PRIYADARSHINI Engineering College

VANIYAMBADI– 635751

A Course Material
on
Power System Operation and Control

By

M.SELVAPERUMAL

Associate Professor
Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department

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Quality Certificate

This is to Certify that the Electronic Study Material

Subject Code:EE 8702

Subject Name:Power System Operation and Control

Year/Sem:IV/VII

Being prepared by me and it meets the knowledge requirement of the University

curriculum.

Signature of the Author

Name:M.Selvaperumal

Designation: ASP

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EE8702 POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL T P C 3 0 0 3

OBJECTIVES:
• To have an overview of power system operation and control.
• To model power-frequency dynamics and to design power-frequency controller.
• To model reactive power-voltage interaction and the control actions to be implemented
for maintaining the voltage profile against varying system load.
• To study the economic operation of power system.
• To teach about SCADA and its application for real time operation and control of power
systems.

UNIT I INTRODUCTION
9
An overview of power system operation and control – system load variation – load
characteristics – load curves and load-duration curve – load factor – diversity factor –
Importance of load forecasting and quadratic and exponential curve fitting techniques of
forecasting – plant level and system level
controls .
UNIT II REAL POWER – FREQUENCY CONTROL
9
Basics of speed governing mechanism and modeling – speed-load characteristics –
load sharing between two synchronous machines in parallel – control area concept –
LFC control of a single-area system – static and dynamic analysis of uncontrolled and
controlled cases – two-area system–modeling – static analysis of uncontrolled case –
tie line with frequency bias control – state variable model – integration of economic
dispatch control with LFC.

UNIT III REACTIVE POWER–VOLTAGE CONTROL

9
Generation and absorption of reactive power – basics of reactive power control –
excitation systems – modeling – static and dynamic analysis – stability compensation –
methods of voltage control: tapchanging transformer, SVC (TCR + TSC) and STATCOM
– secondary voltage control.

UNIT IV UNIT COMMITMENT AND ECONOMIC DISPATCH

9

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Formulation of economic dispatch problem – I/O cost characterization – incremental

cost curve – coordination equations without and with loss (No derivation of loss
coefficients) – solution by direct method and λ-iteration method – statement of unit
commitment problem – priority-list method – forward dynamic programming.

UNIT V COMPUTER CONTROL OF POWER SYSTEMS

9
Need for computer control of power systems – concept of energy control centre –
functions – system monitoring – data acquisition and control – system hardware
configuration – SCADA and EMS functions – network topology – state estimation –
WLSE – Contingency Analysis – state transition
diagram showing various state transitions and control strategies.
TOTAL : 45 PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
 Ability to understand and analyze power system operation, stability, control and
protection.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Olle.I.Elgerd, ‘Electric Energy Systems theory – An introduction’, Tata McGraw Hill
Education Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 34th reprint, 2010.
2. Allen. J. Wood and Bruce F. Wollenberg, ‘Power Generation, Operation and Control’,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003.
3. Abhijit Chakrabarti, Sunita Halder, ‘Power System Analysis Operation and Control’,
PHI learning Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, Third Edition, 2010.

REFERENCES:
1. Nagrath I.J. and Kothari D.P., ‘Modern Power System Analysis’, Tata McGraw-Hill,
Fourth Edition, 2011.
2. Kundur P., ‘Power System Stability and Control, Tata McGraw Hill Education Pvt.
Ltd., New Delhi, 10th reprint, 2010.
3. Hadi Saadat, ‘Power System Analysis’, Tata McGraw Hill Education Pvt. Ltd., New
Delhi, 21st reprint, 2010.
4. N.V.Ramana, “Power System Operation and Control,” Pearson, 2011.
5. C.A.Gross, “Power System Analysis,” Wiley India, 2011.

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CONTENTS

S.No Particulars Page

1 Unit – I 6

2 Unit – II 23

3 Unit – III 51

4 Unit – IV 80

5 Unit – V 105

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Unit – I

INTRODUCTION

Part – A

1. What is load curve? [CO1-L1-May/June 2007]

The curve drawn between the variations of load on the power station with
reference to time is known as load curve. There are three types,

1. Daily load curve,

2. Monthly load curve and
3. Yearly load curve

2. What is daily load curve? [CO1-L1-May/June 2009]

The curve drawn between the variations of load with reference to various
time period of day is known as daily load curve.

