Cold Gas Propulsion System for Hyperloop Pod

Prabhakar Naik1 , Jayant Unde1 , Bhushan Darekar2 and

P. R. Dhamangaokar1
1
Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering Pune
E-mail: [email protected] (Prabhakar Naik)
E-mail: [email protected] (Jayant Unde)
E-mail: [email protected] (P. R. Dhamangaokar)
2
Production Engineering, College of Engineering Pune
E-mail: [email protected] (Bhushan Darekar)

Abstract. Hyperloop is a futuristic fifth mode of transportation proposed by SpaceX. A Pod

shaped vehicle travels through a partially evacuated tube at speeds close to the speed of sound.
This paper aims at designing a cold gas thruster system for propelling the Hyperloop pod. The
system has a compressed air reservoir, this air is expanded through pressure regulators and
further expanded and accelerated using a convergent-divergent nozzle. This paper discusses the
architecture of the system, regulator pressure setting, a suitable nozzle design and CFD analysis
in a far-field environment.

Keywords: Hyperloop, Cold Gas Propulsion, Nozzle, CFD, Finite Element Analysis

1. Introduction
Hyperloop, a concept that can revolutionize the world of transportation cutting the time barrier
by many folds in ground transportation technology. Hyperloop concept is envisioned by visionary
entrepreneur Elon Musk in the year 2012 presented in his white paper ’Hyperloop Alpha’ [1].
In the same year, he open sourced the idea of Hyperloop for entrepreneurs, students and other
teams. Hyperloop transport technology is based on the concept of pod traveling in a partial
vacuum tube while achieving sonic speed. Elon Musk, in his white paper proposed a design of
pod which works on linear induction motor propelling pod speed up to 1200 kmph. Hyperloop
pod utilizes near vacuum tube for transport reducing air resistance, the air bearing is used to
reduce the rolling resistance in nutshell increasing the efficiency of the overall system.
Hyperloop systems main attraction is its supersonic speed which in the Hyperloop Alpha
proposed as a linear induction motor. (There are some innovative means are available to propel
the Hyperloop pod such as cold gas thrusters, electric induction etc.). ” Hyperloop One”
successfully tested its XP-1 passenger pod, reaching speeds of up to 192 mph (309 km/h) [2].
For Hyperloop pod competition [3] we developed a pod that can travel up to the maximum
speed of 360 km/h (year 2017). The architecture of the pod is shown in Fig. 2. The pod is
initially propelled with the help of Brush-less DC (BLDC) motors (1) up to the speed of 44
m/s, after that a Halbach array of magnets (2) are lowered. They, then provide the upward
 Figure 1. COEP Hyperloop Pod

force required to levitate the pod. As the levitation starts, the pod is propelled further with the
help of cold gas thruster system (3). After achieving the predetermined braking conditions, the
pod is braked with the help of Eddy current brakes (4). Throughout the journey the attitude of
the pod is maintained by stability mechanism (5) as well as adjusting the position of levitation
magnets. All the mechanisms are mounted on the chassis (6).
The levitation reduces the frictional losses incurred during the motion and a smooth and long
cruising range. However, in this stage, the motors cannot provide the drive due to the lack of
traction. The gas thruster system is thus required to provide the required propulsion. As the
combustion is not allowed inside the tube, cold gas thrusters are used. They can provide the
thrust whenever required.

2. Literature Review
Since year 2015 SpaceX organizes Hyperloop pod concept for various university student and
non-student teams in order to invent new solutions for different subsystems of Hyperloop. They
design and build the pod and a select few teams get a chance to have a test run in California
situated 1:2 scaled test track. In this paper, we discuss the high-speed cold gas propulsion system
for a sub-scale prototype of Hyperloop pod which can achieve the maximum speed of 350 kmph
in year 2017. This concept was first used by Arizona state university (ASU) team in 2016 [4].
ASU team’s compressed air thruster operates for 2.1 s over 295 m of track and can accelerate
the pod at a rate of 7.91 m/s2 . The compressed air thruster allows the pod to reach a maximum
velocity of 150 m/s. In our design concept which we proposed for hyperloop pod competition
in the year 2017, our High Propulsion system is required to produce the thrust force of 3600 N
to overcome the drag and propel the pod by 5.75 m/s2 and reach the maximum velocity of 350
kmph.

