5(inside) 5.10 3.70 3.15 3.00

2.5-9.5h
25 11.50 10.00 9.40 8.90
10h 5(outside) 12.70 10.50 10.00 9.70
Grid Connected

-5(inside) 14.00 12.00 11.00 10.60

/ PPA DSM
e8e8/PPA

70
 22-26, 2010

Key issues: Battery capacity

2-6, 2009

Exercise 3
Fiji - November
IslandsofNovember

(1)Discharge current Id = A

(2)Required number of battery connected in series N

Republic

=
Fiji

(3)Convertion time of capacity K

Workshop Solar PV Workshop

K=

(4)Battery capacity C

= Ah
Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
e8e8/PPA

71
 22-26, 2010

Key issues: Battery capacity

2-6, 2009

Stand alone system Please modify red word

Fiji - November

■Daily ampere hour Id (Ah / day) ;

IslandsofNovember

▪ Ld ; Dairy power consumption (Wh)

Id = Ld ▪ Vb ; Nominal battery voltage (V)
Republic

Vb Х N Х DOD ▪ N ; Number of battery

Fiji

▪ DOD ; Depth Of Discharge (%)

■Battery capacity C ;
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

▪ Id ; Daily ampere hour (Ah / day)

C= Id Х Df ▪ Df ; Days without sunshine in a row (days)
L ▪ L ; Maintenance factor (Capacity decrease ratio
at the end of life.)
Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM
e8e8/PPA

72
 22-26, 2010

Key issues: Battery capacity

2-6, 2009

Exercise 4
Fiji - November

▪ Ld ; Dairy power consumption (h) = 2.4kWh

IslandsofNovember

▪ Df ; Days without sunshine in a row (days) = 10days

▪ L ; Maintenance factor = 0.8
▪ Vb ; Nominal battery voltage (V) = 2V
Republic

▪ N ; Number of battery = 48
Fiji

10days
▪ DOD ; Depth Of Discharge = 65%

Stand alone
Workshop Solar PV Workshop

2.4kWh

Charger PCS AC Load

Grid Connected

Vd = 2V DC Load

48cells
2V Should discharge for maximum
/ PPA DSM

DOD 65%
duration without sunshine (Df)
Battery
e8e8/PPA

73
e8e8/PPA Grid Connected
/ PPA DSM Workshop Solar PV Workshop Republic
Fiji Fiji - November
IslandsofNovember 22-26, 2010
2-6, 2009

=
Exercise 4

(2)Battery capacity C

Ah
(1)Discharge current Id =
A
Key issues: Battery capacity

74
 Mini grid
(PV hybrid systems within mini grid)

Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Fiji
November 22-26,2010
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
Off Grid: PV mini grid

No Title Sub-t.itle Main Grid Supplied Gen Size Genset Other Battery Note
connection power (approx.) RNE system
(1) SHS DC SHS Off DC < 1kW No No Yes
AC SHS Off AC < 1kW No No Yes
(2) Mini grid PV Mini Off AC 1 - 50kW No No Yes 50 to 600
grid Households
Battery
charge
station
PV hybrid Off AC 10 - 500kW Optional Wind Optional New
systems (a few biomass components
within hours micro-hydro
mini-grid per day) etc.
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

(3) Grid Grid On AC > 40kW No No Optional With reliable

connected connected grid
Large PV large PV (24H supply)
system & system
Hybrid Grid On AC > 100kW Basically Wind Optional With reliable
system connected No. biomass grid
hybrid Optional micro-hydro (24H supply)
system (a few etc.
hours
per day)

1
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
System configuration
Wind

PV panel
Biomass

Micro
-hydro
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Inverter

Genset
runs for only a few
PCS hours per day For a village
(10 – 500kW)

Battery
Delivers the power to the
Isolated, low voltage households and common
AC distribution systems equipments through a grid
2
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Examples (1)
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Installed in 2004 at Noyon, Mongolia by NEDO (Sharp)

3 phase AC for school, hospital, government office and
residential houses
200kW PV, 2 * 1,000Ah battery, 3 * 100kW gensets
To realize suitable load dispatching for 3 gensets
Source: NEDO

3
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Examples (1)
Power center 100kW
Diesel generator #1 - #3
PC SL1
Generation
28,477kWh
Charging
5,796kWh Generation 19,009kWh

Battery #1
PC SL2
Generation
28,850kWh
Charging Total power supply
4,318kWh 95,299kWh
Battery #2
Hospital 40kW
PC SL3
Generation
7,274kWh
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

School 40kW

Generation PC SL5 Wee hours Daytime Nighttime

7,176kWh AM PM

Supply from PV Charge to battery

Sum center 10kW PC SL6 Supply from battery
Supply from genset
Generation
2,570kWh Operation pattern
Communication PC SL4
center 10kW
Generation
2,091kWh Source: NEDO

4
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Examples (1)

• Key point in Operation

– Rational use of generated power
 Awareness of energy conservation
 Use of high energy efficiency appliances
– Reasonable tariff system
 Avoid no charge and/or fixed price
 Charge it on consumed energy
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

– Fairness on charge collection system

– Development/improvement of distribution system

Source: NEDO

5
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Examples (2)
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Source: NEDO

Installed in 2006 at Udomsai, Lao by NEDO (TEPCO+IEEJ)

200V AC for 10 villages (approx 900 houses, 5,000 peoples)
100kW PV, 80kW micro-hydro, 8 * 7.5kW pumps
Instead of battery, use pumped storage system
6
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Examples (2)

10 Villages, 900 households,

System configuration Transformer
5,000 peoples

Upper dam
PV array (100kW)
Dummy load governor

Upper
reservoir
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Spillway

Lifting pump (7.5kW * 8 )

Mini hydro (80kW)

Lower
reservoir

Source: NEDO

7
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Examples (2)
Pattern 1 Operation pattern
Pump up at daytime, generation by mini-hydro Pattern 2
at nighttime Pattern 1 + generation by river-in-flow

Pattern 3 Pattern 4
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Pattern 2 + pump up at light load hours in night Load dispatching by PV and mini-hydro

Source: NEDO

8
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Planning & design (1)

• Output fluctuation of REN

– Effect on voltage and frequency
– Traditional generator absorbs fluctuation of load, but
REN generates fluctuation.
– Without output adjustable power source, it’s very
difficult to keep voltage and frequency.
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

• Measures
– Measures at each REN
– Hybrid with other power source
– Use of battery system
– Use of dummy load

9
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Planning & design (2)
• How to have power source for base load
– Requirement
 Reliability
 Power controllability
 Low generation cost
• Can REN be a base power source?
– Micro-hydro: Possible, if stable flow exists.
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

– Wind: Low reliability. But wind firm may be.

– PV: No, because of daytime only
– Biomass: Possible, if stable fuel supply exists.

10
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Planning & design (3)
• Combination of various REN

Reliability Power Generation Constrain Difficulty on Total evaluation

controllability cost on site maintenance
Micro-hydro
(river-in-flow)

Micro-hydro
(storage pond)
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Wind

PV

Biomass

:Excellent :Good :Fair :Poor

11
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Planning & design of micro-hydro

• Concept design of micro-hydro

– Layout of major engineering structure
– Identify head
– Investigate information of water flow
– Design of max water consumption

• Basic design of major engineering structure

e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

– Civil
– Electrical

12
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Planning & design of wind power
• Concept design
– Site selection
– Investigate information of wind condition
– Investigate surrounding natural and social condition

• Basic design
– Detail survey of wind condition
– Wind measurement (point, method)
– Analysis of measured data
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

– Simulation
– Evaluation  Finalize point and capacity
– Environmental assessment
– Land and soil survey

13
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Planning & design of biomass energy
• Concept design
– Identify biomass resource
 Cost
 Supply stability
– How to collect biomass?
 In-house, collection, delivered
– Investigation of plant size
 Amount of biomass resource, area, demand
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

– How to use energy (power, heat)

– Reuse/disposal of by-product (dust, sludge, effluent…)

14
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Operation & maintenance
• Load forecasting is most important. Daytime: Battery charge by REN source
• Aim to full utilize PV power. Nighttime: Battery discharge for load
• Reserve battery energy for Investigate charge/discharge time
emergency case. Calculate required battery capacity
• Adjust charge/discharge energy in
accordance with varying load.
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Source: NEDO

15
 Normal grid
(Examples of grid connected system)

Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Fiji
November 22-26,2010
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
Grid connected system

No Title Sub-t.itle Main Grid Supplied Gen Size Genset Other Battery Note
connection power (approx.) RNE system
(1) SHS DC SHS Off DC < 1kW No No Yes
AC SHS Off AC < 1kW No No Yes
(2) Mini grid PV Mini Off AC 1 - 50kW No No Yes 50 to 600
grid Households
Battery
charge
station
PV hybrid Off AC 10 - 500kW Optional Wind Optional New
systems (a few biomass components
within hours micro-hydro
mini-grid per day) etc.
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

(3) Grid Grid On AC > 40kW No No Optional With reliable

connected connected grid
Large PV large PV (24H supply)
system & system
Hybrid Grid On AC > 100kW Basically Wind Optional With reliable
system connected No. biomass grid
hybrid Optional micro-hydro (24H supply)
system (a few etc.
hours
per day)

1
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
Grid connected: Large PV system:
System configuration

PV panel

Inverter
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

PCS

Optional
For a for village
(> 40kW)
Grid Battery
Grid-connected Delivers the power to the
24 hours power supply households and common
by existing generators Optional battery
equipments through a grid
2
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Grid connected: Large PV system:
Type of grid connection

Grid connection No Reverse Buy power from grid

- Low voltage islanding flow if load > PV output
- High voltage operation
Sell power to grid
No if load < PV output
reverse
Anytime load > PV output
flow
Reverse power flow relay
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Reverse On reverse flow, same as

flow above
Islanding
operation
No
reverse With battery system, backup
flow power shall be supplied even
in power outage

Source: NEDO

3
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Grid connected: Large PV system:
Examples (1)

Source: KEPCO
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Installed in 2008 at Funafuti, Tuvalu by E8 (KEPCO)

Connected with grid
40kW PV
Decrease approx. 50t-Co2/y [100 klbs-Co2/y]

4
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Grid connected: Large PV system:
Examples (2)
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Present (As of 2010 Oct) Final

Area 60000 m2 = 72000 yard2 200000 m2 =240000 yard2
Generator capacity 2850 kW 10000 MW
Generation output 3000MWh / year 11000MWh / year
CO2 reduction/year 1,000,000kg = 4,000,000kg =
2,2000,000pound 8,8000,000pound
Operation start 2010.10.5 ~ 2011.10 ~
5
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Grid connected: Large PV system:
Examples (3)
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Source: NEDO

Installed in 2005 at Beijing, China by NEDO (TEPCO+PVTEC)

Office use plus connected with 10kV grid
140kW PV
Comparison of various kind of PV modules (crystalline, amorphous)

6
 e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010

Examples (3)
Grid connected: Large PV system:

Source: NEDO

7
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Grid connected: Large PV system:
Examples (4)
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Source: NEDO

Installed in 2004-2007 at Ohta, Japan by NEDO (Kandenko et al.)

553 residential houses
Total 140kW PV, connected at 100V with 6.6kV distribution line
Evaluation of the islanding operation protection

8
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Grid connected: Large PV system:
Examples (4)

PV

Inverter etc. Junction

box
Load
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Source: NEDO

Installed in 2004-2007 at Ohta, Japan by NEDO (Kandenko et al.)

553 residential houses
Total 140kW PV, connected at 100V with 6.6kV distribution line
Evaluation of the islanding operation protection

9
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Other various applications of PV
( On the factory roof )
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Capacity:820kW Capacity:50kW

Capacity:260kW

10
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Other various applications of PV
( On the wall surface )
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Capacity:66kW Capacity:4kW

Capacity:15kW

11
Technical requirements
for grid interconnection

Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Fiji
November 22-26,2010
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 The merit of grid interconnection
from the generator installer

〇Easier to maintain power quality

〇Boost the operating rates of generator

〇Absorb fluctuation of generator output

(ex. PV, wind power)

e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

〇Improve reliability and flexibility in case of

generator’s fault or maintenance check

〇Chance to sell electric power to the power

company

1
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010

The Merit of Grid interconnection (1)

Easier to maintain power quality

Hard to
Grid
keep
system
voltage
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Distributed
generation
× Disconnected
from grid
Distribution ↓
G
substation Hard to keep
system
frequency
Feeder

2
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010

The Merit of Grid interconnection (2)

Mottainai
Boost the operation rates of generator (Wasteful)

Pmax
G L
L ＝ G
High
performance
generator Restricted operating rates
Low
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

performance
G generator
Low performance
Grid generator
G Pmax
High performance
High generator
performance
generator lower generation cost as a total
3
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
The Merit of Grid interconnection (3)
Improve reliability and flexibility in case of
generator’s fault or maintenance check

Generator’s fault or periodical inspection

G L G L

Blackout or
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Standby generator is needed

G
G
Grid Grid
G G

L L
4
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Considerable points
in case of grid interconnection

Power Grid
Load Load Generator

Power from the grid and the generator are mixed, Ｇ

in case of interconnection
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

〇Secure supply reliability and maintain power quality

(Voltage, frequency, harmonics, etc)
○Secure Public safety and prevent equipment damage

5
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Considerable points
in case of grid interconnection (detail)
Secure supply ・Dispersed generator’s fault should not effect the
reliability reliability of power grid
・Prevent expansion of fault (by exceeding short
circuit capacity, by malfunction of distribution over
current protection relay, etc)
・Relay protection coordination is important
Maintain power quality ・Possibility of harmful effect to other customers via
grid
・Reduce voltage fluctuation of distribution line by
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

interconnecting of dispersed generator

・Reduce harmonics level from dispersed generator
etc
Secure public safety ・Prevent islanding to be secure public safety,
and prevent especially for distribution line which is easily
equipment damage accessible to public

Basic principle is disconnecting generator

from the power grid in case of problem
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
The necessity of grid interconnection code
＜Request from generator installer side＞
・simplification of facility (low cost)
・request higher operation rate of generator
・request to shorten the period of construction
Generally, to seek cheaper facility and simpler operation, the
quality of facility shows a tendency to be lower.