3. What is monthly load curve? [CO1-L1-May/June 2010]

It is obtained from daily load curve. Average value of the power at a month
for a different time periods are calculated and plotted in the graph which is
known as monthly load curve.

4. What is yearly load curve? [CO1-L1-May/June 2012]

It is obtained from monthly load curve which is used to find annual load factor.

5. What is connected load? [CO1-L1-May/June 2014]

It is the sum of continuous ratings of all the equipments connected to supply
systems.

6. What is Maximum demand? [CO1-L1-May/June 2015]

It is the greatest demand of load on the power station during a given period.

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7. What is Demand factor?[CO1-LI-Nov/Dec 2011]

It is the ratio of maximum demand to connected load. Demand factor= (max
demand)/ (connected load)

8. What is Average demand? [CO1-LI-Nov/Dec 2009]

The average of loads occurring on the power station in a given period (day or
month or year) is known as average demand.

Daily avg demand = (no of units generated per day)/ (24 hours)

Monthly avg demand = (no of units generated in month)/ (no of hours in a

month)

Yearly avg demand = (no of units generated in a year)/ (no of hours in a year)

9. What is Load factor? [CO1-LI-Nov/Dec 2007]

The ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a given period is
known as load factor. Load factor = (average load)/ (maximum demand)

10. What is Diversity factor? [CO1-LI-Nov/Dec 2008]

The ratio of the sum of individual maximum demand on power station is
known as diversity factor.
Diversity factor = (sum of individual maximum demand)/(maximum demand).

11. What is Capacity factor? [CO1-LI-Nov/Dec 2015]

This is the ratio of actual energy produced to the maximum possible energy
that could have been produced during a given period.
Capacity factor= (actual energy produced)/ (maximum energy that have been
produced)

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12. What is Plant use factor? [CO1-LI-Nov/Dec 2015]

It is the ratio of units generated to the product of plant capacity and the
number

of hours for which the plant was in operation.

Units generated per annum= average load * hours in a year

13.. What is Load duration curve? [CO1-L1-May/June 2012]

When the load elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of
descending

magnitudes the curve then obtained is called load duration curve.

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Unit – I

INTRODUCTION

Part – B

1 INTRODUCTION

1.Draw the Load Curve and Load Duration Curve.Explain The Importance of these
curves in connection with economic operation of power system. [CO1-LI-Nov/Dec
2015]

PRE REQUEST

POWER SYSTEM
In general each generation plant in any power may have more than one generating
units. Each of the unit may have identical or different capacities. A number of power
plants can be tied together to supply the system load by means of interconnection of the
generating stations.
Interconnected electric power system is more reliable and convenient to operate and
also offers economical operating cost .
It has better regulations characters by all the units are interconnected.
In simply, The generation of power is transfer to the Consumers through the
transmission system.
Generation unit , Transformer Unit, Converter Unit, Transmission Unit, Inverter Unit and
Consumer Point. This combination of all the unit is called the overall power system
units.
SYSTEM LOAD VARIATION
The variation of load on the power station with respect to time.

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SYSTEM LOAD
• From system‟s point of view, there are 5 broad category of loads:
1. Domestic
2. Commercial
3. Industrial
4. Agriculture
5. Others - street lights, traction.
Domestic

Lights,

domestic appliances like heaters,

1. Demand factor = 0.7 to 1.0;

2. Diversity factor = 1.2 to 1.3;
3. Load factor = 0.1 to 0.15

Commercial:
Lightings for shops, advertising hoardings, fans, AC etc.
1. Demand factor = 0.9 to 1.0;
2. Diversity factor = 1.1 to 1.2;
3. Load factor = 0.25 to 0.3