3. System Architecture
The Pod is initially propelled from rest to a speed of 44m/s, after which the levitation magnets
are engaged [7] and that will levitate the pod. At this stage the cold gas propulsion is triggered.
This is due to the fact that the efficiency of the thruster system will increase with the increasing
speed, as shown in Fig 3
On-off state of entire system is controlled manually using a quarter turn valve for safety
 Figure 2. Architecture of the COEP hyperloop pod

purpose. The flow thereafter is divided into three streams using a one by three manifold. Three
solenoid operated valves are used downstream. The flow is divided for safety as well as limiting
condition of mass flow rate and fool proofing. After that, the Air is passed through a pressure
regulating valves and is expanded to 14 bar. The Air coming from all three valves are connected
to an accumulator which will act as the buffer to give a continuous airflow of 5 kg/sec, which is
then accelerated to Mach 3.8 through a De-Laval nozzle. However, due to the drastic pressure
drop, there is a substantial temperature decrease. The low temperatures create a risk of Ductile
to Brittle transition [5] in valves, hoses and hose fittings. Thus, a suitable material selection is
crucial for smooth and safe operation. The special cryogenic valves and fittings are used for this
purpose. Cryogenic transfer hoses offer a leak free and safe flow of air. The De-Laval nozzle is
made of Aluminum 5083 87 Cold Formed.
Figure 3. Propulsion system performance Vs Flight Speed

Figure 4. Cold GasPropulsion: Architecture

4. Design
The selection of gas plays a crucial role in deciding the reservoir volume. The various parameters
like compressibility factor, cost, availability, the dangers involved in handling the gas. The
Pressure setting in the regulating valve is a crucial parameter in nozzle design as it will determine
the nozzle inlet pressure for the choking condition. The selection of gas as well as the calculations
of the regulator setting are discussed in this section

4.1. Selection of Gas

The working fluid selection greatly influences, not only the system performance, but also the
system size and weight. The volume of occupied by the gas at initial pressure and temperature
will determine the reservoir tank size and thus its weight. Thus, compressiblity is an important
selection parameter for the gas. Apart from that Saturation temperature, adiabatic constant,
etc. are also important and are summarized in Table. 1 for Air, Nitrogen and Carbon Dioxide.
These gasses were specifically shortlisted because of their availability and validation owing to
the frequent use in many applications.

Table 1. PROPERTIES OF GASES

Air Nitrogen CO2
k 1.4 1.4 1.289
R 286.9 296.8 188.9
Tsat 112.3642 109.2096 242.5543
Compressibility factor 1.0326 1.0577 0.3899

4.2. Pressure Regulator Setting

The regulator pressure is set at the pressure equal to the tank pressure at the end of 8.7 th
second. This will ensure a constant pressure downstream the pressure regulator. The nozzle is
then designed for the maximum flow rate of 5kg/sec and the inlet pressure equal to the regulator
setting. The pressure setting was calculated using the gas reservoir sizing.
t = V (Pi − Pf )/CPa (1)
Where,
t = Time in sec
P f = Final tank pressure in Pa
P i = Initial tank pressure in Pa
P a = atmospheric pressure in Pa
C = Free air flow rate in m 3 /s
V = Volume in m 3 By substituting appropriate values in Equ. 1, for t, P i , P a , V and C and
solving for P f , the pressure in the tank at the end of 9 th sec was calculated and was found
out to be about 14 bar. This was the pressure set for pressure regulator.

