Deterioration and Maintenance of Pavements Elemental Paving

Chapter 16 - Elemental Paving

Index

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Natural stone sett paving

16.3 Block Paving

16.4 Laying procedure

1 Horizontal Interlock
2 Vertical Interlock
3 Rotational Interlock

16.5 Bedding Sand

16.6 Modes of failure block paving

16.7 Heavy duty block paving

16.8 Contemporary grouted natural stone paving

16.9 References and Bibliography

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Plates
16.1 Sett paving construction, Barnsley, UK, circa 1900
16.2 Sealing sett paving construction, Barnsley circa 1900
16.3 Interlock allows pavers to retain integrity
16.4 Example of surface deformation in block paving
16.5 Creep in pavers under traffic due to incorrect bonding
16.6 Pushing of pavers due to sand bed being too thick
16.7 Example of heavy duty pavers – Dallas Fort Worth USA
16.8 Use of spreader plate under jack to prevent local overload and
depression of surface
16.9 Heavy duty pavement in port container yard
16.10 Natural stone setts laid on stabilised granular bedding, Blackpool
16.11 Natural sawn stone laid on concrete bed, Leeds

Figures
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Typical heavy Sett construction circa 1900
16.3 Concrete block paving joint mechanics
16.4 Inadequate sand interlock
16.5 Adequate sand interlock
16.6 No rotational interlock

Tables
16.1 Typical values of layer stiffness derived by FWD testing
16.2 Factors affecting performance of trafficked block paving
16.3 Bedding sand categories
16.4 Bedding sand parameters
16.5 Bedding and Jointing sand grading
16.6 Failures in concrete block paving – some causal factors

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Chapter 16 - Elemental Paving

16.1 Introduction

This chapter is intended to cover the diverse range of elemental paving, where an
element is defined as a single item of construction fabric, used in conjunction with
others to form the surface course of a pavement. Elements can be made from a broad
range of materials the main ones being

 Natural Stone
 Concrete
 Brick

The following diagram shows the typical construction of an elemental pavement.

Block Paving (50mm to 100mm)

(may be up to 150mm with grouted natural stone)

Bedding Sand (30mm to 50mm)

(may be cementitious mixture if grouted stone)

Base (depends on traffic and sub-grade)

Asphalt, Granular of Cement Bound
(may be concrete slab if grouted natural stone surface course
elements are used)

Natural formation sub-grade

Figure 16.1 - Typical elemental pavement construction

The above diagram shows two fundamentally different constructions, firstly

conventional concrete block paving and secondly heavy-duty grouted natural stone.
The base design is identical to that of any other pavement and depends on the
anticipated traffic load and the bearing capacity of the formation.

Natural stone can be found in a range of sizes from large slabs up to 3m x 3m x

100mm thick used in prestige public concourses such as Trafalgar Square in London, to
100mm x 100mm x 100mm cubes used largely for decorative paving. Despite its high
cost natural stone is the material of choice in shared surface feature areas, where
vehicles and pedestrians interact.

In the Victorian era almost, without exception, constructed walking surfaces consisted
of riven stone slabs in a range of sizes and thickness. There is currently an increasing
amount of sawn imported natural stone, typically 125 - 150 mm in thickness and width
and in random lengths laid with a grouted joint being used in pedestrian areas. In
Europe and many Mediterranean countries natural stone sets are used in a range of
pavements – both pedestrian and vehicular but generally with granular joints to
preserve flexibility and minimise relaying costs.

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Concrete paving is available in a considerable range of shapes, sizes and colours but
those used in highway and port/industrial pavements tend to be 200mm x 100mm in a
range of thickness from 50mm for domestic use to 100mm heavy duty pavements. In
some countries the use of irregular shapes is common, but less so in the UK. Concrete
block paving is used extensively in central shared surface area.

The recent move towards SUDS (sustainable urban drainage systems) exclusively uses
concrete block paving. Concrete blocks can have either a square or chamfered edge
and can be a made in a broad range of surface textures and exposed aggregate
finishes. In Germany, where block-makers tend to be smaller and more local; many
towns have their own special exposed aggregate mix.

Brick paving is similarly available in a range of colours but tend to have a regular
200mm x 100mm plan size x 50 or 65mm in thickness. Edges can be square or
chamfered.