Industrial:
Small scale industries: 0-20kW
Medium scale industries: 20-100kW
Large scale industries: above 100kW
Industrial loads need power over a longer period which remains fairly uniform
throughout the day.
For heavy industries:
1. Demand factor = 0.85 to 0.9;
2. Load factor = 0.7 to 0.8

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Agriculture:
Supplying water for irrigation using pumps driven by motors
1. Demand factor = 0.9 to 1;
2. Diversity factor = 1.0 to 1.5;
3. Load factor = 0.15 to 0.25

Other Loads:
a) Bulk supplies,
b) street lights,
c) traction,
d) government loads
which have their own peculiar characteristics

System Load Characteristics

a) Connected Load
b) Maximum Demand
c) Average Load
d) Load Factor
e) Diversity Factor
f) Plant Capacity Factor
g) Plant Use Factor
Plant Capacity Factor:
It is the ratio of actual energy produced to the maximum possible energy that could
have been produced during a given period.
Plant Use Factor:
It is the ratio of kWh generated to the product of plant capacity and the number of hours
for which the plant was in operation.
Plant use factor = Station output in kWh / Plant capacity * Hours of use
When the elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of descending
magnitudes.
ECONOMIC OF GENERATION
1 Load curves
The curve showing the variation of load on the power station with respect to time

to time is known as load curve.

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curve .

Fig :Load Curve

Types of Load Curve:
Daily load curve–Load variations during the whole day
Monthly load curve–Load curve obtained from the daily load curve Yearly load curve-
Load curve obtained from the monthly load curve
Daily load curve

of day is known as daily load curve.

Monthly load curve

and plotted in the graph which is known as monthly load curve.

Yearly load curve

Base Load:
The unvarying load which occurs almost the whole day on the station
Peak Load:
The various peak demands so load of the station

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Fig : Daily Load Curve

2 Load duration curve:
When the elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of descending magnitudes .

Fig : Load Duration Curve

The load duration curve gives the data in a more presentable form

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curve
 The load duration curve can be extended to include any period of time

2. Explain the following important terminalogies [CO1-L1-May/June 2012]

Connected load

systems.

Maximum demand

Demand factor

Demand factor= (max demand)/ (connected load)

Average demand
The average of loads occurring on the power station in a given period (day or month or
year) is known as average demand
Daily average demand = (no of units generated per day) / (24 hours)

Monthly average demand = (no of units generated in month) / (no of hours in a

month)

Yearly average demand = (no of units generated in a year) / (no of hours in a year)

Load factor
The ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a given period is known as
load factor.

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Load factor = (average load)/ (maximum demand)

Diversity factor
The ratio of the sum of individual maximum demand on power station is known as
diversity factor.
Diversity factor = (sum of individual maximum demand ) / (maximum demand).

Capacity factor
s the ratio of actual energy produced to the maximum possible energy that
could have been produced during a given period.

Capacity factor = (actual energy produced) / (maximum energy that have been
produced)

Plant use factor

hours for which the plant was in operation.

Units generated per annum= average load * hours in a year

3. Briefly explain overview of power system control or (plant level and syatem
level controls) ? [CO1-L1-May/June 2015]

naturally available forms to electrical from and to transport it to points of consumption.

fundamental requirement.

1. Adequate „spinning reserve’ must be present to meet the active and reactive power
demand.

2. Minimum cost with minimum ecological impact.

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3. The power quality must have certain minimum standards within the tolerance or limit
such as,

Factor affecting power quality:

The three main controls involved in powers are:

1. Plant Level Control (or) Generating Unit Control.
2. System Generation Control.

3. Transmission Control.

Plant Level Control (or) Generating Unit Control

The plant level control consists of:
I. Governor control or Prime mover control.
II. Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) or Excitation control.

I. Governor control or Prime mover control

the governor and the control of energy supply system variables such as boiler pressure,
temperature and flows.

to speed.

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command signal, so that, the steam input of the turbine is changed relative to the load
requirement.

II. Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) or Excitation control

ion of Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) or Excitation control is to
regulate generator voltage and relative power output.

to the required standard and the demand of the reactive power is also met by the
excitation control unit.