4.3. Nozzle Contour Design

Nozzle design is the thrust producing device in the system. It receives pressurized air from the
accumulator at 14 bar and stagnation condition. The air is then expanded and by the virtue
of Bernoulli’s principle, accelerated to the super-sonic velocity (Ma = 3.8). As the supersonic
speeds are involved, a convergent-divergent nozzle is required. Assuming the compressible flow,
the Maximum mass flow rate (chocking condition) gives us the Throat area from equation (2).
Exit area is calculated using equation (2). The expansion angle at
throat is calculated using equation (7), while the other state variables are calculated using
 Figure 5. Cold Gas Propulsion: Flow Chart

equations (4)-(6). The results are summarized in Table. 2 for Air, Nitrogen and Carbon dioxide
respectively. As, a rule of thumb, the upstream radius of curvature is kept to be 1.5rt while the
upstream radius of curvature is kept to be 0.382 rt . Where, rt is the throat area radius.
r   k+1
0 k 2 2(k−1)
mmax = AP0 (2)
RT0 k + 1

   k+1
A 1 2 k−1 2(k−1)

∗
= 1+ M a2 (3)
A Ma k+1 2


  1
ρ0 k−1 2
k−1
= 1+ Ma (4)
ρ 2
 
T0 k−1 2
= 1+ Ma (5)
T 2


  k
P0 k−1 2
k−1
= 1+ Ma (6)
P 2
 
−1 1
µ = sin (7)
M a1

v(M a) = K ∗ tan−1 (K ∗ M ) − tan−1 ( M ))

p
(8)
where,
r
k+1
K=
k−1

M = (M a2 − 1)
m’ max = maximum mass flow rate in kg/s
A= Area in m2 P 0 = Inlet pressure in Pa
k= Specific heat ratio
R= Gas constant
T 0 = inlet temperature
A*= Throat area in m2 Ma= Mach number
ρ 0 = inlet density in kg l 3 µ= Expansion angle in radians
T, P, ρ= general Temperature, Pressure and density respectively [6]
Another crucial parameter of the nozzle design is the Nozzle length. It not only influences
the flow profile, but also the weight of the system. Smaller length or sharp changes in profile
may lead to formation of shock waves. Extremely longer nozzles make the design bulky and
excessive skin friction losses. The geometrical parameters are depicted in the Fig. 6.

Figure 6. Geometrical Parameters of the Nozzle

Table 2. NOZZLE CHARACTERISTIC P ROPERTIES

Air Nitrogen CO2
T0 300 300 300
T* 250 250 262.1232
P* 749394.1 749394.1 776973.2
A* 0.00151 0.001536 0.001261
r* 0.021931 0.022117 0.020042
r*(mm) 21.93061 22.1174 20.04187
v* 316.8833 322.3042 252.6361
A1 0.011251 0.011444 0.013406
r1 0.059859 0.060369 0.065342
r1(mm) 59.85936 60.36919 65.34163
A/A* 7.450111 7.450111 10.62927
P1 16149.81 16149.81 12816.26
Vout 659.3625 670.6423 574.0622

5. Modeling and Simulation

The nozzle was modeled as a 2D axis-symmetric case. The inlet condition of 14 Bar and
stagnant condition. The meshing was done in ICEM CFD and the model was simulated in
ANSYS Fluent solver. The standard wall function k-epsilon turbulence model was used. The
outlet vent pressure was maintained at 0.1 Bar which is equal to the ambient pressure of the
tube. The results of the stationery nozzle are summarized in the Fig. 7A and 7B. The results
vary about 1.5% from the analytically calculated values

Figure 7. Static Analysis A: Velocity (m/s) contour; B: Pressure (Pa) Contour

However, as the nozzle is going to operate not at stationery condition, but at a certain speed
(about 44 m/s), we performed a far field analysis. In spite of giving an exit pressure condition,a
flow of air, over the nozzle at 44m/s and 0.01 bar pressure is applied. The results of the same
are summarized in Fig. 8A and 8B. It can be seen that the exit velocity is increased by 1.2%.
The Thrust provided was equal to 3465 N.