Conflict of request

＜Request from power system operator＞

e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

・countermeasure by facility to secure safety

（→higher cost）
・higher priority on power quality and public safety
（→decrease the operation rate of generator by output
suppression)
・sufficient preliminary check
（→prolong the period of construction by preliminary check)
Generally, to seek higher security and power quality, request shows a
tendency to be higher.
7
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 The necessity of grid interconnection code
(continue)

Interconnection to power grid of many,

various type of generator

Effect to operation,
＜Request from administration, ＜Request from
generator installer maintenance of power system
side＞ Power system, etc operator＞
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

To harmonize request from both side, to

secure equality and transparency of generator
interconnecting process, grid interconnection
code is necessary.
8
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Category of grid interconnection
by voltage level

Category Power Capacity per customer

(P)
Low voltage distribution line P < 50kW
(100V, 200V) (in principle)
High voltage distribution line P < 2000kW
(6600V) (in principle)
Extra high voltage line 2000kW <= P
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

(in principle)

Technical requirement for grid interconnection

is partly different according to the category
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Technical requirements
for interconnection (index)

The below index is the example of grid interconnection

to high voltage distribution line (6600V).

1. Electric system
2. Power factor
3. Measures for voltage fluctuations
4. Measures for power quality
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

5. Countermeasures for phase fault current

6. Protective relay system
7. Neutral point grounding system
8. Automatic load shedding device
9. Device to confirm no-voltage on distribution line
10. Telephone facility for security communication
11. Prevention of reverse power flow through main transformer

10
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
1.Electric system
1. Electric system
Should not to hinder the use of electricity or
electric facilities for others.
- Electric system of generation facilities is to be the alternating-current (AC)
three-phase and three-wire system
- voltage and frequency are the same as those of the interconnected power
systems
<Exception>
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

a. The capacity of generation facility is so small compared with

the maximum receiving power
The influence from phase unbalance can be neglected.
b. The inverter is shut off or the power facility is disconnected as
measures against over-voltage caused by load unbalance when a
circuit breaker is opened at the receiving point in a situation
A generation facility with a single-phase two-wire system of
200V can interconnects with the power systems of a
single-phase three-wire system.
11
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
1.Electric system – Balance
Three phase, three wire system

Mr. C Mr. A

Mr. B

Balanced Almost balanced current

current
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

generator Voltage vector - balanced

load
Voltage of
customer side Voltage of
power terminal
In the case that the influence
from phase unbalance can be
Same voltage
neglected.
drop value
(load >> generator)

12
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
1.Electric system - Unbalance

Mr. C Mr. A

Mr. B

Balanced Unbalanced current

current
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Voltage vector - unbalanced

generator
Mr. A
load Too high ?
Voltage of
In the case that the influence Voltage of power terminal
from phase unbalance can’t customer side
be neglected.
Different voltage
Mr. B Too low drop value
13
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
1.Electric system – rough guide
<Exception>
a. The capacity of generation facility is so small compared with
the maximum receiving power
Please modify inequality sign.
Small? How much capacity?
Rough guide of small generator
Generator 200V 200V 100V
1phase 1phase 1phase
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Voltage
3wire 2wire 2wire
of power system
High voltage
3phase < 6kVA < 6kVA < 2kVA
3wire
200V same
1phase electric system < 6kVA < 2kVA
3wire
14
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
1.Electric system – About PV capacity
Characteristics (V-I) of PV module
Output power is small
Current Current is large, but voltage is small.
Isc Optimum operating point
short-circuit
Output power become maximum.
current
Pm ; Maximum power
Pm = Ipm Х Vpm
Ipm
Output power is small
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Optimum
Operating Voltage is large,
current but current is small.

Voltage
0 Voc
Vpm open
Optimum operating voltage voltage

Each dimensions of square means power at each voltage.

15
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
1.Electric system – About PV capacity
Characteristics (V-P) of PV module
output
power
V-I curve
Isc Optimum operating point
short-circuit
Output power become maximum.
current

Pm
Vpm
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

maximum
output Optimum operating voltage
power

Voltage
0 Voc
open
voltage
PV module has optimum operating voltage. If you don’t control PV
voltage, PV system efficiency becomes very low.
16
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
1.Electric system – About PV capacity
Exercise 1
current (A)
PV 4 <Point B>
optimum
<Point A> operating point
3
2.5
Battery 2
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

(6V)
1

0
56 10 15 18 20 25
voltage (V)
■Numerical value is just for exercise. It is different from actual equipment’s.
17
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
1.Electric system – About PV capacity
Exercise 1
(1) PA (output power at point A) = W
(2) PB (output power at point B) = W
output power at some point
(3)PV efficiency = Х 100
Maximum output power

= %
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

(4)Are you satisfied with this efficiency? Choose one.

- Yes.
- No.

18
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
1.Electric system – PV control
Exercise 2
current (A)
PV 4 <Point B>
optimum
<Point A> operating point
Ipm
Vpm
3
Voltage 2.5
converter 2
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

6V I
1
Battery
(6V)
0
56 10 15 18 20 25
voltage (V)
■Numerical value is just for exercise. It is different from actual equipment’s.
19
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
1.Electric system – PV control
Exercise 2
(1) Vpm (optimum voltage) = V
(2) Ipm (optimum current) = A
(3) Pm (optimum output power) = W
(4) I (battery input current) = A
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

20
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
1.Electric system – MPPT control
DC/DC
converter
Inverter Grid
boost
Vin chopper Vout Iout
input Output Output
voltage control voltage current
PV output controller
MPPT
(Maximum Power Point Tracker) Please modify
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Boost chopper control Vout → const, Vin → optimum voltage

Control On,Off
Booster chopper characteristics
IGBT
Vout Vout = { 1/ (1 – α) } Vin
Vin
α(duty ratio) = Ton / (Ton + Toff)

Boost chopper
21
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
1.Electric system – MPPT control
What is MPPT control (Maximum Power Point Tracker)

Optimum operating point

output Output power become maximum.
power

Pm ΔP / ΔV > 0
ΔP / ΔV < 0
maximum then return
output ΔP / ΔV < 0
power ΔP / ΔV > 0
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Go ahead!
0 Voltage
Vpm
ΔP / ΔV < 0 Optimum operating voltage
then return

MTTP control function detect ΔP / ΔV, and control voltage to direction

that ΔP / ΔV becomes plus. Finally PV voltage reach optimum operating
voltage.

22
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
2.Power factor

2. Power factor
Necessary to control reactive power so as to maintain
the appropriate system voltage.
- the power factor of generation facilities should be 0.85 or more at the
receiving point.
- It should not be a leading power factor when viewed from the power
systems to prevent the voltage from increasing (or a lagging power
factor when viewed from generation facilities).
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

<Exception>
a. It is unavoidable for preventing voltage increase. (In this case,
the power factor at the receiving point can be controlled up to 0.8.)
b. An inverter with small output is used or the power factor at the
receiving point is deemed appropriate. (In this case, the power
factor of generation facilities is over 0.85 when controlling reactive
power and is over 0.95 when not controlling it.)

23
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
2.Power factor is ---

receiving point
V(V)
Load impedance
load
r + jX (Ω)
I (A)
P(W) + jQ (Var)

Power factor = cos θ

Please modify
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Apparent Power
S(kVA) Impedance
I Z(Ω) Reactance
Reactive
Current jX(Ω)
power
Capacitance
θ V θ Q(Var) θ -jX(Ω)
Voltage Active power resistance
P(W) r(Ω)

24
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
2.Power factor – cos θ > 0.85

receiving point
V(V)
Load impedance
load
r + jX (Ω)
I (A)
P(W) + jQ (Var)

Apparent power doesn’t change

and power factor decreasing
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Power factor decrease

(θ increase)
S’ Active power decrease
S Q Transmission loss doesn’t change

θ P
I; current
R1 + jX1
Not change
P’
Active power decrease R2 + jX2
Transmission loss = (R1+R2) I2
25
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
2.Power factor – lead? delay?
2. Power factor
- It should not be a leading power factor when viewed from the power
systems to prevent the voltage from increasing (or a lagging power
factor when viewed from generation facilities).
lag -jQ lead
Viewed from generator Viewed from the power systems

P + jQ
Qg
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Pl G L
-P Pg
Pg + jQg P
Pg + jQg Pl + jQl
Ql
Pl + jQl
lead lag
Viewed from generator jQ Viewed from the power systems

active power Pl+Pg

cosθ = =
apparent power √{(Pl+Pg)2 + (Ql+Qg)2}
26
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
2.Power factor
Exercise 3 (4)Draw actress power vector of
generator and load
-250 + j496 -jQ

G L
output : 500kW output : 250kW
-P P
power factor 0.80 power factor 0.90
(lead viewed from (lag viewed from
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

generator) power systems)

(1)reactive power of generator
= (kVar) jQ
(2)reactive power of load
= (kVar)
(3)power factor (viewed from power systems)
=
27
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
2.Power factor
Exercise 4 (4)Draw actress power vector of
generator and load
-250 – j43 -jQ

G L
output : 500kW output : 250kW
-P P
power factor 0.95 power factor 0.90
(lag viewed from (lag viewed from
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

generator) power systems)

(1)reactive power of generator
= (kVar) jQ
(2)reactive power of load
= (kVar)
(3)power factor (viewed from power systems)
=
28
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
2.Power factor
2. Power factor
- It should not be a leading power factor when viewed from the power
systems to prevent the voltage from increasing (or a lagging power
factor when viewed from generation facilities).
source terminal receiving point
Vs(V) Vr(V)
load
Ir(A)
line impedance; r + jX (Ω)
Please modify
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

lag (viewed from power systems) lead (viewed from power systems)

lead lead
Vs Vs X·Ir
Ir
X·Ir r·Ir
Vr Vr
Ir lag lag
r·Ir Ferranti effect

Vs > Vr Vr > Vs
29
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
2.Power factor - PV
Power factor of PV is almost 100%!
DC/DC
converter
Inverter Grid
IGBT
ON / OFF

IGBT
ON / OFF

calculation APR PWM

MPPT ACR
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

of power control
AQR
PV voltage is APR (Auto P Regulator) ACR PWM
controlled to AQR (Auto Q Regulator) (Auto Current (Pulse Width
optimum voltage Regulator) Modulation)

■Generally, AQR setting value = 0 → Power factor = 1 (100%)

Refer to sec. 4 (power quality)

30
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
3. Measures for voltage fluctuations
3. Measures for voltage fluctuations

Maintain voltage properly

<Guideline>
- Appropriate voltage value 101±6V, 202±20V

Need to take the following measures to control the voltage in order to

prevent deviation from the appropriate system voltage when generators
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

are connected to the system.

<Measure for voltage fluctuation>

- Automatically limit the load.
- More distribution lines are used or exclusive-use lines are connected.
■In the case that customer makes inverse power flow
- Automatic voltage control
- More distribution lines are used or exclusive-use lines are connected.

31
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
3. Measures for voltage fluctuations
■ In the case of using synchronous generators
- Generator with damping winding (including a synchronous generator
without damping winding that has the hunting-prevention effect
equivalent to or more than that of the damping winding type).
- Automatic synchronism detection devices need to be installed.
■ In the case of using induction generators
If the system voltage may deviate from the proper value (within 10% of
the normal value) due to the voltage dip while being paralleled in.
- Current limiting reactors need to be installed.
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

- If such measures are still ineffective, synchronous generators will be

required.

32
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
3. Measures for voltage fluctuations
■ In the case of using inverters
▪ Self-commutated inverters
- With automatically synchronizing function.
▪ Line-commutated
When system voltage deviates from the proper value (within 10% of the
normal value) due to voltage dip while being paralleled in.
- current limiting reactors or similar devices need to be installed.
- If such measures are still ineffective self-commutated power inverters
will be required.
■ When generator output or voltage fluctuations caused by frequent
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

parallel in/out will bring about voltage flicker and other problems.
- measures are taken to control voltage fluctuations or reduce the
frequency of parallel in/out.

33
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
3. Measures for voltage fluctuations
<Guideline>
- Appropriate voltage value 101±6V, 202±20V

Is this guide line strict or not?

How do you think about it?

e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

34
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010

Voltage fluctuation on disconnection

<Measure for voltage fluctuation>
- Automatically limit the load.
Automatic load shedding shall be implemented by generator owner
If not effective, use of exclusive line or reinforcing feeder shall be
made by the generator owner.
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Ｇ Ｌ Ｇ Ｌ
Disconne Load Deviation Disconne Load Deviation Load
ction increase in voltage ction increase in voltage shedding

Voltage Voltage

Deviation Deviation

35
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
3. Measures for voltage fluctuations
3. Measures for voltage fluctuations
<Measure for voltage fluctuation>
■In the case that customer makes inverse power flow
- Automatic voltage control
In the case of low voltage

Yes
Voltage detection
Yes
No Restrained value Leading reactive
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Voltage > upper limit

of active power = 0 power = 0
Zone of guide Yes
line deviation No No
No Controlling
Power factor < limit in normal condition
Yes
Increasing of leading Controlling of decreasing of leading
reactive power output power output reactive power output

36
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
3. Measures for voltage fluctuations
3. Measures for voltage fluctuations
<Measure for voltage fluctuation>
■In the case that customer makes inverse power flow
- Automatic voltage control
Voltage detection In case of high voltage

No No Controlling In normal
Voltage > upper limit
(Active power, reactive power, SC) condition
Yes
Inverse power flow No
Zone of guide
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

> Determined value

Yes
line deviation
No
Power factor > 0.85 or lead
Yes
Yes Power factor of
All SC opened
generator < limit No
No Yes
Controlling of Controlling of leading Controlling of
SC (Static Capacitor) reactive power active power

37
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010

Voltage fluctuation by reverse flow

3. Measures for voltage fluctuations
<Measure for voltage fluctuation>
■In the case that customer makes inverse power flow
- Automatic voltage control
Reactive power control at power receiving end by generator owner
If not effective, use of exclusive line or reinforcing feeder shall be
made by generator owner.
Q
P P
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Ｇ Ｇ

Deviation

Vs Vs
Vr > Vr’ Ir Vr’ r▪Ir
Ir Vr X▪Ir X▪Ir
r▪Ir
Lagging Q increasing (from power system)
Leading Q increasing (from generator)
38
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010

Maintain feeder voltage (1) load fluctuation

Voltage control of feeder by electric power company

Grid
High
voltage

Distribution Low
substation voltage
Feeder
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Control Voltage
voltage at
each bank
Proper Light load
voltage
Heavy load

Distance from substation

39
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
Maintain feeder voltage (2) tap-changer
Voltage control of feeder by electric power company

On-load tap-changer at pole transformer

Primary Secondary
Distribution side side
substation High
voltage

Low
voltage
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Voltage

Raise voltage by
Proper switching tap-changer
voltage

Distance from substation

40
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
Maintain feeder voltage (3) SVR
Voltage control of feeder by electric power company
Distribution substation Control secondary voltage by
monitoring current and changing tap of
transformer
High
voltage

Low
SVR voltage

(Step
voltage
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Regulator)

Voltage

Proper Raise voltage by SVR

voltage

Distance from substation

41
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
Maintain feeder voltage (4) reverse flow
Voltage control of feeder by electric power company
Distribution
substation High Reverse power flow
voltage

Low
voltage
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Dispersed
Generation
Voltage
Light load
Proper
voltage Heavy load
Deviation from
proper voltage

Distance from substation

42
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
Maintain feeder voltage (5) reverse flow
Voltage control of feeder by electric power company

Distribution substation Reverse power flow

High voltage

Low
voltage

Can control
voltage by
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

monitoring
reverse flow
from dispersed Dispersed
generation, Generation
but…
Voltage
Light load
Heavy load
Proper
voltage

Distance from substation

43
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
Maintain feeder voltage (6) reverse flow
Voltage control of feeder by electric power company

Disconnection
Distribution substation
High voltage

Low
voltage
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Dispersed
Voltage Generation
Deviation from
proper voltage
Proper Light load
voltage
Heavy load

Distance from substation

44
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
3. Measures for voltage fluctuations
Calculation Example
substation for high voltage distribution line (6.6kV)
distribution copper 80mm2 3.0km
Point A
copper 80mm2 1.0km
transformer Point B

Power factor 0.9 lag

Load
pole transformer
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

(distributed with uniformity)

6600 / 105
Point C

・load is distributed with uniformity along the distribution line

・load of distribution = 1,000kW voltage from substation is 6,600V
・ r + jx = 0.228 + j0.395(Ω) for line of copper 80mm2, 1.0km
・ ignore considerations of voltage rising of high voltage distribution line
due to reversing power flow, because it is very few.

