Social Bond Theory

Social Bond Theory - The Social Bond theory was created by Travis Hirschi in 1969. Social Bond
theory, that later developed into the Social Control Theory, has historically been an interesting way of
approaching social problems and how we in turn explain them. Before one can apply Social Bond theory, they
must first have a firm understanding of its definition, which can be accurately described by Hirschi (1969) as,
“Elements of social bonding include attachment to families, commitment to social norms and institutions
(school, employment), involvement in activities, and the belief that these things are important” (p.16). The
basic difference between the General Theory of Crime, a theory later created by Gottfredson and Hirschi
(1990), and Hirschi’s (1969) Social Bond Theory is the focus on peers and peer groups of individuals. The four
basic elements of social bond theory are attachment, commitment, involvement in conventional versus deviant
or criminal activities, and lastly the common value system within an individual’s society or subgroup.
Attachment is described as the level of values and or norms that an individual holds in society. Attachment is
especially important when it come to the person’s parental figures. . According to Hirschi (1969) other
attachments, such as school, play a tremendous role in conventional society. School has tended to be a middle
to upper class involvement since it was first created. The middle class children tend to make fun of or
demoralize the lower class children. This treatment also does not just come from the child it also comes
directly from the institution, through the teacher. In combination with each other the person starts to resent
school at the earliest point. This resentment also hinders the continuation of further education. This comes full
circle to the lower class standard of living for generations to come (Hirschi, 1969). Next is commitment, this
can be described as the level of commitment that an individual has to abide by legal behavior (Burton, Cullen,
Evans, Dunaway, Kethineni, and Gary, 1995). The norms and values taught to us as an adolescent should  be
to obey how society works in normal terms. From very early in our lives we hopefully learn the difference
between “right” and “wrong”. This understanding has an enormous effect on how we turn out and set our place
in normal society. For example, if a child is raised in a home where drugs are bought, sold, and used regularly,
then that child has a greater chance of having involvement with drugs in the future. Also, the “bond” between
mother, father, and child in a normal nuclear family, is very strong, this in turn has made a blue print of an
entire adult life on the child. Third, is a person’s choice to get involved in conventional versus deviant
behavior. This choice is formed not far after basic rules of life are taught. If no “right and wrong” basis are
formed or provided the adolescent will make the decision that tends to make the most sense. This also ties into
family involvement in the person’s life. Lastly,this in many ways senses directly correlates many factors or
aspects of the four main parts of Hirschi’s (1969) theory. Together they form the backbone of the everlasting
“bond” theory. Social Bond Theory has long been a widely accepted among many sociologists for a variety of
reasons. The fact that bonds exist in all aspects of society means that the relation of these bonds can be readily
discussed. Hirschi (1969) bases his theory on the means that social bonds do exist and when a bond is
weakened or broken then unusual behavior for that individual may occur. This brings me to a profound quote
by Durkheim (1969):