Figure 8. Far Field Analysis A: Velocity (m/s) contour; B: Pressure (Pa) Contour

F = m0 ∗ V rel + P a ∗ A (9)

Where,
F = Force in N
m ’ = Mass flow rate in Kg/s
V rel = Relative velocity of gas in m/s
P a = Tube pressure in Pa
A = Area of nozzle m2
The analytically calculated thrust was about 3180 N. Thus there is a difference of 1.2% in
analytical and simulated results.
6. Pressurized Systems TNT Equivalence
TNT equivalence is a standardized technique of comparing an explosive entity with that of
TNT. Using Charles Law: For a constant temperature in a container of constant finite volume,
the pressure of the gas within the chamber can be taken as constant. The analysis can also
be applied using the principle of virtual work via virtual expansion of the gas. With this, the
following formula is obtained:
hP i
o

W = P o ∗ V o ∗ ln − 1 + Pa ∗ V o (10)
Pa
Where,
W = Work in joule
P o = Pressure in MPa
V o = volume in m 3
P a = Tube pressure in MPa
From this, the following values can be derived:
Work =17.644*106 Joules
1 joule = 2.39E-13 kiloton of TNT
As a result,
Work = 4.2169*10−6 kiloton of TNT= 4.2169 kg of TNT

7. Safety and State Diagram

Cold gas propulsion is the second stage of acceleration, wherein the pod will be levitating and
the wheel contact from the tracks will be relieved. In this condition. In this condition, the state
of the pod is continuously monitored by the IMU (inertial measuring unit), pressure sensors
at tank, accumulator and nozzle and the anemometer at the nozzle inlet. If anyabnormality
is detected the Air supply is cutoff through the solenoid valves, and the pod is braked. If the
maximum speed is reached before the predetermined distance from the tube end, the pod is
cruised thereafter. Complete state diagram and decision tree is summarized in flow chart Fig.
9.

Figure 9. State Diagram: Cold gas Propulsion

8. Conclusion
In this paper, the architecture and working of cold gas propulsion (High speed propulsion)
was discussed. Various working fluids and geometrical and physical parameters that affect the
performance and integrity of the system were carefully evaluated and simulated. The analytically
and numerically calculated results for the exhaust velocities and pressures differ by 1.2%, which
is quite acceptable. The far-field analysis was done to reduce the dependency on the assumption
that the nozzle/ system will be stationary. The control algorithm,state diagram upon various
possibilities are also discussed in this paper. During the design, the authors also considered the
economic aspects of the system.
However, as it can be noticed, the TNT value of the system is quite high. This makes it
dangerous to work around. For this various safety measures are needed to be taken. A close
monitoring of the state of the system and an equally quick response to the stimuli is necessary.
A thorough investigation is thus needed in this area.
The efficiency of the system can be improved by increasing the temperatures of the gasses.
This will however increase the power consumption and a strain on battery. Thus, a trade-off
between the produced thrust and consumed energy is required.

9. References
(i) Musk, Elon (August 12, 2013). “Hyperloop” Tesla. Retrieved August 13,
2013
(ii) “Hyperloop One”. Hyperloop One. Retrieved November 25, 2016;
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperloop-One
(iii) http://www.spacex.com/sites/spacex/files/2018 hyperloop competition
rules.
(iv) ”Media — AZLoop”, Azhyperloop.com, 2018. [Online]. Available:
http://azhyperloop.com/media/. [Accessed: 05- Aug- 2018].
(v) Kstreetstudio.com, 2018. [Online]. Available:
http://www.kstreetstudio.com/science/experiments/files/DuctileBrittle
Transition.pdf. [Accessed: 05- Aug- 2018].
(vi) Y. Cengel and M. Boles, Thermodynamics, 5th ed. McGraw Hill Educa-
tion, pp. 834-83
(vii) Naik, P., Unde, J., & Darekar, B. Structural Analysis and Optimization of Hyperloop Pod
Chassis