45
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
3. Measures for voltage fluctuations
Voltage drop of high voltage line to pole transfer (△V)

△V = √3Х (Ip Х r + Iq Х x)
Ip : active current (A)
Iq : reactive current (A)
r + jx : line impedance (Ω)

Current (point A) = 1000 / (√3 Х 6.6 Х 0.9) = 97(A)

Current (point B) = (1000 Х 2/3) / (√3 Х 6.6 Х 0.9) = 65(A)
Average current (between point A and B) = (97 + 65) / 2 = 81(A)
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Ip = 81 Х 0.9 = 73(A)
Iq = 81 Х √(1-0.92) = 35(A)
r + jx = 0.228 + j0.395(Ω)
△V = √3 Х (73 Х 0.228 + 35 Х 0.395) = 53(V)
Voltage (point B) V = 6,600 - 53 = 6,547(V)
Voltage (point C) V = 6,547 Х (105 / 6600) = 104.2(V)

46
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
3. Measures for voltage fluctuations
Exercise 5 Please modify
substation for high voltage distribution line (6.6kV)
distribution copper 80mm2 3.0km
Point A
copper 80mm2 1.0km
transformer Point B

Power factor 0.9 lag

Load
pole transformer
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

(distributed with uniformity)

6600 / 105
Point C

・load is distributed with uniformity along the distribution line

・load of distribution = 2,000kW voltage from substation is 6,600V
・ r + jx = 0.228 + j0.395(Ω) for line of copper 80mm2, 1.0km
・ ignore considerations of voltage rising of high voltage distribution line
due to reversing power flow, because it is very few.

47
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
3. Measures for voltage fluctuations
Voltage drop of high voltage line to pole transfer (△V)

△V = √3Х (Ip Х r + Iq Х x)
Ip : active current (A)
Iq : reactive current (A)
r + jx : line impedance (Ω)

Current (point A) = (A)

Current (point B) = (A)
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Average current (between point A and B) = (A)

Ip = (A)
Iq = (A)
△V = (V)
Voltage (point B) V = (V)
Voltage (point C) V = (V)

48
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
3. Measures for voltage fluctuations
■ In the case of using inverters, induction generators
If the system voltage may deviate from the proper value (within 10% of
the normal value) due to the voltage dip while being paralleled in.
0 Just example of
actual measurement
Voltage dip (%)

Power High voltage

electronics discharge lamp Under voltage
relay
Personal computer
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

50 Bed side
Magnetic Monitor
switch No Effect

Effected
by voltage dip

100
0.01 0.05 0.1 0.5 1 2 3
Voltage dip duration (S)
49
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
3. Measures for voltage fluctuations
How to deal with voltage dip in power system (Grid Side)

Voltage dip Many PCSs Many PVs

occurs stop instantaneously stop
Should
prevent
voltage
stop
Normal
voltage
Grid voltage dip
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

time
stop Conventional type
When voltage dip occurs, this types
of PCS stop output by gate block for
PCS output 5 – 10S.
FRT (Fault Ride Through)
When voltage dip occurs, FRT
continues operation, and recover
output as soon as power system gate block
voltage recovers. 5S – 10S
time
50
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
3. Measures for voltage fluctuations
■ When generator output or voltage fluctuations caused by frequent
parallel in/out will bring about voltage flicker and other problems.

How should we measure voltage flicker level?

∞ Voltage effective envelope curve
ΔV10 = √Σ(αn ΔVn)2 (V) value (V) of voltage fluctuation
n=1
Vn : voltage fluctuation in each freqency
αn : flicker luminosity factor
ΔVn
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

(refer to next page)

ΔV10 means fluctuation level converted

various voltage fluctuation into 10Hz
fluctuation value by Flicker luminosity
factor

IEC standard determined specification of

voltage flicker meter. Time (S)

51
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
3. Measures for voltage fluctuations
■ When generator output or voltage fluctuations caused by frequent
parallel in/out will bring about voltage flicker and other problems.

Flicker luminosity factor (αn) ; Level that people feel flicker

People are most sensitive

to feel flicker in 10Hz
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Freqency of sinusoidaly-variating voltage fluctuation

52
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
3. Measures for voltage fluctuations
Guideline of ΔV10
ΔV10 = √{ (ΔV10_1)2 + - - - + (ΔV10_n)2 } < 0.45 (V)
( ΔV10_1, - - - , ΔV10_n ; Customer connected with same power system)

When 4 customers connected to same power system, and ΔV10 of each

customer is the same, how much volt is ΔV10 of each customer?
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

ΔV10 / 1 customer = 0.23(V)

(ΔV10 = √(0.232 + 0.232 + 0.232 + 0.232) = 0.45)

■Arc furnace and wind-power generation etc. makes voltage flicker.

53
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
4. Measures for power quality
4. Measures for power quality
Need to take measures to prevent deviation from
the standard power quality
4-1 Harmonic suppression measure
An inflow of harmonic current into power systems may cause a
harmonic strain on the voltage waveform of power systems, damaging
electric facilities as a result.
<Measures for harmonic current>
■End-use customers
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

(1) Calculation of inflow harmonic current

- The inflow harmonic current is obtained by totaling the harmonic
currents, which are generated by each harmonics-generating
facility operating at the rated output multiplied by the maximum rate
of operation.
- The inflow harmonic current is obtained by aggregating harmonics
of each order.
- Harmonics up to the 40th order shall be aggregated.

54
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
4. Measures for power quality
4. Measures for power quality
(1) Calculation of inflow harmonic current
- When there is a facility reducing an inflow harmonic current on the site
of a specified end-use customer, its effect can be considered.
(2) Upper limit of inflow of harmonic current
- The permissible upper limit of an inflow harmonic current from a
specified end-use customer into power systems is obtained by
multiplying the permissible upper limit per 1kW of contract power
(refer to following table) by the contract power of the specified end-use
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

customer concerned (unit: kW) for every harmonic.

over
Order 5th 7th 11th 13th 17th 19th 23rd
23rd
Current
3.5 2.5 1.6 1.3 1.0 0.9 0.76 0.70
(mA/kW)

55
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
4. Measures for power quality
(3) Measures to control inflow harmonic current
Inflow harmonic current > The upper limit of the inflow harmonic current
→Appropriate measures need to be taken to keep the inflow
harmonic current below its upper limit.

■ Individual harmonic suppression measures for generation facilities

When an inverter is installed, a harmonic inflow current from a
converter to power systems (filter is contained) is less than 5% of the
integrated current strain and 3% of each harmonic current strain.
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

4-2 Other measures for power quality

When including demand facilities, other power quality problem like
voltage flicker must be considered.

56
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
4. Measures for power quality
4-1 Harmonic suppression measure
An inflow of harmonic current into power systems may cause a
harmonic strain on the voltage waveform of power systems, damaging
electric facilities as a result.

Fundamental harmonic 5th-order harmonic Distorted wave

Voltage
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Time
<Examples of harmonic source>
Representative example is equipment using transistor, diode.
- OA ▪ Appliance ▪ ▪ ▪ TV, PC, printer
- Air-conditioner ▪ ▪ ▪ Inverter air-conditioner
- Lighting equipment ▪ ▪ ▪ fluorescent lamp, sodium (Na) lamp, mercury (Hg) lamp
- Inverter ▪ ▪ ▪ elevator, fan, pomp, inverter for generator
- Uninterruptible power source ▪ ▪ ▪ UPS
57
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
4. Measures for power quality
<Examples of harmful effect due to harmonic>

■Electric power equipment

- Condenser ▪ Reactor ▪ ▪ ▪ overheat, burnout, noise, vibration
- Fuse ▪ Breaker ▪ ▪ ▪ meltdown, false operation due to over current
- Transformer ▪ ▪ ▪ overheat, burnout, increase of iron loss ▪ copper loss
- Induction generator ▪ ▪ ▪ periodical fluctuation of rotating speed,
overheat, increase of loss
- Protection relay ▪ ▪ ▪ false operation
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

■Electronic device ▪ Appliance

- Appliance ▪ ▪ ▪ picture flicker, noise, false operation, breakdown
- Lighting equipment ▪ ▪ ▪ burnout of ballast ▪ condenser, flicker
- PC ▪ ▪ ▪ false operation, runaway, breakdown
- Electronic device ▪ ▪ ▪ false operation of automatic control system

58
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
4. Measures for power quality
(3) Measures to control inflow harmonic current
Inflow harmonic current > The upper limit of the inflow harmonic current
→Appropriate measures need to be taken to keep the inflow
harmonic current below its upper limit.
■AC, DC reactor make harmonic current decrease.
Advantageous effect DC > AC
voltage
Source
side current
AC reactor
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Without reactor
Inverter DC reactor

Load
side

With AC reactor
59
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
4. Measures for power quality
What is PWM control?
DC/DC
converter
Inverter Grid
IGBT
ON / OFF

IGBT
ON / OFF

calculation APR PWM

MPPT ACR
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

of power control
AQR
PV voltage is APR (Auto P Regulator) ACR PWM
controlled to AQR (Auto Q Regulator) (Auto Current (Pulse Width
optimum voltage Regulator) Modulation)

Refer to sec. 4 (power quality)

60
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
4. Measures for power quality
Basic operation of inverter

IGBT IGBT
Q1 Q3
DC

input output
IGBT IGBT
Q2 Q4
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

output voltage
1 2 3 4
input voltage
Q1 ON ON OFF OFF
DC 1 AC 1 Q2 OFF OFF ON ON
2 4 time
time 3 Q3 OFF ON ON OFF
Q4 ON OFF OFF ON
61
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
4. Measures for power quality
PWM control enable to decrease harmonic current !
PMW control pulse width by changing of
PWM output voltage IGBT’s switching timing.

wide time
narrow pulse width
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Effective voltage Effective voltage

(power) low (power) high
Low pass filter
output voltage

time

Output voltage shape is close to sin curve.→Less harmonic current!

62
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
5. Countermeasures for short-circuit current
5. Countermeasures for short-circuit current
When a generation facility interconnects with power systems, the
short-circuit capacity increases. If existing circuit breakers cannot
break the circuits in contingencies when short-circuit current exceeds
their capability as result of the above, effective measures need to be
taken.

<Measures>
■ Short-circuit capacity > Circuit breaking capability of the other
circuit breakers
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

(When generation facilities interconnect with the systems)

→Those who interconnect generator with the power systems need to
install equipment to limit the short-circuit current (Ex. current
limiting reactor).
■If measures mentioned above are not effective, other short-circuit
capacity countermeasures including interconnection to different
substations and transmission lines of higher voltage need to be
taken.

63
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
5. Countermeasures for short-circuit current
What is % impedance?
Reference capacity (Pb), voltage (Vb), current (Ib), impedance (Zb)
are defined as 100% ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ■b means base in ().
Actual impedance
■%Z = Reference impedance Х100

■Pb =√3 ▪Vb▪Ib (3phase, 3wire)

<Example>
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Pb = 10MVA (= 100%), Vb = 77kV (= 100%)

(1)Calucurating Ib, Zb
Ib = Pb / √ 3 ▪Vb = 10Х106 / (√ 3 Х 77 Х 103）= 75A ( = 100%)
→Zb=(Vb / √ 3) / Ib= (10 Х 106 Х √3) / 75 = 593Ω ( = 100%)
(2)Calculating %Z
Ex.) Impedance of transformer = 20 Ω
%Z = (20 / 593) Х 100＝3.4%

64
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
5. Countermeasures for short-circuit current
How to convert % impedance at different capacity?
■%Z is proportional is to reference capacity

Ex.) Pb = 500kVA, %Z of transformer = 3%

→ convert → Pb’ = 10MVA
%Z’ = 3% Х 10Х106 / (500Х103） = 60%

How to calculate short-circuit capacity from %Z?

e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

■Ps (Short-circuit capacity) is inversely proportional to %Z

■Is = Ps / (√3 Х Vb)

Ex.) Pb = 10MVA, %Z = 5%
%Z = 100% → Ps = reference capacity = 10MVA
%Z = 5% → Ps = 10MVA Х 100% / 5% = 200MVA
Is = 200MVA / (√3 Х77kV) = 1500A

65
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
5. Countermeasures for short-circuit current
Calculation Example
Point ① Circuit breaker
20MVA
rating breaking current = 12.5kA
％Z2 =7.5％
(10MVA base)
L

interconnected
Back Z
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

%Z1 = 2.5% L G
2,000kVA
(10MVA base)
G ％Z3 =15％ 1,000kW 500kVA
substation （mechanically base） power factor ％Z5 =15％
= lag 0.9 （mechanically base）

installation personnel of
6.6kV generation facility

66
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
5. Countermeasures for short-circuit current
■%Z is proportional is to reference capacity
%Z’3at 10MVA = 15% Х 10000kVA / 2000kVA = 75%
before interconnected
Z1 2.5％
Z’3 75％ Synthetic impedance %Z
Z2 7.5％

Point①
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

1
%Z = = 8.8%
1 1
+
2.5 + 7.5 75
■Short-circuit capacity is inversely proportional to %Z
Ps = 10MVA Х 100 / 8.8 = 114(MVA)
■Is = Ps / (√3 Х Vb)
Is = 114MVA / (√3 Х 6.6kV) = 10.0 kA < 12.5kV (rating breaking current)
It has no problem about short-circuit capacity. (before interconnection)
67
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
5. Countermeasures for short-circuit current
Exercise 6
Point ① Circuit breaker
rating breaking current = 12.5kA
20MVA
Transmission line
％Z2 =7.5％
％Z4 =16.3％ (10MVA base)
(10MVA base)
L

Back Z
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

%Z1 = 2.5% L G
2,000kVA
(10MVA base)
G ％Z3 =15％ 1,000kW 500kVA
substation （mechanically base） power factor ％Z5 =15％
= lag 0.9 （mechanically base）

installation personnel of
6.6kV generation facility

68
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
5. Countermeasures for short-circuit current
Exercise 6
(1)%Z’3 at 10MVA = %
(2)%Z’5 at 10MVA = %
(3)Drawing 10MVA based impedance map
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

(4)%Z (synthetic impedance) = %

(5)Ps (short-circuit capacity) = %
(6)Is (short-circuit current) = kA
(7)Choose one from the following
a) Problem about short-circuit capacity occurs.
b) It has no problem about short circuit capacity.
69
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
6. Protective relay system
6. Protective relay system
Protective relay systems of generation facilities shall
be coordinated with power systems.
<Purpose>
- Personal and public safety
- Power systems security
- Prevention of damage to electric facilities
- Efficient development of transmission facilities.
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

■Protection relay for a failure of generation

- Over-voltage relay
It should detect and act when the voltage of generation facilities
increases to an abnormal level.
- Under-voltage relay
It should detect and act when the voltage of generation facilities
decreases to an abnormal level.
Exception) The generation facilities are equipped with a protective
device for such detection and protection.
70
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
6. Protective relay system
■Protection relay for short-circuit fault of power system
<Using synchronous generator>
- Short-circuit directional relay
It should detect and act when any short-circuit fault on the power
systems occurs.
<Using induction generators or inverters>
- Under-voltage relay
It should detect and act when any short-circuit fault on the power
systems occurs.
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

■Protection relay for ground fault of power system

- Over-voltage relay
It should detect and act when a ground fault on the power system
occurs.
<Exception>
- A ground fault of the interconnected systems can be detected by a
ground fault over-voltage relay installed at the outlet of the
generator.