These controls are depicted in given figure

Figure : Plant and System Level Controls

System Generation Control

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against system load and losses, so that, the desired frequency and power interchange
with neighboring systems are maintained.

I. Load Frequency Control (LFC).

II. Economic Dispatch Control (EDC).
III. System Voltage Control.
IV. Security control.

i. Load Frequency Control (LFC).

power frequency.
of the signal is fed to the integrator and it is given to speed changer
which generates the reference speed for the governor.

ii. Economic Dispatch Control (EDC).

considered, it is found that the optimum generating schedule is affected when an

incremental increased at one of the units replaces a compensating decrease at every
other unit, in term of some incremental cost.

levels is known as unit commitment.

iii. System Voltage Control.

tolerable limits.

condenser, tap changing transformer, switches, capacitor and reactor.

system by maintaining system voltages, frequency and other system variables within
their acceptable limits.

on its ability to cope with disturbances.

iv. Security control

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main objective of real time power system operation requires a process guided
by control and decisions based on constant monitoring of the system condition.

LEVEL 1: Monitoring and Decision

ndition of the system is continuously observed I the control centres by
protective relays for faults or contingencies caused by equipment trouble and failure.

sample time, then the system is in an abnormal condition.

LEVEL 2: Control

on protecting the system from its consequences.

sample interval.

4. Explain the terms power system operation. [CO1-L3-Nov/Dec 2015]

(i) Load Forecasting, (ii) Unit Commitment and (iii) Load Scheduling.
Load forecasting:
The load on their systems should be estimated in advance. This estimation in advance
is known as load forecasting. Load forecasting based on the previous experience
without any historical data.
Need for load
forecasting:

future demand.

forecasting is required
for preparing
maintenance schedule
of the generating units,
planning future
expansion of the

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-to-day
operation, short term
load forecasting
demand and for
maintaining the required
spinning reserve.

Very short term load forecasting is used for generation and distribution. That is,
economic

Unit Commitment:
The unit commitment problem is to minimize system total operating costs while
simultaneously providing sufficient spinning reserve capacity to satisfy a given security
level. In unit commitment problems, we consider the following terms.

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5. Explain the concept of Load Scheduling (Load Dispatching) CO1-L3-Nov/Dec

2013]
Loading of units are allocated to serve the objective of minimum fuel cost is known as
load scheduling. Load scheduling problem can be divided into:
i. Thermal scheduling.
ii. Hydrothermal scheduling.

i. Thermal scheduling.

The loading of steam units are allocated to serve the objective of minimum fuel cost.
Thermal scheduling will be assumed that the supply undertaking has got only form
thermal or from steam stations.
ii. Hydrothermal scheduling.

Loading of hydro and thermal units are allocated to serve the objective of minimum fuel
cost is known as hydrothermal scheduling.
Scheduling of hydro units are complex because of natural differences I the watersheds,
manmade storage and release elements used to control the flow of water are difficult.
During rainy season, we can utilize hydro generation to a maximum and the remaining
period, hydro generation depends on stored water availability. If availability of water is
not enough to generate power, we must utilize only thermal power generation. Mostly
hydroelectric generation is used to meet out peak loads. There are two types of
hydrothermal scheduling.
a) Long range hydro scheduling
b) Short range hydro scheduling.

a) Long range hydro scheduling

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Long range hydro scheduling problem involves the long range forecasting of water
availability and the scheduling of reservoir water releases for an interval of time that
depends on the reservoir capacities. Long range hydro scheduling involves
from I week to I year or several years. Long range hydro scheduling involves
optimization of statistical variables such as load, hydraulic inflows and unit availabilities.

b) Short range hydro scheduling.

Short range hydro scheduling involves from one day to one week or hour-by-hour
scheduling of all generation on a system to achieve minimum production cost foe a
given period.
Assuming load, hydraulic inflows and unit availabilities are known, for a given reservoir
level, we can allocated generation of power using hydro plants to meet out the demand,
to minimize the production cost.
The largest category of hydrothermal system includes a balance between hydroelectric
and thermal generation resources. Hydrothermal scheduling is developed to minimize
thermal generation production cost.