“The more weakened the groups to which [the individual] belongs, the less he depends on them, the more he
consequently depends only on himself and recognizes no other rules of conduct then what are formed on his
private interests” (p.17).Like I have previously discussed, there are many positive aspects of Hirschi’s (1969)
bond theory. However, like many things there are weaknesses in it. One element of weakness of Hirschi’s
(1969) bond theory is that he makes little or no distinction of importance of each of the elements of his social
bond. Some recent research suggests that there may be differences between each of the elements that he names.
A number of adolescents that are involved in criminal activity report high levels of “involvement”, which
according to Hirschi (1969) are supposed to reduce delinquency. When young adults are involved with
criminal behaviors outside of the home it is possible that parental control weakens or that young adults just
have more opportunity to commit crime. Following this are deviant peers and parents. Hirschi (1969)
concludes that any type of social attachment is beneficial, event to deviant peers and parents. In contradiction
to himself this in turn supports and nurtures antisocial behavior. Michael Hindeland (1973) found that
attachment to delinquent peers escalated rather then restricted criminality. Many studies have even gone to
prove that young adults with drug abusive parents have a greater chance of being abusers them selves (Burton;
Cullen; Evans; Dunaway; Kethineni; Payne, 1995). If an individual has peers, family members, or associates
that are deviant this may motivate youths to commit crimes and also facilitate an antisocial behavior (Cullen;
Carrozza; Wright, p.253). The simple fact that bonds change over time has been overlooked by Hirschi (1969)
on many occasions. Weak bonds shared with parents lead to delinquency, while strong bonds to peers lead to
also lead to delinquency (LaGrange and Raskin, 1985). Some other bonds that come to mind might be the
family structure that America shares in contemporary society. We now see more and more single family
households, and same sex households. An indirect result of how certain households affects an individual have
just began to been studied, there are conflicting views as to whether these certain households are beneficial or
deleterious. This is a weakness because the ideas are skewed in both directions and a consensus has not been
reached. It is a fact that many different races and ethnicities exist in America today and that there are many
different ways to live life. When Hirschi (1969) conducted his research and recorded his findings he based it
upon what he thought the typical family was which was white. Different cultures have different beliefs and
what might be predictable or normal to one might not in another. Since bonds are stronger in certain kinds of
lifestyles the affects will be different in all cases. The results of family ties will result in different “blueprints”
of different people. A strong family could keep them going in the right direction but, too strong could also
cause adverse affects. Like many studies these results have to be taken into a case by case basis. Another one
of the major weaknesses of Social Bond Theory is the definitions that are used to describe the main concepts of
the theory. The empirical effects of a skewed definition or biased definition could alter all results that come
directly from it. How one definition is represented and another definition is seen can make all the difference in
the world. Tof substances in these homeless people’s lives are a normative occurrence. As described above this
is a study done entirely on the homeless in America and those of which who suffered from substance abuse.
According to Burt (1992), it is estimated that 20 out of every 10,000 of the homeless in America have
substance abuse problems with either drugs or alcohol, and 15 of those are lifelong. In recent findings,
according to the Nationhe topic of journal selection is a study done by Stephanie Hartwell (1999) of the
University of Massachusetts. The studies will focus on the characteristics of the homeless populations in
America. Hartwell (2000) has estimated that between 20% and 80% of the homeless in America has a
substance abuse problem. Throughout Hartwell’s (year) article she applies Hirschi’s (1969) Social Bond
Theory in a qualitative study of a total of 31 homeless male substance users from New Haven. The participants
were interviewed twice, once in 1992 and a second time in 1993. Basically the results showed a non-normative
attachment to families, friends, and institutions where little or no commitment to conventional goals or norms.
The conclusion of the study found that the uses al Institute of Health (NIH 1988) and the Alcohol and Abuse
and Alcoholism approximately 20 million Americans abuse drugs and or alcohol (Fisher, 1989; Fisher and
Breakey, 1991; Institute of Medicine, 1988; Spinner and Leaf, 1992; Stahler and Cohen, 1995; Susser et al.,
1989). The conclusion of this article stated that members of the homeless society have utilized elements of
Hirschi’s (1969) social bond theory long past their adolescent years. Consistent evidence shows that
attachments to the families are primary and shape the commitment to activities, social life, and social location
(Hartwell, 1999). Basically, the homeless men could have chosen many paths in their younger years but,
because of a volatile family structure they choose the “wrong” path. The home was not considered a shelter for
the young men and for this reason they spent more time on the streets. After growing for some time, the men
began to participate less in leisurely activates but drug use. When the men were asked of friends they tend to
always associate them with either drugs or alcohol experiences they have had not healthy social bonds with
peers. In most of these men’s lives they were at one point or another failing as a father, brother, etc.
relationship figure and because of the stresses this causes they revert back to the substance abuse. Based on the
findings and the direct relation to Hirschi’s (1969) Social Bond Theory, one can make a decision that there is a
supportive correlation between the two. A few ideas can be proposed to either control or improve the current
homeless agenda in America. The first would be to create more employment opportunities and employment
options for the underprivileged. The society as a whole should make more of an effort to strengthen the family
ties we share and therefore strengthening society as a whole. Next the schools need to encourage and engage
children in all aspects. The government can do its part to focus on improvement of schools in poverty ridden
areas (Hartwell, 2000). The earlier the children are approached in some fascists of life the stronger impact we
can have on them. The resources given to the poorer schools can be considered an “investment” of sorts, you
invest into the children while they are young then as adults you get a great return. Adults that were predestined
to continue a poor lifestyle have a much greater chance of breaking the forces pulling them down and keeping
them down. The last improvement that can be implemented would be to offer lower costs and still decent
housing. Hartwell (2000) proposes that we examine our current role of emergency shelters. Shelters provide
great places for educational forums and those that stay in shelters could benefit from health, job training, and
money management programs. As good as Hartwell’s (1999) is it like most has some weak points, first would
be the location of the study. The sample size is very small and not enough long term results were taken into
account. A remedy to this might be to do small studies like this all around the U.S., you then can get a much
greater census of the overall populous.