71
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
6. Protective relay system
■Protection relay for ground fault of power system
<Exception>
- The output of the generation facilities with an inverter interconnecting
with a low voltage line within a site is far smaller than the site load, and
islanding can be detected, stopped and disconnected quickly by a
device with islanding detection function.
■Protection relay for prevention of islanding
a. In the case that there is reverse power flow
- Over/under frequency relay
- Transfer tripping protection or a device with islanding detection
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

function (including more than one active type)

<Requirement>
- It can detect islanding within a required period without fail, taking
into account the system impedance and load situation.
- Its sensitivity does not cause frequent unnecessary parallel out.
- An active signal does not influence power systems substantially.
<Exception>
- An over frequency relay can be omitted when interconnected with a line
for exclusive use.
72
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
6. Protective relay system
■Protection relay for prevention of islanding
<Exception>
- A transfer tripping protection or a device with islanding detection
function can be omitted only when an over/under frequency relay can
detect and protect the islanding quickly and without fail at a wind farm
using an induction generator.

b. In the case that there is no reverse power flow

- Reverse power relay
- Under-frequency relay
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

<Exception>
- If a reverse power relay can detect and protect in case of
interconnection with a line for exclusive use, an under-frequency
relay can be omitted.
- If the output capacity of generation facilities with an inverter
interconnecting with a low voltage line within a site is far smaller than
the site load and islanding can be detected, stopped and
disconnected quickly by a device with islanding detection function, a
reverse power relay can be omitted.
73
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
6. Protective relay system
It is necessary for distributed generation to be disconnected in
concert with the fault detection of system.
Another customer is adversely
affected by failure of generator
Another disconnection .
Distribution substation - unexpected voltage
customer
- unexpected frequency,
High voltage etc
feeder

Transformer
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

CB Grounding Generator
CB tripped
(Opened) Without disconnection of
distributed generation, ground
fault continues even after CB
tripping at substation.
(Threat of equipment damage
and electric shock)
74
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
6. Protective relay system
Necessary protection relay for each fault or generation defect
(Low voltage)
AC generator
synchronous induction inverter
generator generator
reverse
No Yes
power flow
generator
OVR▪UVR
defect
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

DSR/OCR
short-circuit UVR
/UVR
RPR + UFR OFR + UFR
UPR + UFR
islanding / islanding Islanding detection system
UPR + UFR
detection system (active + passive)
(active + passive)
Intersystem Islanding detection system
fault (passive)
75
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
6. Protective relay system
Necessary protection relay for PV Please modify
(Low voltage) Power system
inverter Trip signal
reverse Relay
No Yes input ZCT
power flow OCGR
fault at OCR CT
customer OCR ▪ OCGR Load
side
generator PCS
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

OVR▪UVR VT
defect
Relay input
short-circuit UVR
RPR + UFR OFR + UFR Trip signal CT
islanding Islanding detection system
Relay input
(active + passive)
Output
Intersystem Relays
controller
Gate INV
Islanding detection system
, ground
(passive) PV
fault
Gate block signal
76
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
6. Protective relay system
OVR, UVR for generator’s defect
Symbol Name operation
Over Voltage If an abnormal increase / decrease occurs in
OVR Relay voltage generated by the PV system, the
over / under voltage relay detects the
Under Voltage abnormal voltage, then separates the PV
UVR Relay system from the grid after a predetermined
period of time.

voltage (V)
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Typical
Typical
OVR act relay Detection
timer
115% level
generator operate
100% normally
Avoiding
80% sensitive OVR 115% 1S
relay action
UVR act
UVR 80% 1S
1S Time (S)
77
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
6. Protective relay system
UVR for short-circuit fault
Symbol Name operation
As a countermeasure against short-
Under Voltage
UVR Relay
circuit in transmission line, UVR can be
shared among transmission line.
R-SΦ short-circuit fault
R-phase A-phase In kansai, we call
S-phase B-phase each phase
T-phase C-phase described as this.
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

substation
PV, Load R-phase and S-phase
at come closer due to short-
R
fault circuit fault

before
fault UVR detect voltage
decrease between
T S phases, and act.
78
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
6. Protective relay system
Should prevent islanding

Substation
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

②
③
CB tripped

① Crane touches feeder. ② Fault detection, then CB trips.

※PV system is running (islanding operation)
③ Threat of electrical shock for worker near crane and public.

79
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
6. Protective relay system
Example of islanding
Ex. 1
Load Load
Islanding
Load Load
(1)Trandformer ‘s
relay act and CB trip
Load (2) PV is still running
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Ex. 2

Load Load

Load Load
(1)Transmissionn Islanding
line’s relay act and
CB trip Load (2) PV is still running

80
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
6. Protective relay system
Necessary protection relay for PV (Low voltage)

inverter

reverse
No Yes
power flow
fault at
customer OCR – H ▪ OCGR
Only islanding protection
side relay is different under
generator condition whether
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

OVR▪UVR
defect reverse power flow exist
short-circuit UVR or not.
RPR + UFR OFR + UFR
islanding Islanding detection system
(active + passive)
Intersystem Islanding detection system
fault (passive)

81
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
General idea of Reverse power flow
There is no Reverse power flow There is Reverse power flow
Distribution line Distribution line
Please modify

Connecting point Connecting point

e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Generator Load Generator Load

Ｐｇ Ｐｌ Ｐｇ Ｐｌ

Always Pg < Pl Pg > Pl

case is possible
・RPR (Reverse power relay) can be ・RPR can not be applied
applied ・voltage rising
by reverse power flow
82
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
6. Protective relay system
OFR, UFR for islanding detection with reverse power flow
Symbol Name Function
Abnormal over-frequency
OFR Over-Frequency Relay
Generation > Load
Abnormal under-frequency
UFR Under-Frequency Relay
Generation < Load

Please modify
Frequency (Hz)
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Typical
Typical
OFR act relay Detection
timer
102% level
generator operate
100% normally 102%
Avoiding
97% sensitive OFR 51Hz / 1S
relay action 61.2Hz
UFR act 97%
UFR 48.5Hz / 1S
58.2Hz
1S Time (S)
83
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
6. Protective relay system
OFR, UFR for islanding detection with reverse power flow

Power balance
Frequency
Active power Reactive power

Generation > Load Generation = Load Rising

Lagging
Rising
(viewed form power system)
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Generation = Load
Leading
Declining
(viewed form power system)

Generation < Load Generation = Load Declining

84
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
6. Protective relay system
RPR, UFR for islanding detection without reverse power flow
Symbol Name Function
Prevention of reverse power flow
RPR Reverse Power Relay
Generation > customer’s own load
Abnormal under-frequency
UFR Under-Frequency Relay
Generation < Load
RPR detect direction
substation substation of power flow. RPR
CB tripped
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

act when power flow

close power open at receiving point
system from customer to
fault substation.
(abnormal condition)
Generator Load Generator Load

Power flow at receiving point is from Load may shut down due to power
substation to customer in normal oscillation or voltage fluctuation
condition. (without reverse power flow)

85
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
6. Protective relay system
Characteristic of RPR
relay Typical Detection level Typical timer
About 5% of rated output
RPR 0.5S
capacity of inverter

Normal condition
Current (without reverse flow)
at receiving point
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Abnormal condition
Reference
(with reverse flow)
Voltage vector
Voltage
Detection level at receiving point
RPR
Act

reverse power flow no reverse power flow

86
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
6. Protective relay system
Types of islanding detection system
Add disturbance signal from generator to grid
continuously
Active On power outage, detect increased response to
disturbance signal
detection
Secure detection, but need several seconds

On power outage, detect phase change of P, Q

e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

balance
Possible instant detection
Passive But used as backup of active detection for grid
detection connected generator in high voltage, because of
little change in case that there is large rotating
generator in the same power system

→ Use multiple detection to detect absolutely

87
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
6. Protective relay system
3 types of passive islanding detection system
voltage phase jump Rapid Increase of 3rd
detection method Voltage (V) harmonic voltage
Islanding distortion detection
Power factor is almost
method
100% before islanding.
When power system is When power system is
disconnected from disconnected from grid,
grid, power factor 3rd harmonic voltage
Power factor
changes a lot, and Time (s) rapidly increases due to
= 100%
transformer’s magnetic
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

voltage phase jumps.

characteristics.

Frequency (Hz)
Time-frequency rate
detection method

Islanding When power system is

disconnected from grid,
frequency slowly rises
Almost same as Time (s) due to lagging load.
frequency of power grid
88
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
6. Protective relay system
4 types of active islanding detection system
INV Grid
CB open
signal → islanding
Islanding
Detection system
detection

Frequency shift method Active power variation method

Current (signal) Active power (signal)
Islanding
frequency

output
Δf = 0.2Hz
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Islanding
Time
When frequency Time
Positive feedback
detect gets out of dead zone,
ΔF ΔP increase
islanding
Voltage frequency Voltage frequency
ΔF ΔF

Dead zone Islanding Dead zone

Islanding Time
Time
89
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
6. Protective relay system
4 types of active islanding detection system
Slip-mode frequency shift method Load variation method
CT
INV Grid INV Grid
VT
I_gen I_grid
Output control
resistor
Current phase is controlled with
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

frequency change I = I_gen + I_grid

Load current
current phase characteristics Resistor is inserted instantaneously
and periodically.
detect
islanding Interconnected to grid islanding
I = I_gen + I_grid I = I_gen
frequency
Output characteristics detect
of generator output islanding
90
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
6. Protective relay system
OCR, OCGR for fault in customer side
Symbol Name operation
Input of OCR is each phase current. It
OCR Over current relay
detect short-circuit fault by over current.
Ground fault Input of OCGR is zero-phase current. It
OCGR over current relay detect short-circuit fault by over current.
Fault current flows current (A)
substation
(lager than usual)
OCR
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

OCGR
Detect fault Detection level Avoiding act
current determined by sensitive
fault current relay action
There is no fault
Short-circuit fault OCGR
In customer side
/ Ground fault OCR

Timer Time (S)

determined by
Load PV protection relay
coordination
91
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
6. Protective relay system
6. Protective relay system
Protective relay systems of generation facilities shall be
coordinated with power systems.
■Timer Transmission line’s relay at substation (defined as Ts)
> OCR, OCGR at customer side (defined as Tc)
■Detection level Transmission line’s relay at substation (defined as Is)
> OCR, OCGR at customer side (defined as Ic)
Timer coordination Detection level coordination
If (fault current) = 1500A
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Ts = 0.6S > Tc = 0.3S Is = 1800A > Ic = 1200A

Expected Another Another
action of customer don’t customer
0.3S act
relay After fault Is < If act
occurs customer outage Ic > If customer outage
Ts = 0.3S < Tc = 0.6S Is = 1200A < Ic = 1800A
Unexpected Another Another
action of customer act can’t customer
relay 0.3S act
After fault
customer outage
Is < If
Ic > If
customer outage
occurs
92
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
6. Protective relay system
Calculation Example
I1 Is
A Feeder

%Z1 =0.5% 3Φ short-circuit

Transformer (10MVA base)
%Z0 =7% I2
(10MVA base) B Feeder

Bus bar (6.6kV) %Z2 =0.5% Generator

e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

(10MVA base) G 2,000kVA, %Z3 =20%

（mechanically base）

Detection level of OCR-L Detection level of OCR-H

(for over load) (for short-circuit fault)
A Feeder 720A 1440A
B Feefer 360A 720A
■Timer OCR-L > OCR-H (OCR-H act faster than OCR-L)
93
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
6. Protective relay system
■%Z is proportional is to reference capacity
%Z’3at 10MVA = 20% Х 10000kVA / 2000kVA = 100%
Synthetic impedance %Z
I1
Z0 Is
7%
I2 Z2
Z’3 Z2 0.5%
100% 0.5%

％ Z 0 ( Z 2 + ％Z 3 ' ) 7×
（ 0.5 + 100)
%Z = + ％Z1 = = 7.04%
％Z 0 + ％Z 2 + ％Z 3 '
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

7 + 0.5 + 100
■Short-circuit capacity is inversely proportional to %Z
Ps = 10MVA Х 100 / 7.04 = 142.05(MVA)
■Is = Ps / (√3 Х Vb)
Is = 142.05MVA / (√3 Х 6.6kV) = 12426A > 1440A (OCR-H)
→ Feeder A’s OCR-H act. Expected action!
％Z 0 7
I2 = ％Z + ％Z + ％Z ' Х Is = Х 12426 = 809A > 720A (OCR-H)
0 2 3 7 + 0.5 + 100
→ Feeder B’s OCR-H act. That’s too bad!→Some countermeasure is needed!
94
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
6. Protective relay system
Exercise 7 (Countermeasure against previous calculation case)
I1 Is
A Feeder

%Z1 =0.5% 3Φ short-circuit

Transformer (10MVA base) Current limiting
%Z0 =7% reactor
I2 B Feeder %Z4 = 17.5%
(10MVA base)
(10MVA base)
Bus bar (6.6kV) %Z2 =0.5% Generator
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

(10MVA base) G 2,000kVA, %Z3 =20%

（mechanically base）

Detection level of OCR-L Detection level of OCR-H

(for over load) (for short-circuit fault)
A Feeder 720A 1440A
B Feefer 360A 720A
■Timer OCR-L > OCR-H (OCR-H act faster than OCR-L)
95
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
6. Protective relay system
Exercise 7
(1)%Z’3 at 10MVA = %

(2)Drawing 10MVA based impedance map

e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

(3)%Z (synthetic impedance) = %

(4)Ps (short-circuit capacity) = %
(5)Is (short-circuit current) = A → Which relay does act, OCR-H or –L?