16.2 Natural stone sett paving

In urban areas in the UK, especially where heavy loads were generated from adjacent
industry and especially from ports the use of stone sett paving became normal. Setts
had two major advantages, firstly, they were resistant to the imposed stresses from
the iron tyres of carts, and secondly, they provided some grip for the feet of the horses
pulling the carts, which were the principal means of transporting goods at the time.

In some areas local hard stone was used where it was available and these tended to
be rectangular sections 6 x 10 inches deep (150mm x 250mm) in plan and typically 8
inches (200mm) deep, with the larger dimension laid across the road. In many port
areas the use of smaller granite setts 150mm or 200mm cube was the norm. These
setts having usually arrived as ballast in returning trading ships.

Experience indicates there are two different constructions found with setts, which it is
convenient to refer to as normal and heavy. In the latter case a concrete supporting
layer will be found under the setts. The typical cross section of heavy construction is
shown in the diagram below and it should be noted that the sett was not laid directly
onto the concrete, rather onto a 12 - 20mm thick bed of tarred chippings. When laid
the sett construction is sealed with hot poured tar for the top half of the sett. This
ensures a degree of flexibility and a very high resistance to moisture penetration, the
later being important in the days of horse drawn traffic.

Clinker ashes can be found in the lowest layer; these being the product of coal-fired
boilers and furnaces. From about 1850 onwards most industrial processes needed
steam driven motive power requiring coal-powered boilers and furnaces.

Consequently furnace clinker ashes were in ready supply and in many cases could be
obtained at no cost, as the factory owners were very happy to have somebody take
them away. For this reason many highway constructions between 1800 and 1920
contained ashes. In some cases they were stabilised by the use of about 5% of
cement, which in the Manchester area was found to be especially suitable in
reinstatements (utility cuts), because they ensured no settlement and were not too
hard to excavate.

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Figure 16.2 - Typical heavy Sett construction circa 1900

Setts are still widely used in Scandinavia, Germany and most Mediterranean Countries,
although it is normal for the top half of the sett to be filled with 3-6mm nominal size
crushed granite. Filling with a granular material has the great advantage that relaying
is a straightforward affair, with very limited materials cost.

The two following pictures, which are used, with permission from "The Tasker Trust"
show the installation of tram tracks and associated sett paving in Barnsley circa 1900.

It can be seen that the setts are bedded in a granular material and are laid to a
camber between the rails. An indication of the size of the setts can be seen by
comparison with the man looking directly into the camera.

The dress code of the day being that the labourers wore flat caps and the foreman a
bowler hat. On larger jobs it would not have been usual to find a more senior person
denoted by wearing a top hat.

In the second photograph the foreman can be seen using a "beetle", which is a heavy
wooden tamping tool used for settling the sett into the granular bed prior to the filling
of the joints with liquid tar which was heated on site in the boiler which can be seen in
the right of the picture. In the situation seen here the tram lines clearly act as a
robust edge restraint.

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Plate 16.1 - Sett Paving construction, Barnsley, UK, circa 1900

Plate 16.2 - Sealing sett paved construction, Barnsley, UK, circa 1900

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16.3 Block Paving

Four types of block paving are identified:

 Wood
 Rubber
 Concrete
 Brick

The first two were used in the early 1800's, particularly near hospitals where the noise
of the horses feet on the natural stone Setts was found to be intrusive. In both cases
the use of a concrete bed was normal and the Setts were held in place by a bitumastic
grout. Whilst both surfaces were found to be quiet, in the days of horse drawn
transport they resulted in smelly, in-sanitary conditions and were only used for a short
period. The author has encountered timber blocks in central urban road constructions,
which had provided a robust formation to support a later asphalt layer, which has
lasted for many years. These blocks were found to be set in pitch.

In the latter two cases the size of the elements is the same and generally construction
is the same, being either rigid or flexible. The pavers are laid on a 30mm sand bed,
supported on either by a flexible or cement bound base. If a robust pavement is
required the latter is to be preferred.

As with all other pavements the contribution to overall failure by the construction
process exceeds that of the design process. This is especially true of all forms of
Elemental Paving, where the expertise of the genuine artisan generally exceeds that of
the designer.