The Differential Association Theory

Criminology Essay
Theories within criminology try to explain why and how crime occurs. This is done through
examining various facts that are related to the individuals criminal behaviour and the crime they
commit. There are a wide range of theories which can be used to explain the causes of crime
and deviant behaviour from youths. Youth crime is a major issue in society; this essay will discuss
three theories, the differential association theory, the labelling theory and the rationale choice
theory. The theories will discussed and how they can explain crime will also be discussed, then a
comparison of the theories will be given in order to identify their strengths and weaknesses in
explaining youth crime.

The differential association theory is one of the most valued theories within criminology.
This theory was first discovered by Edwin Sutherland (1947), he developed the
differential association theory in order to explain how youths engage in acts of criminal
behaviour. This theory defines criminal behaviour as learnt behaviour which is acquired
through social contact with other individuals (Hollin, 2007:…). This theory explains how
individuals learn how to engage in criminal behaviour through their attitudes, drive and
motive behind the criminal act. An individual is most likely to be involved in criminal
behaviour if they spend numerous amount of time with a person who has a criminal
background and believes that breaking the law is acceptable. Furthermore Sutherland
(1974) identifies nine main factors that can be used to explain why a person engages in
criminal behaviour. This essay will now explain the nine factors in detail.

The first factor that Sutherland believes is the reason as to why an individual engages in
criminal behaviour is because the behaviour is learned. Sutherland and Cressey (1960)
believe that the actions of an individual are influenced by the people they associate
with. It is believed that because the individual main association is with their family, as
that is whom they have grown up and live with, so therefore the individual social values
and norms are formulated from them. Sutherland also stated that learned behaviour is
not invented, nor is it inherited The skills and techniques required for an individual to
engage criminal activity are not automatically obtained from birth, or through
association with criminals, instead they are acquired through a process of learning
(Sutherland & Cressey, 1960: 123).

The second principle refutes the idea that criminal behaviour is learned through the
individual witnessing deviant or criminal behaviour. Instead this believes that criminality
is learned behaviour though interaction with others in the process of communication. At
a very young age children are accustomed to the norms of society, they are taught the
roles of both a genders by people around them. They also learn these roles by
observing the male or female characteristics relating to the specific gender. For example
an individual may learn about prostitution through witnessing the nonverbal responses
of these others towards the activity, such as rolling the eyes or staring and through
discussions with people who engage in that activity (Sutherland & Cressey, 1960: 123).
Also Curran (2001) stated that communication is an example of how criminals are misled
into a life of crime and deviant behaviour (Curran, 2001: 143). The third principle states
that individuals commit crime because they are influenced by the behaviour of intimate
people such as family members and close friends. Methods of communication from
television and or media are less effective in influencing the individual (Sutherland and
Cressey, 1960: 123).
The fourth factor from Sutherland’s theory is that learning criminal behaviour involves
learning specific techniques, drives, motives and rationalization. Having a primary group
of people around does not necessarily mean that the individual will engage in crime, but
it does mean that they have the resources into the criminal rationale. For example being
around a person who is has been convicted of sexual offence, may give the individual
knowledge into how to engage in the same crime, but the individual may choose not to
engage in that crime because they know from their socialization of societal norms that a
sexual offence is unacceptable (Sutherland and Cressey, 1960: 123). Curran (2001)
believes that the specific direction of motives and attitudes is learned from definitions of
legal codes such as favourable and unfavourable.The fifth factor can be noticed when
considering cultures form the United Kingdom and the United States. Both countries
have various cultures within them and each culture has different perceptions as to what
is favourable and unfavourable within society and this can cause a cultural conflict. The
individuals pro-criminal or anti-criminal intentions are developed based on learned
conceptions of the law as either favourable or unfavourable (Sutherland & Cressey,
1960:123)