(6)I2 (generator’s current) = A → Which relay does act, OCR-H or –L?

(7)Is this countermeasure (installation of current limiting reactor) success?

96
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
6. Protective relay system
Necessary protection relay for each fault or generation defect
(High voltage ; almost same as low voltage case)
Synchronous
Generator Induction generator inverter
generator

Reverse power flow Yes No Yes No Yes No

Generator defect OVR, UVR
Short-circuit fault DSR UVR
Ground fault OVGR
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

OFR X X X
UFR X X X X X X
RPR X X X
isolating Transfer
trip
Islanding X X X
detection
System
97
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
Protective Relay (Example of PV system)
OVGR for ground fault in power system
Symbol Name
In the case of a transmission line
fault, the PV system might leak such
Ground Fault Over a low current that OCGR cannot
OVGR Voltage Relay operate. In contrast, OVGR can detect
ground fault voltage. It detects zero-
phase voltage.
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Earth This point is grounding.

RΦ ground fault
substation R
at fault
R V (S-phase)
S V (T-phase)
T T S OVGR detect zero
phase voltage increase,
before and act.
PV, Load fault

98
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
7. Neutral point grounding system
7. Neutral point grounding system

When necessary for grounding at a neutral point of generation

facilities or interconnection facilities on a high voltage side, those who
interconnect generation facilities with high voltage distribution
systems consult with power company and adopt a grounding
system designated by power company.
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

99
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
7. Neutral point grounding system
7. Neutral point grounding system Please add
Example of grounding system designated by power company.
(Example of Kansai)
Voltage Neutral point grounding Features
system In the case of ground fault
Insulated ▪Voltage of sound phase become √3
neutral
6.6kV times larger than usual.
point to
earth ▪Fault current is extremely small.
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Neutral ▪Voltage of sound phase become √3

22kV point resister times larger than usual.
resistively
-154kV ▪Fault current is medium. It is enough
grounding
for relay to act against ground fault.

Neutral
▪Voltage of sound phase stay about
275kV point
solidly the same.
500kV grounding ▪Fault current is very large.
100
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
8. Automatic load shedding device
8. Automatic load shedding device

When there is a possibility of overloading the interconnected distribution

lines at the time of a loss of generation and so forth, those who
interconnect the generation facilities with power systems need to take
measures that automatically limit the load.
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

101
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
9. Device to confirm no-voltage on distribution line
9. Device to confirm no-voltage on distribution line
Prevent faults at the time of automatic reclosing.
A device designed to confirm no voltage on distribution lines is installed at
the outlet of distribution lines from a substation for distribution.

<Exception>
- The installer of the generation facility does not require automatic
reclosing because of connection to a line for exclusive use.
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

- In the case that there is a reverse power flow:

a. An transfer tripping protection and a device with islanding detection
function (only active type) are installed and each of them disconnects
power systems using different circuit breakers.
b. Devices with two or more islanding detection functions (including
one or more active type) are installed and each of them disconnects
power systems using different circuit breakers.

102
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
9. Device to confirm no-voltage on distribution line
c. A device with islanding detection function (only active type) and a
reverse power relay whose setting value is less than the minimum
load of distribution lines while the generators are in operation and
each of them disconnects power systems using different circuit
breakers, are installed.

- In the case that there is no reverse power flow:

a. The conditions of Item (2) above.
b. A protective relay, current transformer, voltage transformer circuit
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

breaker, and a wiring of power source for control concerning system

interconnection are connected in dual series and yet sequentially,
allowing them to back each other up.

103
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
9. Device to confirm no-voltage on distribution line
9. Device to confirm no-voltage on distribution line
Prevent faults at the time of automatic reclosing.
generator My electrical
Shock facility was
power Another BROKEN!!
source customer
off → in
Protection If voltage or phase of dispersed generator is
relay closing different from one of power source, electrical shock
automatic signal occurs. To prevent such situation, a device
reclosing
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

designed to confirm no voltage on distribution lines

function should be installed at the outlet of distribution lines.
generator
off
power Another
source customer
VT
Protection Line voltage automatic reclosing
relay closing Yes No
automatic signal
reclosing No Yes
function 104
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
10. Telephone facility for security communication
10. Telephone facility for security communication
Those who operate generation facilities and power
company can communicate with each other promptly
and accurately.
- Private telephone facilities for security communication
- Telephone of a leased line for exclusive use of a telecommunications
company
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

<Exception>
- A system that allows direct communication with engineers not
passing through the exchange of one who operates generation
facilities is introduced and it is permanently installed at the place of
maintenance /supervision of generation facilities;
- A system capable of interrupting even while the number is
engaged (for example, the so-called catch-phone system) is introduced.
- A system that allows communication even in case of outage.

105
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
11. Prevention of reverse power flow through main transformer
11. Prevention of reverse power flow through main transformer
Prevent power flow from a high voltage side to a special high
voltage side through a main transformer for distribution.
(hereinafter referred to as “a reverse power flow through a main
transformer”)
A reverse power flow through a main transformer may cause some
problems in voltage management and protection coordination of
distribution systems.
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

<Measurement>
- If it is deemed that a reverse power flow through a main transformer is
likely to occur, measures to control generators and similar actions will be
taken.

106
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 TR for interconnection
11. Prevention of reverse power flow through main transformer
11. Prevention of reverse power flow through main transformer
A reverse power flow through a main transformer may cause some
problems in voltage management and protection coordination of
distribution systems.
substation
Generation < load Generation > load
Voltage of feeder decline. Voltage of feeder rises.
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Load L L L L
generator

Load
It is difficult to control
voltage of feeder!!
107
 e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
Other issue

New problem in case that

PVs are installed on a large scale

108
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Electric power generated at a power station is
dispatched to consumers through substations

［Flow of electricity］

Thermal P/S TL Nuclear P/S

Hydro P/S
TL
（basic flow） TL

TL UHV S/S
Power Station TL

transmission S/S
Transmission TL TL
TL
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

line S/S for trains

Large factory
DL Underground cable
transmission S/S
Substation TL
distribution S/S
Large factory High-rise building
Underground cable DL
Distribution Large factory
line Pole transformer
Building/plant
Aerial service wire Aerial service wire Aerial service wire

Consumers
Residential house Store Small plant
109
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Electric power is dispatched not to be
detrimental to quality (frequency, voltage, reliability)

Quality of electric power

1. keep the appropriate
frequency
2. keep the appropriate
voltage
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

3. ensure the reliability

（ dispatching electric
power without
interruption）

110
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 To keep the frequency constant, the amount of
electric power supply and demand must be the same.
Frequency control
The balance of supply and demand is
important to keep the frequency constant.

60 HZ
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Demand Supply
( consuming) (generating)

Adequate demand forecast To keep frequency constant,

and ensuring reserve margin control generating output

If the amount of supply and demand are not the same, it is impossible to keep the
frequency constant. As a result, factory products and home electric appliances are
adversely affected. 111
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
Advanced demand forecasting technology and following
control technology of generators are required to
respond to short-time and long-time demand fluctuation

Power demand
Close up
(KW)
揚水発電

pumped storage power

＜short-time fluctuation＞
火力
Thermal power
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Responding to rapid demand

揚水電力 fluctuation, hydro and thermal power
他社＋融通
Interchanged power generators are used
hydro power
一般水力 ※nuclear power and interchanged power generators are
not used for frequency control. They are for base load.
原子力
Nuclear power

0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
(time) ＜long-time fluctuation＞
Forecasting demand and having
enough reserve margin to respond
to forecasted fluctuation
112
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Challenges for introducing photovoltaic generator are
“surplus”, “fluctuation” and ”reverse power flow”
・power depends on weather
・introducing too much PV
causes surplus power flow
PV
Surplus ・power control is difficult

100
日高エネルギーパーク 晴
晴時々曇 ・introducing too much PV
雨
80
causes surplus power flow
・power control is difficult
出力（％）

60
Fluctu-
40
ation
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

20

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
時刻

Surplus power flows backward

into the power system and
voltage increases
Reverse
surplus
power flow Solar power
panel Consumed Power
power generation

：reverse power flow

113
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 An imbalance between supply and demand results from
surplus power of PV and this interferes power supply

Heavy load
season
PV PV

In case
PV is introduced Surplus power
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

on a large scale

PV PV

As surplus power is supplied continuously

during day-time, the total amount of surplus
Light load power is larger than the generation capacity
of pumped storage power generator.
season

【出展】低炭素電力供給システム研究会 系統安定化対策・コスト負担検討小委員会 114

Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
As generating power of PV fluctuates,
there is a possibility that governor free response part for
frequency control runs short

Sunny day decrease supply by frequency

Frequency control generators
increase
60 60
demand 59 61 59 61
demand supply
generating PV supply
60
59 61
demand supply
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

increase supply by frequency

control generators
Spinning reserve Frequency
drop 60 60
61
supply 59 61
59 demand supply
demand
Rainy day

115
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Reverse power flow of PV causes voltage increase
of distribution line and generating power of PV is suppressed

Flow of electricity Reverse power flow from PV

Distribution Can’t generate

solar even if sunny day
substation
panel
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Appropriate
voltage range
Voltage goes over

reverse power
no reverse power

When voltage is going to be larger than the appropriate value, PV is

suppressed automatically to keep voltage appropriate by the voltage
control function of PV.

116
 PV Hybrid system
(Various type of power source)

Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Fiji
November 22-26,2010
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Genset
Principle Feature Disadvantage
Diesel generator • High heat efficiency • Vibration
(35-45%) • Noise
Continuous • Low cost • Emission (NOx)
combustion -> • Rapid start-up
Combustion gas -> • Automatic start/stop
Reciprocating motion ->
Rotational motion by
crankshaft
Gas engine • Cleaner emission than • Vibration
DG • Noise
• Smaller than DG
• Available dual fuel
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

system

Gas turbine Continuous • Compact and light • Slow start-up than

combustion -> weight DG
Heat energy of • No cooling water • Large fuel
combustion gas -> • Good for rapid load consumption
Rotational motion by change • Large air intake
turbine • Good starting and emission
performance
• Possible no load
operation
• Small vibration
1
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Genset

• Fuel consumption vs output of diesel generator

– High fuel consumption ratio under 50% output

112
160
Fuel consumption ratio (%)

100

Fuel consumption (%)

140
76
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

120
56

100
39

80
25 50 75 100 110

Output (%)

2
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Micro-hydro

Features
• Environmental friendliness
• Clean energy contributing global
warming
• Short construction time and easy
maintenance
• Regional vitalization
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

• Reduction of running cost at existing

water facility
• More reliable energy source than
PV or Wind Source: NEDO

3
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Micro-hydro

• Utilize water flow and head (potential energy)

– Generated power
= gravitational-const. x flow x head
• How to utilize water Target
– Run-off of micro hydro
Channel type
– Reservoir (for seasonal operation)
– Pondage (for daily operation) Dam type
– Pumped storage
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

• How to get head

– Channel type
– Dam type
– Dam and channel type
• Special type for Mini-hydro
– Direct installation at gate/weir
– Alternative to pressure regulator
Dam & channel
Source: NEDO

4
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Micro-hydro
Generated power
Generator output P (kW) ;
head Gravity constant g = 9.8
P = potential energy of water
tank
Хefficiency
= mgh▪ η
Head H (m) = Q ▪103(kg) ▪g ▪H(m)▪η
Flow ( water 1m3 = 1000kg)
Q (m3 / S)
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Generator

Convert potential energy

to electric energy
Efficiency η(%)

5
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Micro-hydro
How to utilize water
This type of generation
Run-off plant don’t have
balancing reservoir, so
generation energy
depends on weather.
generation
Reservoir plant
This type of generation
(Big) plant have balancing
reservoir, so generation
Pondage energy can be controlled
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

(small) within a definite range of

Dam reservoir / pondage
generation capacity.
plant
Pump heavy load This type of generation
upper
plant can pump up from
storage reservoir generator
lower reservoir to upper
light load one. Ability of energy
lower control is very high.
pump reservoir
6
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Micro-hydro
Possible application - Run-off type
■River Channel
- Mountain stream, hilly area, highland
■Agricultural water
- Is head enough high? Dust removal is
necessary.
■Industrial and daily life water
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

- Possible water pipe?

■Industrial effluent and sewage
- Should check water quality.
■In-house supply and drain water system
- Should check harmlessness against primary
water use.
7
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Micro-hydro
How to get head
Water intake
Head tank
Channel type
sand
basin headrace pipeline

generator
Dam type
Water intake
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

pipeline

generator

Dam and Water intake

channel type
pipeline
surge tank
generator

8
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Micro-hydro
Example of direct installation

Gate

Generator

Example of installation at sand prevention dam

e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Water intake Sand prevention dam

Water
channel
Generator
house

9
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Micro-hydro
Other example
• Egasaki control room, Water works dept of Kawasaki city
• Water source: Piping for city water
• Utilization of head at water piping Purification
plant Generator
Head
• Max available head: 36.09m
• Horizontal propeller hydraulic turbine (2 sets)
Distribution
• Water flow: 0.6m3/s reservoir
• Output: 170kW(max), 90kW(normal) Water flow Existing
pressure
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

• Expected energy generated: 540,000kWh/year regulator

Source: Kawasaki city

10
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Micro-hydro
Type Feature Flow
control
Horizontal  Wide range in head and Yes
Francis flow
turbine  Installed widely from
small to large scale
 Controlled flow by guide-
vane, but expensive

Horizontal  Good for small head No

propeller  No flow controller
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

water  For seasonal change of

turbine water flow, multiple units
installation is made.