One of the problems with elemental paving is that it is very difficult to demonstrate
stability and bearing capacity by analytical calculation. Nevertheless much worldwide
experience supports the contention that if properly constructed by skilled artisans it
provides a long lasting surface course to a robust pavement.

Lilly (1991) suggests that failure is not easy to define, as requirements demanded by
one profession may not be the priority of another profession. For example, an
Architect may concentrate his attentions on the visual impact of the pavement. If this
is not achieved the pavement will, in his estimation, have failed before it has been in
service. Highway Engineers, are concerned about the longevity of a road, adequacy of
riding quality and skid resistance. Maintenance Engineers, who are responsible for the
day-to-day function of an area, may consider the pavement a failure if extensive
maintenance is required. Dowson (2001)

The performance of block paving relies on interlock being achieved between the
individual units. The concept of interlock relies on the transfer of load across the joint
between adjacent elements. This is achieved by mobilising shear transfer in the joint
sand as shown in the following diagram.

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Figure 16.3 - Concrete block paving joint mechanics

16.4 The laying procedure

After construction of the foundation, which follows conventional highway practices a
sand bedding course is placed and screeded accurately to the required levels which
should allow a surcharge for the effects of the pre-compaction. Pre-compaction is
where a vibrating plate is run over the surface to ensure a consistent laying surface.

The blocks are laid on the bedding sand. Unless the area is very large this is usually
done by hand and it is important that no work should take place from the bedding
sand, rather working out from the blocks already laid.

The blocks are then settled into the bedding sand by means of a vibrating plate or
wheeled roller. Jointing sand is brushed over the area and further passes of the
vibrating plate cause the sand to enter into the vertical joints between adjacent blocks.
In the UK it is normal for this jointing sand to be a fine grained dried sand to ensure
penetration and filling of the full depth of the joint.

In continental Europe, however, the same sand which is used for the bedding is also
employed in the joint and after the second pass of the vibrating plate passing traffic,
either vehicular or pedestrians are left to finish the process. As may be imagined this
leaves a very difficult surface, especially for pedestrians until the surplus sand is
removed.

The climatic and environmental factors begin to affect the pavement immediately. The
daytime and night-time temperatures vary and rainfall modifies the moisture content of
the sand in the joints and in the blocks themselves. Passing traffic changes the
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quantity and density of sand in the joints either by wheel action or by the effects of
wind generated by the moving vehicle. Any sand thus removed from the joints adds to
the detritus lying on the surface of the pavement. This detritus comprises particles of
rubber, dust, organic matter and so forth. In time the detritus settles into the joints
between the blocks and forms an upper plug over the jointing sand. Because of the
complex nature of the detritus the plug formed helps to seal the joint thereby
improving their waterproofing characteristics.

In time a firm bond develops between the blocks and the jointing sand. The blocks
themselves settle a little further into the bedding sand, which is also affected by its
environment and absorbs moisture, if present. The combined effect of all this is to
compact the bedding sand and the jointing material to a somewhat higher density than
that achieved immediately after construction. In this way the bonding of block,
bedding sand and jointing sand is improved. This is the condition of the block
pavement after the initial settling-in period.

From the earliest use of pavers, it was observed that interlock between rigid
components with a flexible joint formed a stable flexible surface with inherent strength.
The jointing material effectively prevents any block from moving horizontally, vertically,
or rotating and consequently causing the concrete pavers to act in unison.

Knapton (1976) defined interlock as the ability of one block to transfer the load to its
neighbours without deformation or loss of integrity and identified horizontal, vertical
and rotational interlock as follows.

16.4.1 Horizontal interlock

Horizontal interlock is developed during the laying process. Blocks are laid on the sand
layer and vibrated, causing some fine particles of sand to penetrate up between the
blocks. Full interlock is achieved when the joints are filled with sand to their top. To
achieve this it is necessary that robust lateral restraint is provided to ensure that the
blocks cannot move horizontally.

16.4.2 Vertical Interlock.

When a load is applied to an individual block without vertical interlock, downward
movement of the block can occur. Vertical interlock is achieved by vibrating the
pavers, so compacting the bedding sand layer. This action causes sand particles to
penetrate up into the block joints sometimes to 30% of the block depth.