The most important principle within the differential association theory is the sixth
principle, which is when individuals associate themselves with people that engage in
criminal behaviour and believe it is acceptable. Sutherland argues that an individual
becomes delinquent only when “definitions favourable to violation of law” exceed
“definitions unfavourable to violation of law” (Sutherland & Cressey, 1960: 123).The
seventh and eight factor states that the association vary in duration, priority, frequency
and intensity. (Sutherland & Cressey, 1960: 123 – 124). For example, if a young child is
raised by a drug user they will be exposed to stronger definitions of deviant behaviour
and will be more to likely to engage in deviant behaviour, than a teenager who has
witnesses someone taking drugs at a party.The final principle believes that even though
criminal behaviour is an expression of needs and values, it cannot be explained by those
needs because criminal behaviour is an expression of the same needs and values
(Sutherland & Cressey,1960: 124). For example if two individuals where both motivated
by a need to gain money and respect, but one person engage in criminal behaviour in
order to get the money and respect. Whereas the other person engaged in conforming
behaviour. So therefore the need for money and respect cannot be used as an
explanation for an individual to commit crime.

**

The premises of the Differential Association theory are that factors such as social class, race, and
broken homes influence crime because they increase the chances that the individuals will
associate themselves with other delinquents or people who commit crimes [Sutherland, 1960].
Sutherland formulated his theory in the form of 9 different propositions which formulate a
process through which an individual goes through. First off, Sutherland’s propositions 1, 2 and 3
state that criminal behavior is learned and that it is learned through interactions and intimate
personal relations (Sutherland, 1960). This is the basis for the whole theory and assumes that
criminal behavior is not inherited. Speck could have easily learned this behavior from his
stepfather who had a 25-year criminal record and he was a very heavy drinker. Speck himself
began drinking alcohol at the age of 12 and by 15 was drunk almost every day.

Sutherlands 4th proposition states that “When criminal behavior is learned, the learning
includes (a) techniques of committing the crime … (b) the specific direction of motives,
drives, rationalizations and attitudes.” Speck was first arrested at age 13 for trespassing
and this began a downward spiral of multiple arrests over the next 8 years. Of his 5th
proposition, Sutherland states that “in some societies, an individual is surrounded by
people who define the legal codes as rules to be observed, while in other who disregard
them and feel they can easily be violated. Speck was constantly around his step-father
who saw no problem breaking the rules with his drinking and forgery and Speck never
received particularly severe punishments from law enforcement during his many arrests.

Propositions 6 and 7 state that “A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of

definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of law”
and “Differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority and intensity.”
(Sutherland, 1960). This in essence is the theory of differential association. It in effect
states that a person will “assimilate” into his surroundings unless he is prevented to do
so by other patterns which are in conflict. Speck was surrounded by a criminal
throughout his childhood, his mother encouraged this relationship by marrying
Lindberg, no one forced him to go to school as a child and turned their backs to the fact
that at 16 he had dropped out. He attempted to normalize his life by meeting a young
woman, Shirley Malone, but she became pregnant with his daughter after only 3 weeks
of dating. They then tried to form a normal life by moving in with his mother, but Speck
returned to jail within a short period of time.

Sutherland’s final proposition states that “While criminal behavior is an expression of

general needs and values, it is not explained by those general needs and values since
non-criminal behavior is an expression of the same needs and values.” It can be
assumed that all of Speck’s robberies and forgeries were to acquire money for his needs
but he committed these acts while still working at several jobs.

What is an example of differential association theory?

It is to be noted that the criminals make use of chance and the strategies made in order to
implement depending upon the situation with respect to the surroundings. Considering a
worldwide scenario, where criminals’ charges can be observed on political leaders such as
Adolph Hitler in the days of World War 2.
The profile of such leaders suggests that the society and the brought up of the family
accelerate the process of conducting criminal activities. This can be seen in the form of killing
innocent men, women, and children.

Other examples can be in the form of our local community and other terrorist attacks in which
their profile suggests that it is all due to the harsh background of the society and families.