Reverse  Generation by reverse No

pump rotation of conventional
turbine pump
 Low cost, low efficiency

Source: NEDO
11
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Micro-hydro
Type Feature Flow
control
All-in-one  Generation by reverse No
submerged rotation of submerged
turbine with pump with generator
generator  Low cost, low efficiency
 Need Access to machine
by taking out from water
Cross-flow  For middle/small scale Yes
water  With guide vane
turbine  Low efficiency
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

degradation at small flow

 Simple structure, easy
maintenance
Pelton  Good for large head Yes
turbine  Installed widely from
small to large scale
 Low cost, low efficiency
 Flow control by needle
 Expensive
Source: NEDO
12
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Micro-hydro
Type Feature Flow
control
Turgo-  For medium/small scale Yes
impulse  Flow control by moving
turbine needle inside nozzle
 Low efficiency
degradation at small flow
 Simple structure, easy
maintenance
Overshot  What we call waterwheel No
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

/  Not for generation

undersh because of low head and
ot water small flow, but good for
wheel monument
 Simple structure, easy
maintenance

Source: NEDO

13
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Wind power

Features
▪Clean energy
–No carbon dioxide emission
▪Domestic energy resource
▪Renewable energy
▪Most economical among new energy
resources
▪Stable generation cost
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

▪Awareness for energy and global

warming issue
▪Contribution to local region
▪Construction cost is about one fifth of
PV
▪Energy conversion efficiency is about
40% - high efficiency Source: NEDO

14
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Wind power

Generation capacity of wind

140000

120000

100000
Increase rapidly
Capacity

80000

60000
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

40000

20000

0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Year

15
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Wind power

Windmill

Propeller type Propeller type Netherlands

3blades 2blades type
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Darrieus Gyro-Mill Savonius Cross-flow

type type type type

16
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Wind power
Best wind velocity ratio vary according to windmill type.
→Should select appropriate windmill type in consideration of wind velocity.
Bets’ theoretical limitation
Output coefficient (indicating efficiency)

0.6
Propeller type
0.5 2blades

0.4
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Propeller type
0.3 3blades
Major type.
0.2 Netherlands This type is
Darrieus
type type suitable for large
0.1 wind power
generator
0 5 10
Savonius Wind velocity ratio (wing velocity / wind velocity)
type
17
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Wind power
Generator, etc are set in this chassis.
Nacelle
Stopping the rotor. (ex. wind velocity is over limitation)
Break system anemovane
Measuring wind
wind power direction and velocity
Speed-up
Rotor Hub generator
gear electric power

Yaw drive unit

e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Blade Changing power wind

system direction

Control Center
Rotor revolution : low Supervised
Generator revolution :high control Monitoring (P,Q,rotation - -)
Speed-up gear converts Start, Stop operation
rotation. Electric
Grid
Ex.) gear ratio = 100 converter hard ground ; concrete
Foundation soft ground ; pile + concrete
18
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Wind power
Quiz
(power)
Wind power electricity output P ∝ V

V ; wind velocity (m / S)
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

19
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Wind power
Answer
3
Wind power electricity output P ∝ V
V ; wind velocity (m / S)
Wind power electricity energy is
air’s energy of highly effected by wind condition!
V
motion
= ½ m V2
Mass of air m
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

=AρV Hub generator

P
Blade dimension A(m2) = 1/2CpAρV3
Air density ρ(kg/m3)
Output coefficient
Cp
Blade
P = 1/2AρV3

20
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Wind power
Output (kW) Please modify

1250
1000
750
500
250
0 10 20 30 Wind velocity
(m/S)
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

nominal wind velocity

cut in wind velocity (3 – 4 m) Cut out wind velocity (20 – 25m)

Keep blade angle against wind constant. Make blade parallel against wind
→ Rotor is stopped by break system
pitch control yaw control
strong wind
parallel
blade
blade nacelle

21
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Wind power
Electric converter
3 phase AC
(power freq.)

B power
inrush output
Speed-up
gear
Induction
generator
type factor
Rotor current fluctuation
(fixed speed) control
Please (A) AC link (Induction generator)

modify Almost
3 phase AC
(control
3 phase AC
(power freq.)
A A Small
A freq.) Zero
Converter Inverter
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

3 phase AC
(power freq.)

Rotor
Speed-up
gear
Induction
generator B Soft start N/A Large
(variable speed)

(B) DC link (Induction generator)

3 phase AC DC 3 phase AC
(control (power freq.)
freq.) Almost
C
C A Small
Zero
Synchronou Converter Inverter
Rotor s
generator
(variable speed)
(C) DC link (Synchronous generator)

Source: NEDO 22
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Biomass energy

Features
• Stock-able fuel
• Clean energy
– Carbon neutral
– Low NOX and SOX emission
– Carbon dioxide absorption via
tree planting
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

• Renewable energy to realize

recycling society
• Contribution to job creation and/or
industry revitalization
• Vitalization of agricultural community Source: NEDO

23
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Biomass energy
Biomass resource emit CO2 during burning,
Carbon but it absorbed CO2, when it was plant.
Neutral → CO2 don’t increase over this cycle.
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Biomass resources
CO2
combustion
CO2 CO2

24
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Biomass energy
Dry type
Resource
Woody material
▪Remaining materials at forest, thinned wood, unused tree
▪Remaining material of lumbering
Agriculture, Livestock industry, Fishery
▪Rice straw, rice husk, straw, corn
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Scrap wood from construction

▪ Scrap wood from construction

Biomass processing

■Biomass resources is processed to tip or pellet.

→Direct combustion

25
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Biomass energy
Wet type
Resource
Food industry
▪Bagasse
▪Waste from food processing, Kitchen waste, Waste cooking oil
Agriculture, Livestock industry, Fishery
▪Bagasse, livestock dung
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Livefood
▪ Sewage sludge, sludge from night soil purification

Biomass processing

■Biomass resources is ferment.

→Create fuel (methane, ethanol, hydrogen)

26
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Biomass energy
Others
Resource
Paper factory
▪Used paper
▪Sludge from paper production, black liquor
Agriculture, Livestock industry, Fishery
▪Sugar, starch, palm oil , rape oil
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Livefood
▪Industrial edible oil

Please modify

Biomass processing

■Biomass resources is placed under high pressure and high temperature.

→Create fuel (gasification, etherification, liquidization)

27
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Biomass energy

Direct combustion system for woody material

Silo

Lumber mill Scrap wood

Wood tip
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Power to factory load Hot steam

Power to
other load
Turbine/
generator

Boiler

generate

Source: NEDO
Burn wood tip

28
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Biomass energy
Yagi bio ecology center

Yagi bio ecology center

e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Fermenter, gas holder Generator

Source: NEDO

29
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Biomass energy
Yagi bio ecology center Fermenters make
digestive gas
Digestive gas

gas
Fremen-
ter Digestion Digestion Liquid
bath tank fertilizer
Cow dung, pig
dung, straw, Bean curd
sawdust refuse
Gas
holder Surplus Hydro
extractor Dehydrated cake
gas
combustio
Receiving Raw
tank water combustion
n
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

tank Compost
Gas Hot Waste water
holder Hot
water
biomass boiler
water treatment
(Existing)
resources Desulfe (backup)

(dung, straw) Digestive gas

rization generation
Generato
r Waste water Effluent to river
Power
Digestive treatment
Fremen- juice
ter Digestio Reuse
n tank

Source: NEDO

30
 e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
Annex

Annex

31
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Micro-hydro
• Possible application

Target Target site Characteristics

flow
Flow Head/Pressure Others
River Mountain stream  Torrent  Easily obtainable  Suffering driftwood
Channel Mountain runoff  Large fluctuation head by steep  Risk of banking
Sand prevention  Possible heavy slope sand, landslide or
dam flood water disaster
 Maintenance of
river system
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Hilly area,  Fluctuation  Hard to obtain  Near to demand

highland,  Possible of large head except area
Slope section of flood/drought for heavy slope  Limitation of usage
flat land or water  Flow-down of by flood/drought
intake facility garbage  Necessity of dust
 Possible water removal
pollution  Maintenance of
river system
 Environmental
friendliness

32
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Micro-hydro
• Possible application
Target flow Target site Characteristics
Flow Head/Pressure Others
Agricultural Main line  Large difference  Hard to obtain  Depends on height
water Channel in flow between large head by of end-point
Water pipe line irrigation season low-gradient
and non-irrigation
season
Sub line  Difference in flow  Necessity of dust
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

between irrigation removal

season and non-  Maintenance of
irrigation season river system
 Environmental
 Fluctuation of friendliness
intake by
Control point  Easily obtainable  Modification or
agricultural field
of flow, head, but maybe improvement of
pressure and small head existing facility
inclination  Flow-down of
garbage

33
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Micro-hydro

• Possible application

Target flow Target site Characteristics

Flow Head/Pressure Others
Industrial Water  Relatively  Easily obtainable  Possible water
and daily transmission constant flow head by remote pipe
life water line demand area from
source
 Easily obtainable  Depends on tail  Water quality
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Industrial Discharge
effluent channel of constant flow water level  Emergency
and stop by facility
sewage trouble
In-house Supply and  Stable  Utilization of  Necessity of
supply and drain water  Various flow regulated and consideration
drain water channel quantity depends surplus water about
system on production pressure harmlessness
process  Easily obtainable against primary
head or pressure water use

34
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Biomass energy

Biomass resources

Unutilized Woody material Remaining materials at forest land, thinned wood, unused tree
resource
Remaining material of lumbering, scrap wood from construction,
others
Paper Used paper, sludge from paper production, black liquor
Agricultural Rice straw, rice husk, straw, bagasse, others
residue
Night soil, dung Cow dung, pig dung, chicken dung, others
and sludge
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Sewage sludge, sludge from night soil purification

Leftover food Waste from food processing
wholesale market and food retailing
Kitchen waste from home and restaurant
Waste cooking oil
Others Landfill gas, waste fiber
Productive Woody material Short cycle cultivated lumber
resource
Herbal material Grass, waterweed, see grass
Others Sugar, starch, palm oil, rape oil

35
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Biomass energy
Biomass processing

Thermo chemical Direct combustion

conversion
gasification Molten gasification
Partial oxidation gasification
Cold fluidized bed gasification
Supercritical water gasification
Liquidization Fast pylolysis
Slurry fuel
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Carbonization
Esterification
Biochemical Methane fermentation Wet process
conversion
Dry process
Two-stage fermentation
Ethanol fermentation

36
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Wind power

Up wind Horizontal axis

Propeller
Down wind
Sail wing
Horizontal Propeller Sail wing
axis Lift type
Holland type

Multi-bladed
Holland type Multi-bladed
Windmill
Darrieus Vertical axis

Lift type
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Straight wing

Vertical Sabonius type Darrieus Straight wing

axis

Puddle
Drag type
Cross-flow Sabonius type Puddle

S-shaped rotor

Cross-flow S-shaped rotor

Source: NEDO

37
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Wind power

Type Feature
Horizontal axis  Simple structure
 High efficiency
 Easy to scale-up
 Good for generation
 Need yaw control for up-wind type
 Heavy load exists in nacelle.
Vertical  Not depend on wind direction
axis  Heavy load exists on ground.
 Easy manufacturing of blade compared to propeller
 Hard to control rotation speed
 Need large torque in start-up
 Lower efficiency rather than horizontal axis type
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

 Large footprint
Lift  Good for generation by higher peripheral velocity than wind
type speed
 Less blades has higher peripheral velocity

Drag  Many application in small scale

type  Large torque
 Peripheral velocity is less than wind speed
 Good for pump-up and grinding flour
 Lower efficiency than lift type

Source: NEDO

38
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 Off Grid: PV hybrid systems within mini-grid:
Other power source: Wind power

Blade
Anemovane

Nacelle
Hub
Generator
Console
Drive train axis Report
Rotor axis
Brake system Monitoring system
Speed-up
gear
Yaw drive unit
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Distribution line

Tower Protection
Display system
Power conversion system board Transf
ormer
Communication line
Controller

Foundation Power pole

Source: NEDO

39
Guidline of construction and mantenance

Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Fiji
November 22-26,2010
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
Index

1 － System Construction Design

２ － Design and Construction Flow
３ － Construction Management Points
４ － Pricing Guidelines
５ － Field Inspection Items
６ － Maintenance
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

７ － Economical Effects

1
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
1.System Construction Design

System Architectural
Laws and regulations
work

Guidelines Electrical work Architectural Code

Wiring rules

Support
Grid- Piping and Piping and Waterproof Foundatio
Structur
Connection wiring sizes wiring routes construction
Earthing Maintenance
n work
e
constru
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

-Voltage - Voltage drops - Scaffolding - Lead-in - Existing earthing - Safety - Wind pressure ction
- Wind pressure
- Use of existing cables type regulations calculation calculation
-Protection
routes - Equipment - Waterproof - Electromagnetic
Coordination sheds roofs and interference
rooftops

 Compliance : Design based on laws and regulations

 Easy construction : Design that facilitates safe construction, and
shortens construction term
Low cost construction : Design that reduces material and labor
expenses

2
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
2. 1 Design and Construction Flow

Site Trial operation

Design Construction and Adjustment Completion
investigation

- Installation Areas
On ground or roof
- Foundation work (rooftop) - Visual Inspection
Length, width and azimuth
Cracks, damage of devices
-Roof type
Deck roofs or sloping roofs - Insulation Resistance test
Roofing materials, Waterproof - Carrying in Cable insulation resistance
types
- Obstacles
- Open-Circuit voltage test
Poles, buildings, antennas, Voltage measurement of
mountains, trees - PV module Support each series of PV modules
(and other obstacles that cast Structure Earthing - Setting of Power
shadows on PV Arrays.)
Conditioner protective relays
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

- Piping Routes
Existing piping routes and wiring Setting based on
diagrams - PV modules Installation discussion with the electric
- Equipments Installation locations
power company
Switchboards, control boards,
Power Conditioners, - Adjustment of measuring
instrumentation and display - Electrical piping and instruments
- Routes for Carrying in wiring Deviation from Power
Crane or Wrecker installation
location and temporary placement Conditioner indicating
space values
- Diagram - Devices Installation - Adjustment of indication
Skeleton diagram from electric
power company lead-in cable to Discrepancy between
interconnection point measurements and
- Contract with electric power company - Electric connection work indications
Price of buying and selling power

3
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
2. 2 Site investigation Guideline (1)

Area of PV array installation Investigation the East-west width and north-south

site area of installation length are measured.
site

Environment Verification the influence of shadows

cast by buildings, tall trees and other
Environmental obstacles.
Survey Verification possible damage due to
weather like salt damage, snow, wind
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

or other weather conditions.

Azimuth Verification the influence of shadows

cast by buildings, tall trees and other
Azimuth and obstacles.
Angle Verification possible damage due to
weather like salt damage, snow, wind
or other weather conditions.

4
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
2. 2 Site investigation Guideline (2)

Junction boxes, centralized control

Equipments Installation Site Installation Site boards, interconnection
Survey
switchboards, transformers

Condition of Electric Power Verification the type of power

Transmission source system and determination
Discussion with the type of interconnection.
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

the electric
power company Staff verifies voltage fluctuations
and frequency variations.