16.4.3 Rotational Interlock

If a vertical load is applied to one edge of a paver, a movement will be generated and
the paver will rotate in the direction of the applied moment. The rotating paver
requires more space since the distance between it's diagonally opposite corners is
greater than the distance between the two sides. If the neighbouring pavers are
prevented from moving laterally by edge restraint, the individual paver is prevented
from rotating so rotational interlock is achieved.

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The following figures have been adapted from Dowson (2001) in an attempt to clarify
the mechanics of failure if interlock does not develop.

Plate 16.3 - Interlock effect allows pavers to retain their integrity even when the
underlying support is removed. Dowson (2001)

For both rigid concrete and asphalt pavements it is commonly required that the
surface deflections be strictly limited to values, which are usually less than
0.5mm. This is to avoid load-associated cracking of the pavement surface.

The surface of a block pavement is dissected by a network of joints (cracks),

because of which it can routinely tolerate much larger deflections than
conventional pavements, without becoming unserviceable. Because there is
effectively no cumulative fatigue in the block course recent mathematical
models consider the pavement to be a series of rigid slabs supported both
horizontally and vertically by springs.

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Figure 16.4 - Inadequate sand interlock, individual unit settles relative to adjacent

Figure 16.5 - Adequate sand interlock, no relative settlement

Figure 16.6 - No rotational interlock due to horizontal movement of units

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Tests have shown that the efficiency of the block layer in distributing stress depends
on the method of construction. In particular, it has been found that, by rolling a block
pavement during construction using a pneumatic tyred roller, the stiffness of the block
surface can be greatly increased. Indeed, following rolling, the stresses measured
immediately below the blocks may be as little as 25% of the surface (contact) stresses.

Further evidence of the relative importance of the various pavement layers has been
provided by studies of deflection profiles in block pavements. For example, the rate at
which deflection diminishes with depth depends on the type of base material used. In
this respect cement-bound materials are generally found to be associated with smaller
deflections than bitumen-stabilised bases.

The fact that the block surface is a structural layer has been confirmed by FWD
studies, these studies have established that the pavers may be characterised in terms
of equivalent elastic moduli which are often higher than those measured in asphalt
pavements. Typical values are given in the following table:

Country Block shape Elastic modulus (MPa)

Australia Dentated (crinkly) mean 3400
Britain Rectangular 2500-7200
Holland Rectangular mean 2975

Table 16.1 - Typical values of layer stiffness derived by FWD testing

Pavement component Factors affecting response to traffic

Paving Blocks  Shape
 Size
 Thickness
 Laying pattern
Sand  Thickness
 Grading
 Angularity
 Geological History
 Moisture Content
Base and sub-base  Material Type
 Thickness
Sub-grade  Material Type
 Strength (Bearing Capacity)

Table 16.2 - Factors affecting the performance of trafficked block pavement

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16.5 Bedding Sand

In the UK there has been problems in some area for several years where strange
failures have occurred. One of the most intriguing has been described as "elephants
foot prints". This defect presents itself as local indentations of up to 2m in diameter.
Investigation has found that there has in all cases been a serious degradation in the
bedding sand. It was originally believed that a good angular crushed rock bedding
sand was to be preferred. For example, in Sweden a 3-6mm crushed granite is
extensively used without problem. In the UK it has been found that on sites subjected
to heavy high volume loads the angular sand grains were rubbing against each other
to the extent that wear of the sand was occurring forming a paste of fine material
which was susceptible to being washed out and as such permitting local settlement.

All sand used for bedding paving should be naturally occurring silica sand and current
guidance is based on a classification of the site related to useage as follows:

Sand Categories
Category Application
1 Pavements subject to severe channelised traffic
Industrial pavements
Bus stations
Loading bays
2 Adopted highways
Petrol station forecourts
Pedestrianisation projects with regular heavy traffic
Car parks with occasional heavy vehicles
Aircraft pavements
3 Pedestrianisation projects with occasional heavy traffic
Car parks with no heavy vehicles
Private driveways
Public areas with pedestrian traffic only
Footpaths likely to be overridden by vehicular traffic
4 Footpaths not likely to be overridden by vehicular traffic
Private areas with pedestrian traffic only

Table 16.3 - Bedding sand categories (BS 7533-3)

The categorisation of bedding sand was based on the following parameters:

Category % sand passing % sand passing

75 micron sieve 600 micron sieve
1 < 0.1% < 60%
2 0.1% - 1.0% < 60%
3 1.0% - 3.0% < 70%
4 > 3.0% < 70%

Table 16.4 - Bedding sand parameters (BS 7533-3)

The grading for bedding and jointing sand is set out below:
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Sieve size Percentage by mass passing through sieve

Bedding course sand Jointing sand
10mm 100 100
5mm 90 – 100 100
2.36mm 75 – 100 95 – 100
1.18mm 55 – 90 90 – 100
600m 35 – 70 55 – 100
300m 8 – 35 15 – 50
150m 0 – 10 0 – 15
75m 0-3 0–3

Table 16.5 - Bedding and Jointing sand grading (BS 7533-3)

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16.6 Modes of failures block paving.

Investigating failure is important because it will determine the ultimate materials’

performance, and accurately assess factors of safety. Often the initial diagnosis is
inaccurate owing to failure in the underlying levels that manifests itself in the surface
profile. Replacement of failed pavements can be very costly, especially when the
pavement has been correctly designed and construction fails for no apparent reason.

The majority of structural failure manifests itself in the surface layer as depressions as
illustrated in the following photograph, causes of failure of the surface can be
categorised into inadequate design, sand degradation or construction methods.

Plate 16.4 - Example of surface deformations in block paving (Dowson 2001)

As with other pavement constructions, failures can be categorised into four distinct
types:

 Design
 Construction
 Materials
 Maintenance

The following table sets out some of the principal reasons for the degradation / failure
of concrete block paving.

This rationale may also be applied to burnt clay pavers if laid on a sand bed.

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Some causal factors for failure of concrete block paving are set out below

Design
Inadequate evaluation of formation bearing capacity
Inadequate falls to facilitate drainage resulting in ponding
Inadequate edge restraint
Inadequate detailing of surface course bonding leading to creep under
vehicle braking loading
Inadequate detailing of joints in base leading to loss of fines in sand bed
resulting in localised settlement
Incorrect detailing of vertical alignment causing impact by vehicles,
especially buses in pedestrianised area

Construction
Sand bed too thick leading to uneven settlement
Sand bed too thin leading to fracture of blocks
Irregular joint thickness to achieve straight lines in laid blocks
Incorrect bonding of elements; if trafficked must be herringbone and
not stretcher bond
Use of unskilled labour
Incorrect cutting adjacent to edge restraints
Incorrect cutting around access chambers
Variable open texture of formation allows migration of bedding course
sand fines leading to local settlement
Incorrect setting out of location of edge restrains requiring small cuts
Irregular formation especially on reconstruction or overlay
Not keeping sanding of joints up to laying
Edge restrain not sufficiently robust or inadequately anchored
Joint thickness inadequate leading to spalling of elements

Materials
Incorrect bedding sand specification for usage
Degradation of bedding sand leading to evacuation of fines and
subsequent settlement due to loss of support – equivalent of mud
pumping from formation of flexible construction
Faulty manufacture of pavers, mix constituents or curing

Maintenance
Progressive removal of joint sand by suction sweepers
Lateral movement of blocks due to inadequate support to sides of utility
or other excavation
Surface degradation due to abrasion
Local overload due to transient point loads

Table 16.6 - Failures in concrete block paving some causal factors (Dowson 2001)

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The following photographs are taken from Dowson (2001)

Plate 16.5 - Creep in pavers under traffic due to incorrect bonding (Dowson 2001)

Plate 16.6 - Pushing of pavers due to sand bed being too thick (Dowson 2001)

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16.7 Heavy Duty Block Paving

Plate 16.7 - Example of heavy duty pavers – Dallas Fort Worth USA (Dowson 2001)

Plate 16.8 - Use of spreader plate under jack to prevent local overload and
depression in surface (Dowson 2001)

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Plate 16.9 - Heavy duty pavement in port container yard (Dowson 2001)

If, a cement bound base (CBM) has been specified this will inevitably suffer from
shrinkage cracking cracks due to thermal movement. In these circumstances,
especially with a heavy duty pavement, there is a high probability that fines from the
sand laying course will migrate into the base leading to local surface depressions. This
was particularly the case in one of the early airfield applications at Dallas Forth Worth,
where after a short time local transverse depressions were noted in the surface. On
investigation migration of fines into the underlying CBM was found. Soule (1995)
Consequently, if a CBM is used there is merit in considering the use of geotextile layer
to prevent this migration of fines into the supporting layer

As with all pavements the selection of a non-frost susceptible sub-base is essential.

