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Physics Lab Theory

This document discusses temperature measurement and thermometers. It defines temperature and describes how it can be measured using properties that correlate directly with temperature, like volume, resistance, or radiation. Common thermometer types are described, including liquid-in-glass, resistance, and thermoelectric thermometers. The document also discusses the inertia of thermometers, how they reach thermal equilibrium over time defined by a time constant related to heat capacity and transport. An experiment is described to measure temperature-fall and rise curves using a platinum resistance thermometer and determine its time constants by fitting an exponential function.

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Marco Plays
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13 views

Physics Lab Theory

This document discusses temperature measurement and thermometers. It defines temperature and describes how it can be measured using properties that correlate directly with temperature, like volume, resistance, or radiation. Common thermometer types are described, including liquid-in-glass, resistance, and thermoelectric thermometers. The document also discusses the inertia of thermometers, how they reach thermal equilibrium over time defined by a time constant related to heat capacity and transport. An experiment is described to measure temperature-fall and rise curves using a platinum resistance thermometer and determine its time constants by fitting an exponential function.

Uploaded by

Marco Plays
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Physics lab

Temperature measurement
THEORY
Temperature is a state variable indicating whether or not an object is in thermal equilibrium with its environment.
Of course, it is a function of other state variables of the object. Temperature can be measured so that we choose
one of these properties which is easy to measure and a one-to-one function of temperature.
To assign a numerical value to the temperature we have to scale the measured value (e.g. volume, resistance,
radiation, etc.). Choosing a working material and a property, with an arbitrary scale we get an empirical
temperature. The thermodynamic temperature scale is based on the second law of thermodynamics (the efficiency
of the Carnot engine).
The properties of a good thermometer are:
- small heat capacity (it does not change the temperature to be measured) ,
- small inertia (it reaches the thermal equilibrium fast),
- good reproducibility.
Thermometers can be grouped in the following way:
1.) The thermometer and the object with unknown temperature are not in direct connection. These are pyrometers
for measuring high temperatures (above ∼500°C) based on the thermal radiation.
2.) The thermometer and the object are in direct connection. These are mechanic and electric thermometers:
2.A.) Mechanic thermometers:
- Metal rod thermometer. The linear thermal expansion is measured.
- Bimetallic thermometer. Two strips of metals with different coefficients of linear expansion (e.g. brass and
iron) are riveted together. When heated, the strip bends, when cooled, the coil opens up.
- Liquid-in-glass thermometers. The liquid may be ethanol, mercury or pentane. The expansion of the liquid in
the reservoir can be read on the linear scale of the capillary joining with the reservoir.
- Mercury (liquid)-in-steel thermometer. Here the liquid is expanding in a flexible spiral tube the shape of which
depends on the temperature.
- Vapour pressure thermometer. A suitable liquid is placed in a bulb and connected to a pressure gauge which is
used graduated for temperature.
- Gas thermometer. The pressure in constant volume conditions (or volume in constant pressure conditions) is
proportional to the thermodynamic temperature (supposing that the gas is ideal).
2.B.) Electric thermometers:
2.B.1) Thermoelectric thermometer, thermocouple.
When two different metals join, an electric potential difference will occur at the junction point. This contact
potential depends on the two materials and on the temperature. In a closed circuit the sum of these contact
potentials equals to zero if the temperature of all joining points is equal. But if the joining points have different
temperatures then a thermoelectromotive force is generated this way.
2.B.2) Resistance thermometers.
Resistance thermometers are made of
a) metals,
b) semiconductors (called thermistors).
a) The resistance of metals is a linear function of the temperature:

R(T) = R0 ( 1 + β (T–T0) ) , where

R0 is the resistance at the reference temperature T0 ,

β is the temperature coefficient [1/C°] or [1/K]


that can be considered constant for a certain temperature range.
1 ∆R
The sensitivity of metal resistance thermometers is this constant: =β
R0 ∆ T
The metals used for resistance thermometers are mainly Ni or Pt.
Their inertia is relatively great.
b) In case of semiconductors the resistance is a nonlinear function of the temperature, that is β cannot be
considered constant. Thermistors have greater sensitivity and smaller inertia than metal resistance
thermometers have.

TEMPERATURE / 1
Physics lab
Temperature measurement

The inertia of thermometers


When the temperature of the thermometer's environment suddenly changes then the
thermometer approaches this new value gradually.
The process can be described by the following equation (Newton's equation):

∆T(t) = ∆T · e , where
τ

∆T is the temperature difference between the thermometer and its environment


at the time instant t,
∆T0 is the initial temperature difference (at t0 = 0), and
τ is the time constant of the thermometer.
At t = τ ∆T(τ) = ∆T0 / e.
The time constant τ depends on
- the heat capacity of the thermometer C , and
- the surface of the thermometer (through which the heat transport happens) A , and
- the heat transport coefficient between the thermometer and the environment α :
C
τ= .
Aα
Instead of τ sometimes t1/2 (the half-time) is used: at t = t1/2 ∆T(t1/2) = ∆T0 / 2.

With this constant the Newton equation is: ∆T = ∆T · 2 /

MEASUREMENT
We shall measure temperature-fall and -raise curves with a Pt resistance thermometer. The
resistance is measured with a digital multimeter.
First measure the temperature-fall curve:
Check that the resistance of the thermometer is constant in the thermostat. Then as fast as
possible put the thermometer into the jar of water with ice cubes and record the resistance as
a function of time, at the time instants indicated in the table (data sheet).
Measure the temperature-raise curve in a similar way.

EVALUATION
1. Calculate the temperature at every time instant from the resistance using the formula
R(T) = R0 ( 1 + β (T–T0) ) , where
T0 is zero (the temperature of water with ice),
R0 is the resistance measured in the water with ice, and
the value of the temperature coefficient is β = 0.00386 1/C° .
The temperature of the thermostat Ttherm is calculated from the resistance Rtherm.
2. Calculate ∆T for the temperature fall and raise curves: ∆Tfall = T – T0, and ∆Traise = Ttherm – T.
3. Plot the two ∆T vs. t graphs.
4. Determine the two time constants τfall and τraise:
a) find τ with fitting an exponential function using the formula ∆T = ∆T · e τ ;
b) linearize the formula, calculate the slope using Excel, and calculate τ from the slope.

TEMPERATURE / 2

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