Recognition of Regulations Local Approval to the System for

and Standards Ordinances Interconnection

5
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
2. 3 Design Guideline (1)

PV module Selection PV Module Manufacturer, type, capacity

Selection

Determination of Azimuth Optimum Orientation (generally

and Angle Output same with Latitude) and
Maximization Azimuth are determined.
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Number of PV modules and Dependence on

PV array Capacity Area of Installation Required Capacity
Determination site

Power Conditioner Selection According to PV Manufacturer, type, capacity

array Capacity

6
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
2. 3 Design Guideline (2)

PV array Layout Series and Parallel connection

Determination should be determined according
PV array Layout to rating input voltage of Power
Determination Conditioner.

PV module characteristics

PV module Support Ground-mounted

Structure Design type Design based on strength
calculation of PV array angle
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Deck roof-
mounted type
Sloping roof-
Design based on mounting
mounted type
method and structural
Wall-mounted
strength
type

Foundation Design Weight,

Design based on strength
Wind Pressure calculation

7
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
2. 3 Design Guideline (3)

Equipments selection Indoor type or

Outdoor type Provision of watercourses for
should be carrying away rainwater
selected.
Power Selection based on power
Interconnection circuit conditioner conditioner capacity
breaker selection protection
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Selection of protective Protection from Selection based on electric power

relays accidents of grid conditions, rules and standards

Selection of piping and Minimization of Selection based on allowable

wiring between devices wiring paths current, voltage drops, standards
and rules

8
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
2. 4 Example systems

Selling
PV Power electricity Electric
power
modules conditioner company
Buying electricity
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Charge
Storage and Offices
batteries discharge and/or
controller Display system
factories
Applicable to disaster prevention (system
includes storage batteries.)

* Capacity of storage batteries is determined

according to setting of load amperage, load types
and operation time.

9
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
2. 5 System type (1)

Grid- Reverse Storage batteries Applicable to emergency

Connected Flow to Grid are used. operation.
System
Storage batteries
Used in houses and/or buildings.
are not used.

No Reverse Storage batteries Applicable to emergency

e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

are used. operation. Large power

Flow to Grid consumers use this type.
Storage batteries Large power consumers use this
are not used. type.

10
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
2. 5 System type (2)
Storage
Street lights, radio equipment
Stand-Alone DC batteries are
Limited Loads power sources, traffic lights
system used.
Storage
batteries are not DC pumps, battery chargers, fans,
used.

Storage
batteries are Lighting systems
AC used.
Storage
batteries are not AC pumps
used.
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Storage
Electrification in low-population
General Loads DC batteries are
villages
used.
Storage
batteries are not No examples
used.

Storage Electrification in higher-population

AC batteries are villages
used.
Storage
No examples
batteries are not
used.
11
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
2. 6 Power conditioner selection (1)

Power Conditioners are classified into three:

(1) Low-voltage interconnected system (single-phase power conditioner)

Interconnected with low-voltage distribution lines that supply power to general
houses.
Incoming voltage : Single-phase three-wire system of 100/200 V
Interconnected point : Single-phase three-wire system of 100/200 V

(2) High-voltage interconnected type (three-phase power conditioner + OVGR)

Interconnected with high-voltage distribution lines that supply power to factories
and other high demanders.
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Incoming voltage : Three-phase three-wire system of 6600 V

Interconnected point : Three-phase three-wire system of 200 V

(3) Deemed low-voltage interconnected types (single-phase and three-phase

power conditioners)
Despite the high incoming voltage, PV system output is much less than the
contract demand.
Incoming voltage : Three-phase three-wire system of 6600 V
Interconnected point : Three-phase three-wire system of 200 V
: Single-phase three-wire system of 100/200 V

12
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
2. 6 Power conditioner selection (2)
Power Conditioner installation space
<Operating conditions> Ambient temperature : -5 ºC to + 40 ºC (normal operation, standby)
Relative humidity : 30% to 90%
Installation site : Indoor
Outdoor (enabled by accommodating in a cubicle.)

To provide spaces for inspection and heat dissipation, it is necessary to place the inverter off the walls and the
top as shown below.
It is possible to change side walls to parallel boards.
<Example>
Distance to top: 500 mm or more
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Distance to front: 1,000 mm or more Distance to back: 100 mm or more

[Side View]
Dimensions differ depending on the power conditioner manufacturer.
<Reference> Specifications of indoor inverters of 10 kW to 30 kW (900 W x 1875 H x 700 D)
Weight: 230 kg (10 kW)
290 kg (20 kW)
370 kg (30 kW)
* The above example is a power conditioner of the standard system (of interconnection type).

It is recommended that the power conditioner should be placed outdoors or in an electric-generation room
because of the harmonic noise level.

13
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
2. 7 Equipment type
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
3. Construction Management Points (1)
Site investigation Roof-mounted Confirm that a lift to the roof is provided.
Determine whether or not the provision of
Installation
Wall-mounted scaffolding and a man lift truck is
site necessary.
confirmation
Recognize the work space for
Ground-mounted construction equipment (s).

Verification Deck roof Check waterproof type.

of
Folded plate roof Check folded plate fixture type.
installation
conditions Sloping roof Verify inclination and anti-slip properties

Circuit breaker for

e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Confirmation interconnected Confirm an extended space.

of system
interconnect If circuit break is needed for relay
ed point High-voltage
installation, confirm the circuit break
protection relay point.
Determine whether or not the provision of
Verification Route check scaffolding and worker lift truck is
necessary.
of piping and
wiring routes Determine whether the existing route can
be used.

Carrying in Carrying in route Verify working location of construction

route check check equipment (wrecker).

15
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
3. Construction Management Points (2)
Getting there Determine whether or not the
Temporary Provide an on-site
provision of scaffolding and worker
office office.
lift truck is necessary.
Temporary Provide a materials
Provide a yard close to the site.
yard yard.

Marking Marking Marking based on Check the drawing.

reference line Confirm shadows.

Carrying in Crane Placement of crane Verify hoisting loads and

placement at predetermined construction equipment.
location Confirm the operating, hanging
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

and signaling workers.

Prohibit admittance to work area.
Inspect the hoisting accessory.
Rooftop care Prevention with Install to prevent the wind from
panel blowing PV cell modules.
Provision of Bind planks.
access made by
planks.
Craning Craning the PV Confirm the stability of the crane
module support and load at a lift of 30 cm above
structure and PV the ground.
modules
Do not enter beneath loads.
16
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
3. Construction Management Points (3)

PV module Fixture
Support Mount fixture. Mount fixtures to marking.
mounting
Structure Support Assemble the
Installation With stainless bolts, mount the
Structure Support
Support Structure to fixture.
Assembling Structure

Confirm that the horizontal and

vertical those should be.
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

PV modules
Installation Mounting PV Carefully handle the PV module,
PV module
modules to the and mount it to the fixture
Installation
Support Structure without damage.

Align modules flush with

longitudinal and lateral lines.
During mounting, workers shall
communicate with one another.

17
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
3. Construction Management Points (4)

Electrical Wiring between Wiring of connector Confirm that the circuit and system are
each PV cables between each constructed according to the drawings.
Piping and modules modules
Wiring work Connection Wiring of connectors Confirm the polarity and system of the
between each between each modules cable connectors, and connect them.
PV modules Confirm that the cable plug is securely
connected.
After the connection between modules,
cover terminals with insulation tape to
prevent short-circuits.
Equipment Installation Power Install according to the drawing.
installation Conditioner and Install so that devices cannot cast
Interconnection board shadows on each other.
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Be careful not to damage the casing.

Laying electrical Laying electrical Using hangers, saddles and other metal
conduits conduits supports, mount conduits.
Mount according to the drawing.
Laying cable rack With metal supports, mount the cable rack.
Mount according to the drawing.
Laying cable Laying cable Select line types and distance, according
to design drawing.
Be careful not to damage the covering of
the cable.
Getting cables straight Fix cables to rack.

Connecting Connection to Use of appropriate terminal lugs

wires switchboards

18
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
3. Construction Management Points (5)
Breaker, OVGR Outage With electroscope, confirm an outage.
Outage work and extension
(altering switchboards)
Circuit breaker Earth units.
and OVGR Earth all devices.
extension
ZPD and OVGR are ZPD and OVGR are mounted in place.
mounted.

Circuit breaker Outage With an electroscope, confirm outage.

extension Mount breaker. Mount circuit breaker in place.
Restoration Check inside of cubicle.

Visual Visual Inspection of Confirm that devices are free from cracks.
Inspection Equipments
Inspection
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Open-Voltage Measurement of Measure the voltage of each circuit in

voltage per system inverter, and record.
Measurement with tester
Insulation Measurement of Check batteries.
resistance insulation resistance Verify the connections to the earthing
with tester terminals.
measurement
PV array circuit Measure voltage across earthing
terminals, and record.
Voltage across Power Measure voltage across batteries and
conditioner and across lines, and record it.
Interconnection board
Voltage across Measure voltage between earth and
Interconnection board batteries and across lines, and record it.
and interconnected
point
19
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
3. Construction Management Points (6)

Trial operation Power Power Conditioner Confirm the setting by the electric
and adjustment Conditioner setting power company.
setting and
operating test
Operate in accordance with the
inverter operating procedure.
Adjustment Adjustment of Adjust according to measuring
and measuring guidelines.
confirmation instruments
of measuring Confirmation of The measurements are compared
instruments measuring with the indication of the inverter.
instruments
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Adjustment Adjustment of Adjust the display to an easy-to-see

of indication display. angle.
on display, Confirmation of Compare the display of the
and display. measuring instrument with the
confirmation. power conditioner indication.

Interconnection

Delivery

20
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
4. Pricing Guidelines（１）

Equipments Cost PV module Manufacturer, type, capacity

Power conditioner Manufacturer, type, capacity
Switchboards (Junction boxes,
Concentrated Boards and Selected by Power Conditioner
Interconnection Boards), specification
Transformers
PV module Support Structure Installation type
Compliance with the
General electrical materials
technological standards

Construction Cost PV module Support Structure

e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Consider the past records

Installation
PV modules mounting Consider the past records
PV modules wiring and
Consider the past records
connections
Equipments mounting Consider the past records
General electrical work Consider the past records

On-site Management expenses SV, offices, worker expenses

management
expenses

21
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
4. Pricing Guidelines（2）

Transport expenses Transport expenses, outsourcing

Carrier expenses, including various
securities

Travel and transportation

expenses Installation site Overseas travel expense
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Construction equipment Construction Wrecker, forklift, outsourcing

expenses equipment expenses

On-site overhead expenses

10% of equipment expenses

22
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
5. Self Inspection Items

5.1 Visual inspection and verification test of structure and quantity

（1）PV Modules
（2）Support Structure for PV modules
（3）Power Conditioner (s)
（4）Display System
（5）Junction Box (s), Interconnection Switchboard, MCB
5.2 Equipment installation and wiring/connection inspection
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

（1）Equipment installation inspection

（2）Wiring/Connection verification test
5.3 Insulation resistance test
（1）Wiring between each PV Modules
（2）Wiring between various equipments
5.4 Open-circuit voltage test/ground resistance test
（1）Open-circuit voltage of PV module
（2) Ground resistance if systems are grid-connected

23
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 5.1 Visual inspection and verification test of
structure and quantity (1)

（1） PV module visual inspection and power output test

Item Inspection details Means of Result

inspection

・Check if there is any damage,

cracking or deformation in Visual inspection
the PV module appearance.
Appearance
・Confirm that PV modules are Consistent with
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

appropriately arranged. Spec. of drawings

・Check against
manufacturer’s inspection
Output
records when omitting the
field output tests.

24
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 5.1 Visual inspection and verification test of
structure and quantity (2)

（2）Visual inspection of Support structure for PV array

Item Inspection details Means of inspection Result

There is no deformation or strain. Visual inspection
There is no peeling of galvanized steel
Appearance Visual inspection
welded to support structure.
The support structure is appropriately Consistent with Spec.
arranged. of drawings
There is no loosening in screws, bolts
Visual inspection
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

and fixtures.
Installation
Bolt tightening is appropriately
Visual inspection
conducted.
No loosening is
There is no loosening in the connections
confirmed by touching
between photovoltaic modules.
and visually.
Exposed cables behind the photovoltaic
Visual inspection
Wiring module are wired in order.

Cables are supported by fixing devices. Visual inspection

Earth conductors are connected to the
Visual inspection
PV module Support Structure.
25
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 5.1 Visual inspection and verification test of
structure and quantity (3)

（3）-1 Power Conditioner

Visual inspection
Means of
Item Inspection details Result
inspection
There is neither peeling of surface coating
Appearance Visual inspection
nor deformation.
There is no loosening in screws, bolts and
Installation Visual inspection
fixtures.
P/N（+/-） are correctly connected at the Visual inspection,
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Power Conditioner input. Multi meter

R/S/T are correctly connected at the three- Visual inspection,
phase output. Multi meter
Low voltage cable +/- are correctly Visual inspection,
Wiring
connected at its input/output. Multi meter
Earthing conductors are connected. Visual inspection
Cables are connected in order. Visual inspection
The panel internal is clean. Visual inspection

26
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 5.1 Visual inspection and verification test of
structure and quantity (4)
（3）-2 Power Conditioner
Performance test
Item Inspection details Performance Result Remarks
Matching Check to the
Model/type Acceptable
Specification document
Protective Check factory inspection
relay test records on behalf of the relay Check to factory inspection records.
(at factory) test in field.
Detection
MCCB（ELCB） is turned off and
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

of
operation is shutdown in an Acceptable
Islanding
instance.
operation
The time to
20 seconds restoration
The power conditioner
standby after shall be
automatically starts 20 seconds 20[s] Acceptable
after power restarted consistent
after power restoration.
restoration with Tech.
Spec.

Performan Regarding output inspection/test of relays, check manufacturers’ factory

ce test inspection records on behalf of conducting field inspection/test.

27
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 5.1 Visual inspection and verification test of
structure and quantity (5)

（4）Display System
Visual Inspection
Item Inspection details Means of inspection Result
Appearance There is neither peeling of surface coating nor deformation. Visual inspection
Installation There is no loosening in screws, bolts and fixtures. Visual inspection
Nameplate There is no defect to or peeling of nameplate. Visual inspection
Visual inspection,
AC200V control power cables are correctly wired.
Multi Meter
Low voltage cables are correctly wired and there is Visual inspection,
Wiring conduction. Multi Meter
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Cables are wired in order. Visual inspection

The panel internal is clean. Visual inspection
LED verification test
Item Inspection details Means of inspection Result
Verification The generated electricity is consistent with the total of the
Visual inspection
of quantity numerical values shown in the power conditioner LCD.