A recent theory suggests that a person learns to be a criminal from the house in many of the
cases. The harsh environment created by the parents where fights are common between
parents and this has a drastic impact on the psyche of the child.

A child learns and so the behavior and the attitude have aligned with respect to that
environment. So when that child grows and gains recognition in the society, the skills of
fighting that person learns to have an influential impact on the psyche of that person.

After that, the person indulges in groups that are likely to suit his/her dilemma in surviving
the harsh environment.

The Islamic Approach The Islamic theory of punishment derives from the Holy Quran and the Hadith.
On the whole, the Holy Quran has about 200 verses dealing with the legal issues). The main goal of
Islamic Penology is to secure human welfare, maintain peace and to establish a righteous society. It is
very clearly enunciated in the Holy Quran that Allah has sent His messengers and the Holy Quran, so
that men can establish justice. It is categorically expressed as: “God commands justice, righteousness,
and spending on ones relatives, and prohibits licentiousness, wrongdoing, and injustice…” (Quran 57:25;
16:90). Though Islamic law is based on divine sources, it is a living body of law that addresses the needs
of Islamic society. In the light of the parameters laid down in the Quran, the science of Fiqah has
developed a detailed legal system whereby complex issues can be examined. The Islamic Penal system
describes three types of punishments: prescribed punishments, retribution and discretionary
punishments. Prescribed punishments are fixed punishments and neither can be increased, nor
decreased. Judges, any political authority or the family of victim cannot waive these punishments. God
says: “O you who believe! Verily wine, gambling, idols, and divination are but the abominations of
Satan’s handiwork, so abandon these things that perchance you will be successful. Satan only wishes to
cause enmity and hatred between you through wine and gambling and to prevent you from the
remembrance of God and prayer. Will you not then desist?”(Quran 5:90-91). In retribution, same injury
is caused to the offender of the crime as punishment that he inflicted upon the victim. Intentional
murder by a person requires the killing of the offender and if he severed the limb of the victim, or
caused him hurt, then his own limb is to be cut off or injured. Allah says in the Holy Quran: “O! You who
believe, retribution is prescribed for you in the case of murder; the free for the free, the slave for the
slave, the woman for the woman.” (Quran 2:178). At another place, retribution has been explained as:
"Life for life, eye for eye, nose for nose, ear for ear, tooth for tooth, and wounds equal for equal" (Quran
5:45). Islam, actually, discourages bloodshed in any form. As soon as blood flows, Islam punishes such
crime in a different way. Retribution provides one of the most important elements of peace, protection
and security in the society. “Retribution is life for you” (Quran 2:179). However, the underlying principal
is equal and exact. “The punishment for an injury is an injury equal to it” (Quran 42, 40). It is not
intended to rehabilitate the criminal but to exact retribution and revenge as commanded by Allah.
However, the punishment is inflicted by the state and not by the victim or his family. If punishment is
inflicted by the victim himself or his family, this is called revenge and “revenge of bloodshed” is
forbidden in Islam. Criminal intent is an important parameter and there is no retribution for any act or
omission done accidentally or by mistake. The victim or his family can pardon the perpetrator as well.
God says: “If anyone waives the right to retaliation out of charity, it shall be expiation for him” (Quran
5:45). The discretionary punishments are flexible enough to take into account the needs of individual
and society and also to realize the maximum general benefit to society and the reformation possibilities
of the criminal. Starting from exhortations and reprimands to flogging, to fines, and to imprisonment,
Islamic Law has defined different types of discretionary punishments. Legal authorities enjoy
discretionary powers, within the general framework of Islamic Law. Punishments in Islam can also be
classified in another way as well. They can be classified under three main categories: Al-Hudud (fixed
punishments), Al-Qisas (restitutory), and Al-Taazir (discretionary). The goals of sharia in each kind of the
punishment are summarized as under: Two important complementary characteristics of Islamic
punishments are: (a) the severity of the punishment, to discourage the crime and limit its occurrence;
(b) the difficulty in establishing the guilt that reduces the opportunities for carrying out the punishment
and accords protection to the accused. If there is an iota of doubt, punishment is waived. These
components complement each other so that the crime is effectively discouraged. The fact that the
punishment is severe makes people abstain from committing crime2 . They also provide a safeguard to
the rights of the accused and mere false accusations cannot become a ground for punishment. Islam
recognizes equally the society’s general security and the individual offender’s rights.