If inadequate lateral restraint is provided the blocks will "float" horizontally resulting in
no rotational interlock with a serious loss of stability, which will destabilise the
construction. Assuming lateral restraint to be adequate, deformation failure must be
due to vertical movement caused by loss of support.

Local depressions approximately 1m in diameter were reported by Lilley and Dowson

(1986), which they christened "elephants footprints" and which on investigation were
found to result from the evacuation of fines (< 75μm) from the laying course sand.
This was particularly so in areas of bus traffic. The dilemma being that not all sands
were affected and as the result of Dowson's PhD dissertation the current standards
categorise the geological source of sands in the UK and relate them to loading
categories to ensure that the problem is under control. Nevertheless, until the problem
was identified and controlled there were doubts about the use of block paving in
various applications.

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16.8 Contemporary grouted natural stone paving

Plate 16.10 - Natural stone setts laid on stabilised granular bedding, Blackpool

Plate 16.11 - Natural sawn stone laid on concrete bed, Leeds

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16.7 References and Bibliography

DOWSON (2001) Dowson, A.J., - Investigation into the performance and

suitability of sand laying course and jointing material in modular
pavements, PhD., thesis, University of Newcastle, UK, 2001.

DWFS (1996) Concrete Block Paving for Airfield, Defence Works Functional
Standard – Specification 035, Defence Estate organisation
(Works), Ministry of Defence, London, HMSO, 1996)

KNAPTON (1976) Knapton, J., - The Design of Concrete Block Road, Cement and
Concrete Association, Technical Report 42.515, Cement and
Concrete Association, Slough, UK, 1976.

LAY (1986) Lay, M.G., - Handbook of Road Technology – Volume 1,

Planning and Pavements, Gordon and Breach Science Publishers,
New York, USA, 1986.

LILLEY (1991) Lilley, A.A., - A Handbook of Segmental Paving, Spon, London,

UK, 1991.

LILLEY (1986) Lilley, A.A., A.J.Dowson, - Laying course sands for Concrete
Block Paving, Proceedings 3rd International Conference on Block
Paving, pgs 457-462, Rome, Italy, 1986.

MCHW(1) Series 1100, - Kerbs, footways and Paved Areas, Department

for Transport, London, UK, 2011,

SOULE (1995) Soule, R., - Private Communication.

SHAKEL (1990) Shakel, B., - Design and Construction of Interlocking Concrete

Block Pavements, Elsivier, London, UK., 1990.

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BSS : 7533 British Standards Institution, London, UK. Various parts as follows:

Part 1 (2001) Guide to the structural design of heavy duty pavements

consisting of clay pavers or precast concrete paving blocks.

Part 2 (2001) Guide for the structural design of lightly trafficked pavements
constructed of clay pavers or precast concrete paving blocks.

Part 3 (2005) Code of practice for laying precast concrete paving blocks and
clay pavers for flexible pavements.

Part 4 (2006) Code of practice for the construction of pavements of precast

concrete flags or natural stone slabs.

Part 6 (1999) Code of practice for laying natural stone, precast concrete and
clay kerb units.

Part 7 (2010) Code of practice for the construction of pavements of natural

stone paving units and cobbles, and rigid construction with
concrete block paving.

Part 8 (2003) Guide to the structural design of lightly trafficked pavements of

precast concrete flags and natural stone flags

Part 9 (2010) Code of practice for the construction of rigid pavements in clay
pavers.

Part 10 (2010) Guide for the structural design of trafficked pavements

constructed of natural stone setts and bound construction with
concrete paving blocks.

Part 11 (2003) Code of practice for opening, maintenance and reinstatement of

pavements of concrete, clay and natural stone.

Part 12 (2006) Guide to the structural design of trafficked pavements

constructed on a bound base using concrete paving flags and
natural stone.

Part 13 (2009) Guide to the design of permeable pavements constructed with

concrete paving blocks and flags, natural stone slabs and setts
and clay pavers.

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