＊Input signals from the secondary cable in the transformer inside the interconnection switchboard to verify the
indicated values on the LED screen.
＊Visually check the numerical values indicated by power conditioner panel LCD or data collection system monitor
to verify there is no error in the generated electricity of photovoltaic module and Power Conditioner output.

28
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 5.1 Visual inspection and verification test of
structure and quantity (6)

（5）-1 Junction Box, Interconnection Switchboard and MCB

Visual Inspection of junction box-1

Means of
Item Inspection details Result
inspection
There is neither peeling of surface coating nor
Appearance deformation.
Visual inspection

Installation There is no loosening in screws, bolts and fixtures. Visual inspection

P/N（+/-） are correctly connected at the junction box Visual inspection,
input. Multi Meter
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Visual inspection,
P/N（+/-） are correctly connected at the MCCB output.
Multi Meter
Wiring
Earth conductors are connected. Visual inspection
Cables are wired in order. Visual inspection
The panel internal is clean. Visual inspection

29
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 5.1 Visual inspection and verification test of
structure and quantity (7)

（5）-2 Junction Box, Interconnection Switchboard and MCB

Visual inspection of interconnection switchboard

Item Inspection details Means of inspection Result

There is neither peeling of surface coating nor

Appearance deformation.
Visual inspection

Installation There is no loosening in screws, bolts and fixtures. Visual inspection

Visual inspection,
U/V/W are correctly connected at the inverter input.
Multi Meter
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

U/V/W are correctly connected at the main MCCB Visual inspection,

output. Multi Meter
Earthing conductors are connected. Visual inspection
Wiring
Cables are wired in order. Visual inspection
The panel internal is clean. Visual inspection
U/V/W phase indicator shows the positive phase at Visual inspection,
the Power Conditioner input phase indicator

30
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 5.1 Visual inspection and verification test of
structure and quantity (8)

(5)-3 Junction box, interconnection switchboard and MCB

Visual inspection of MCB

Item Inspection details Means of inspection Result
There is neither peeling of surface coating nor
Appearance deformation.
Visual inspection

Installation There is no loosening in screws, bolts and fixtures. Visual inspection

U/V/W are correctly connected at the main MCCB Visual inspection,
input. Multi Meter
U/V/W are correctly connected at the main MCCB Visual inspection,
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

output. Multi Meter

Earth conductors are connected. Visual inspection
wiring
Cables are wired in order. Visual inspection
The panel internal is clean. Visual inspection
U/V/W phase indicator shows the positive phase at Visual inspection,
main MCCB output. phase indicator

31
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 5.2 Equipment installation and
wiring/connection inspection (1)
（1）, （2） Insulation resistance measurement of cable between junction box and inverter panel
Insulation resistance measurement of cable between inverter and interconnection switchboard
Insulation resistance measurement of cables between interconnection switchboard, MCB and
existing transformers

［Test procedure］
Measure the insulation resistance of （+，－） polarities and （R，S,T） phases of each cable to ensure that
there is no insulation failure.
Measure the insulation resistance between each cable and the ground (according to code).
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

［Acceptance criteria］
600V<Circuit voltage ： 0.4MΩ or higher with 1000V insulation resistance tester.
300V<Circuit voltage≦600V： 0.4MΩ or higher with 500V insulation resistance tester.
150V<Circuit voltage≦300V： 0.2MΩ or higher with 500V insulation resistance tester.
Circuit voltage≦150V ： 0.1MΩ or higher with 500V insulation resistance tester.

32
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 5.2 Equipment installation and
wiring/connection inspection (2)
Measurement of cable insulation resistance
Item Insulation resistance （M ） Cable type Result

Junction box-1 P（＋） 100MΩ or higher

CV10sq-4C >600V
～Power
N（－） 100MΩ or higher Ground cable 1C, spare cable 1C
Conditioner-1

Junction box-2 P（＋） 100MΩ or higher CV10sq-4C >600V

～Power Ground cable 1C, spare cable IC
N（－） 100MΩ or higher
Conditioner-2

Junction box-3 P（＋） 100MΩ or higher CV10sq-4C >600V

～Power Ground cable 1C, spare cable IC
N（－） 100MΩ or higher
Conditioner-3

Power Conditioner-1～
Interconnection switchboard
>300V
R（red） 100MΩ or higher
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

S（black） 100MΩ or higher

CV14sq-4C
T（blue） 100MΩ or higher

N（white） 100MΩ or higher

Interconnection switchboard～MCB

R（red） 100MΩ or higher >300V

S（black） 100MΩ or higher

CV100sq-4C
T（blue） 100MΩ or higher

N（white） 100MΩ or higher

MCB～Existing transformer-9
>300V
R（red） 100MΩ or higher

S（black） 100MΩ or higher

CV100sq-4C
T（blue） 100MΩ or higher

N（white） 100MΩ or higher

33
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 5.3 Equipment installation and
wiring/connection inspection
（1）、（2） Insulation resistance measurement of cables between photovoltaic modules
［Test procedure］
Measure the insulation resistance of （+，－） polarities and （R, S, T) phases of each cable for one string of
photovoltaic module array to verify that there is no insulation failure.
Measure the insulation resistance between each cable and the ground (*The insulation resistance of the
cable including the photovoltaic module will be measured).

［Acceptance criteria］
Open-circuit voltage≧300V： Acceptable if measurement using 1000V megger shows 0.4MΩ or higher .

Measurement of cable insulation resistance

Insulation
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Module No. Cable used Result

resistance（M ）
Junction box-1
PV1-1 + 65MΩ or higher Manufacturer’s standard type （4sq-5C） Acceptable
PV1-1 - 100MΩ or higher 1C ground cable, spare cable 2C Acceptable
PV1-2 + 100MΩ or higher Manufacturer’s standard type （4sq-5C） Acceptable
PV1-2 - 200MΩ or higher 1C ground cable, spare cable 2C Acceptable
PV1-3 + 150MΩ or higher Manufacturer’s standard type （4sq-5C） Acceptable
PV1-3 - 200MΩ or higher 1C ground cable, spare cable 2C Acceptable
PV1-4 + 100MΩ or higher Manufacturer’s standard type （4sq-5C） Acceptable
PV1-4 - 200MΩ or higher 1C ground cable, spare cable 2C Acceptable
PV1-5 + 50MΩ or higher Manufacturer’s standard type （4sq-5C） Acceptable
PV1-5 - 90MΩ or higher 1C ground cable, spare cable 2C Acceptable
34
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 5.4 Open-circuit voltage test/ground
resistance test – example (1)
（1）DC Open-circuit voltage of cables between PV modules
The crystalline PV power generation system consists of 270 panels of 167 W module.
Eighteen(18) modules in series ×fifteen(15) modules in parallel constitute a PV power generation
system.
The open-circuit voltage of one module is about 43.1V（at the highest）with an error of ±10%.
Accordingly, the nominal voltage of one module accounts for 43.1V×0.9～1.1＝38.79～47.41V.
The maximum open-circuit voltage of one circuit consisting of 18 modules will be:
38.8V×18 modules＝698.22V （lower limit）
47.4V×18 modules＝853.38V （upper limit）
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

［Test procedure］
・Measure the open-circuit voltage of one each string of PV module array to confirm the polarity of
each circuit.
・ Measure the open-circuit voltage of one each string of PV module array to check if the number of
modules in series is correct or not.
＜If the measured voltage is out of the acceptance criteria, the modules in series might be
incorrectly connected.＞

35
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 5.4 Open-circuit voltage test/ground
resistance test – example (2)
（2）DC Open-circuit voltage of cables between photovoltaic modules
［Test conditions］
Tests shall be conducted during daytime hours on a sunny day.
（Solar radiation shall be 0.1kW/m2 or higher.）

［Acceptance criteria］
Measure the open-circuit voltage of one each string of module array to confirm that it meets the
following criteria.
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Measurement at junction box

Module train No. Acceptance criteria

Polarity （+，-） Open-circuit voltage (Voc)
Junction box-1 698V～853V
Junction box-1
PV1-1 O.K 744.0V Acceptable
PV1-2 O.K 740.0V Acceptable
PV1-3 O.K 737.0V Acceptable
PV1-4 O.K 735.0V Acceptable
PV1-5 O.K 734.0V Acceptable

36
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 5.4 Open-circuit voltage test/ground
resistance test – example (3)
（3） Earth resistance measurement
［Test procedure］
Measure the earth resistance.

［Acceptance criteria］
Earth resistance of 100 or less is acceptable.
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Ground resistance

Item Measured value Result

Interconnection point 1.6Ω

Acceptable

37
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
6.1 Some tips for system design (1)
• Surrounding environment and anticipated damage

Falling leaf Falling nuts

Stone throwing
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Sand breeze
Sand scratch
(like frosted grass)
Sea breeze
Contamination
Electrically grounding
Animal bait
38
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
6.1 Some tips for system design (2)
• Surrounding environment and anticipated damage

Rain
Lightning

Lightning rod
Strong enough
for stormy wind
Heat up
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Enough ventilation
for cooling

Trench for heavy rain

39
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010
6.2 Maintenance Plan for Photovoltaic
Power Generation System (1)
Monthly Inspection

Item Content of Check

・Surface dirt & damage

PV module ・Damage of wire/cable
・Wire’s connection and damage
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

・Damage, rust & erosion

Support Structure for
・Damage of wire/cable
PV module
・Earthing Conductor’s connection and damage

・Damage, erosion & rust

Junction Box
・Damage of wire/cable
Junction Panel
・Earthing Conductor’s connection and damage

40
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 6.2 Maintenance Plan for Photovoltaic
Power Generation System (2)
Monthly Inspection

Item Content of Check

・Damage, corrosion & rust
・Damage of external wire/cable
Power Conditioner ・Earthing Conductor’s connection and damage
unit ・Equipment’s allophone and nasty smell
・ Ambient temperature and humidity
・LCD indication
・Damage, corrosion & rust
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

・Damage of external wire/cable

Instrument System ・Earthing Conductor’s connection and damage
・Equipment’s allophone and nasty smell
・Ambient temperature and humidity
・Check of Power Conditioners
The numerical value that LCD of each Power
Conditioner shows being about the same.
Display system
・Check of Monitoring System
The power generation change according to
Irradiance.
41
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 6.2 Maintenance Plan for Photovoltaic
Power Generation System (3)
Regular Inspection

Item Content of Check Measuring Check

・Surface dirt & damage

PV module ・Damage of wire/cable
・Wire’s connection and damage

・Damage, corrosion & rust

Support Structure ・Damage of wire/cable
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

for PV module ・Grounding wire’s connection and

damage
・Insulation resistance
Each circuit to PV in JB
・Damage, corrosion & rust Each circuit to JB in JP
Junction Box ・Damage of wire/cable
Junction Panel ・Grounding wire’s connection and ・VOC (Volt of Circuit)
damage Each circuit to PV in JB
Each circuit to JB in JP

42
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 6.2 Maintenance Plan for Photovoltaic
Power Generation System (4) Regular Inspection
Item Content of Check Measuring Check

・Damage, corrosion & rust

・Insulation resistance
・Damage of external wire/cable
Each circuit to JP in Inv.
Power ・Grounding wire’s connection and damage
Conditioner unit ・Equipment’s allophone and nasty smell
・VOC
・ Ambient temperature and humidity
Each circuit to JP in Inv.
・LCD indication

・Damage, corrosion & rust

・Damage of external wire/cable
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Instrument ・Grounding wire’s connection and damage

System ・Equipment’s allophone and nasty smell
・ Ambient temperature and humidity

・Check of PCS
The numerical value that LCD of each
PCS shows being about the same.
Display System
・Check of Monitoring System
The power generation change according
to Irradiance.

43
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 7.1 Economical Effects

◆ Self-sufficiency of electricity supply and

selling electricity
- 100 kW Watt-hour system used

Watt-hour value: approximately 95,000 to 115,000 kWh/yr

Electric Power price: approximately 1,140,000 to 1,380,000 yen/yr

(Calculation is based on 12 yen/kWh.)

◆Conditions for example calculations

e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

1. Conditions
System capacity 100 kW * Total capacity of PV array

Annual expected power generation 115,000 kWh/yr * Calculated based on simulation.

Installation expenses 70,000 thousand yen * Purchase expenses are included.

General management ratio 10 %

* Large-scale repairs expenses are excluded.

Annual maintenance expenses 90 thousand yen

44
Republic of Fiji - November 22-26, 2010 7.2 Example Preliminary Calculations of
Economical Effects
2. Preliminary calculations of investment effects
(1) Installation expenses 70,000 thousand yen
(2) General management expenses 7,000 thousand yen (1) × 10%
(3) Total investment amount 77,000 thousand yen (1) + (2)

(1) Preliminary calculation of power generation watt-hour as energy cost saving

thousand
(4) Energy cost saving effect 1,380 * Calculation is based on electric power unit price of 12
yen/yr
yen/kWh.
thousand
(5) Maintenance expenses 90
yen/yr
thousand
(6) Effect 1,290 (4) - (5)
yen/yr
Expected payback period 59.7 yr (3) ÷ (6)

(2) Preliminary calculation for a reduction in demand

Monthly basic price for
(7) 1,690 Yen/ kW/month Expected amount
e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

business use
Electric power capacity under * 20% of the installation capacity of 100 kW is expected.
(8) contract of an expected 20 kW
reduction in demand
Energy saving effect (reduction thousand (7) × (8) ×12
(9) 406
in demand) yen/yr months
thousand
(10) Introduction effects 1,696 (6) + (9)
yen/yr
Expected payback period 45.4 yr (3) ÷ (10)

(3) Preliminary calculation including environmental value

115000 Calculation is based on CO2 reduction unit price of
(11) CO2 reduction 63.8 tC/yr
×0.000555 0.000555 tC/kWh.
thousand Calculation is based on CO2 trading rate of 3 thousand
(12) Effect of CO2 reduction 191.4 (11) ×3
yen/yr yen/t.
thousand
(13) Total effect 1,887.4 (6)+(9)+(12)
yen/yr
Expected payback period 40.8 Yr (3) ÷ (13)
45
The examples of solar power
system in Palau

e8/PPA Grid Connected Solar PV Workshop

Republic of Fiji, Nov. 22-26, 2010
1. The Solar Power System in the
Development bank
Overview of the Panels
Inverter and meters
Inverter
Inside the inverter
Meters
DC disconnects
Sensor Box
Data Logger
Connecting Junction
Backside of the roof
(Wire connections)
2. The Solar Power System in the
Capitol hill
Overview of the Panels
Group of inverters
Inverter
Meter
Inside the transformer
connection box
The rating the transformer
LED light (low consumption of
electricity)
The end of Slides.
Thank you !