 Importance of criminology in Pakistan

Each discipline is unique and has especial value and importance. Some disciplines have
value and importance primarily in theoretical sense, whereas others are important for their
practical value. The science of criminology is important and valuable both in practical and
theoretical senses. The science of criminology is related to society and society has been
likened to an organism. This fact makes plain and evident the value and significance of the
science of criminology. The scope of criminology is the various social crimes and
disturbances in their each and every aspect. As the science of medicine studies various ills
and their cures which afflict human body, in the same manner criminology studies ills and
their cures of society. The value and significance of the science of criminology is theoretical
as well as practical. Its theoretical importance lies in the fact that it investigates and
determines the cause of social disintegration. The practical or applied aspect of this science
is that besides determining the factors and causes of social disintegration, it also studies the
ways and means of preventing or eradicating these evils, that is, remedial measures. This
multifaceted value and significance of criminology is brought out by following facts.

Theoretical significance of Criminology

Explaining the theoretical significance of the science of criminology the eminent

criminologist Sutherland writes; “This knowledge will contribute to the development of other
social studies and through other social studies it will contribute to efficiency in general social
control.”
The foregoing observation of Sutherland is extremely significant as it brings into relief the
theoretic importance and value of the science of criminology. The chief theoretic benefits of
criminology are the following:

(1) Knowledge of Crime-Data-In every social community and group, there are always some
criminals and incidence of crime. It is not humanly possible to bring about an ideal republic
or perfect society in which every chance of criminal behaviour has been eliminated. The
nature of crime and criminals may undergo sea-change, but the very existence of crime
cannot be uprooted. This is not difficult to appreciate. In crime psychosis we have two kinds
of factors: personal and social .It is not possible to eliminate the aggressive and acquisitive
tendencies from man and, again, it is equally impossible to eliminate all inequalities and
anomalies from any society. This is borne out by the fact that even under communist
regime crimes are not non-existent. Therefore, given the kinds of men and societies known
to man, we can safely say that each society, even a social group, harbours some criminals.
A systematic, scientific and unbiased study of criminology furnishes us with factual, true and
realistic data about crimes and criminals; this results in increase in our knowledge. By
studying criminology we also learn about the kinds or types of crimes and criminals and also
about the modus essendi as well as modus operandi of crimes. This enables us to compile
what may be called taxonomy of crime, that is, an extensive and deep classification of
crimes. We also learn about the causes and reasons of criminals behaviour.

(2) Penal Legislation-The science of ___________ upon the penal legislation, that is, it
helps formulation of rational and humane laws regarding crime and punishment.
Criminology attempts both extensive and intensive study of crime under all perspectives
and by taking into account every possible viewpoint. Thus its analysis and description of
crime is scientific, authentic and reliable. This analytical description helps in determination
of the exact causes of various categories of crime, and this information, in turn, helps to
formulate preventive and remedial laws regarding crime. Besides helping to make laws,
criminology also carries out extensive surveys regarding the impact of various laws on the
actual incidence of crime. It is found that a particular law, instead of curbing crime,
encourages it, the law is amended in the light of fresh evidence. Thus, the various laws
regarding prohibition and narcotics are cases in point. In the light of modern knowledge
gained by extensive surveys and in-depth studies, there are proposals to declare suicide not
criminal. In*Denmark*and many other civilized nations, pornography has been declared
non-criminal. This has had salutary impact upon society. In*England, homosexuality among
consenting adults is now no longer criminal. Thus we find that constant review of the
relationship between crime and law help to make penal laws more and more rational and
humane. Even in a highly orthdox society like Indian, abortion has been made non-criminal.
There is also growing public opinion in favour of relaxation of obscenity laws in*India.
Kissing and nudity on screen should be permissible is the view of G. D. Khosla Commission.
The rationale behind all such moves is the discovery by Criminologists that greater the
repression of natural instincts, greater the thwarting of sensuous pleasure, greater is the
incidence of perversions and sadistic crimes. It is better to let people decide what is good
for them and as long as this “good” does not contravene the rights of others, it must be
allowed. From the above discussion it is plain that the science of criminology goes a long
way in rationalizing and humanizing the penal legislation.

(3) Information about White-Collar Crime-To an average man, the nature and number of
crimes is quite definite. Asked to enumerate crimes, he will name only murder, assault,
dacoity, rape, loot and arson, burglary and theft, sodomy and reduction as the only
instances of crime. He may have difficulty in appreciating that maltreatment of one’s
cattles, bestiality with them are criminal. But he will certainly be baffled if he is told that
misuse of power, nepotism etc; are criminal and equally, if not more, harmful to society
than other crimes. However, the not easily recognizable crimes are not considered crime by
an average person because they are committed by well-to-do, upper-bracket persona and
normally involve little violence. But such acts, whosoever may commit them, are very much
criminal. For example, if a man earns a huge ransom by letting out the secrets of someone,
he is indulging in black mail. The private secretaries and yalets of top political and finance
magnets usually have access to many intimate secrets and there is strong temptation to
earn big money by the threatening exposure. Many innocent persons are made victims of
this vicious commercial mal practices, for example, under-invoicing, graft etc. To gain some
advantage by production of false testimonials is an act of forgery and the crime of forgery is
quite widespread. Again, sexual abuse of private secretaries is fairly common in advanced
countries. All these are white-collar criminals and their crimes are really criminal activity.
The Watergate scandal threatening the office of President Nixon is a classic instance of
white-collar crime.

The Practical Importance of Criminology

Apart from having theoretical value and importance, criminology also has much practical
use and importance. In the words of Sutherland, “Criminology is concerned with the
immediate application of knowledge to the programmes of social control of crime.” Following
are some of the specific practical uses of criminology.

(1) Elimination of Crimes-The elimination of crime is one of the specific aim of criminology.
It helps society in controlling and eliminating the crime both directly and indirectly. It is
most obvious that if one knows the cause of a malady, its cure becomes easy. It is a truism
in medical practice that correct diagnosis is more than half the cure. The same holds good in
regard to the phenomenon of crime. By the knowledge of the causes of the crime, we can
undertake specific measures to remove them.

(2) Helpful in understanding the Psychology of the Criminal-Criminology is practical study.

With the help of its knowledge we can easily assess the attitudes and opinions of the
criminals. The study of criminology helps us to pin-point the factors responsible for the
various crimes, that is, we learn as to how a particular crime is generated. There by we are
able to correlate specific crime with specific set of circumstances. Apart form learning about
the psychology of crime, the knowledge of criminology helps us to classify the criminals,
that is, we are enabled to correlate personal factors like age, family and social background,
education and physical environs, physical and mental traits with different types of crime.
Thus for example, it may be revealed traits with different types of crime. Thus for example,
it may be revealed that sexual crimes are committed, contrary to general impression, by
persons with low sex-drive rather than by highly-sexed persons. A prostitute-monger may
be consorting with different women so as to cover up the self consciousness and guilt over
inadequate performance or he may be doing so in order to receive the thrill of personal
quirks and varied techniques of arousal exercise by the professional sex-vendors. These
facts make it abundantly clear that the study of criminology goes a long way in helping us to
appreciate the psychology of crime and criminal.

(3) Reforms of Criminals-Besides controls, prevention and elimination of crime, it is the

important task and responsibility of the science of criminology to device and suggest
measures for the reforms and rehabilitation of the criminal. For example, to wean a
prostitute from the sale of her bodily wares, we must know how and why she has taken to
this profession. In the societies which do not stigmatize such persons and are prepared to
accept them, the task is relatively easy. Again, it is easy if the prostitute has taken to this
profession from economic hardships and other compulsions but it disgusted with what she is
doing. But if, on the contrary, either the society is orthodox or the prostitutes like and enjoy
what they are doing, the task of reform is extremely difficult, if not impossible.

(4) Reforms of Evil Forces-Every society are under the influence of certain evil forces and
their removal is the concern of every well-meaning member of the society. The science of
criminology helps us a great deal in appreciating and understanding these evil forces and,
thus, enables us to device ways and means for the effective check of those forces.
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