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Unit – II

REAL POWER –FREQUENCY CONTROL

Part – A

1. What is the major control loops used in large generators?[CO2-L1-May/June

2015]
The major control loops used in large generators are
1.automatic voltage regulator (AVR)
2.automatic load frequency control (ALFC).

2. What is the primary use of secondary loop? [CO2-L3-Nov/Dec 2007]

A slower secondary loop maintains the fine adjustment of the frequency, and also by
reset action maintains proper MW interchange with other pool members. This loop is
insensitive
to rapid load and frequency changes but focuses instead on drift like changes which
take place
over periods of minutes.

3. What is the advantage of AVR loop over ALFC? [CO2-L3-Nov/Dec 2009]

AVR loop is much faster than the ALFC loop and therefore there is a tendency, for the
AVR dynamics to settle down before they can make themselves felt in the slower load
frequency
control channel.

4. What is the difference between large and small signal analysis? [CO2-L3-
Nov/Dec 2008]
Large signal analysis is used where voltage and power may undergo sudden changes
of
magnitude that may approach 100 percent of operating values. Usually this type of
analysis leads
to differential equations of non-linear type.
Small signal anaysis is used when variable excursions are relatively small, typically at
most a few percent of normal operating values.
5. What is the exciter? [CO2-L2-May/June 2009]
The exciter is the main component in AVR loop. It delivers the DC power to the
generator field. It must have adequate power capacity and sufficient speed of response
(rise time

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less than 0.1 sec).

6. What is the function of AVR? [CO2-L2-May/June 2007]

The basic role of the AVR is to provide constancy of the generator terminal voltage
during normal, small and slow changes in the load.

7. Explain about static AVR loop? [CO2-L2-May/June 2015]

In a static AVR loop, the execution power is obtained directly from the generator
terminals or from the station service bus. The AC power is rectified by thyristor bridges
and fed
into the main generator field via slip rings. Static exciters are very fast and contribute to
improved transient stability.

8. Write the static performance of AVR loop? [CO2-L2-May/June 2008]

1) The AVR loop must
2) regulate the terminal |V| to within required static accuracy limit.
3) Have sufficient speed of response.
4) Be stable.

9. What is the disadvantage of high loop gain? How is to be eliminated? [CO2-L2-

May/June 2007]
High loop gain is needed for static accuracy but this causes undesirable dynamic
response, possibly instability. By adding series AND/OR feedback stability
compensation to the
AVR loop, this conflicting situation can be resolved.

10. What are the effects of generator loading in AVR loop? [CO2-L2-May/June
2009]
Added load does not change the basic features of the AVR loop, it will however affect
the values of both gain factor K and the field constant. High f loading will make the
generator
work at higher magnetic saturation levels. This means smaller changes in |E| for
incremental
increases in if, translating into the reduction of K . The Ffield time constant will likewise

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decreases as generator loading closing the armature current paths. This circumstance
permits the
formation of transient stator currents the existence of which yields a lower effective field
induction.

11. What are the functions of ALFC? [CO2-L2-May/June 2010]

1) The basic role of ALFC’s is to maintain desired MW output of a generator unit
and assist in controlling the frequency of large interconnection.
2) It also helps to keep the net interchange of power between pool members at
predetermined values.
3) Control should be applied in such a fashion that highly differing response
characteristics of units of various types are recognized.
4) Also unnecessary power output changes should be kept at a minimum in order to
reduce wear of control valves.

12. Specify the disadvantage of ALFC loop? [CO2-L2-May/June 2009]

The ALFC loop will main control only during normal changes in load and frequency. It is
typically unable to provide adequate control during emergency situations, when large
MW
imbalances occur.

13. How is the real power in a power system controlled? [CO2-L2-May/June 2007]
The real power in a power system is being controlled by controlling the driving torque of
the individual turbines of the system.

14. What is the need for large mechanical forces in speed-governing system?
[CO2-L2-May/June 2009]
Very large mechanical forces are needed to position the main valve against the high

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stream pressure and these forces are obtained via several stages of hydraulic amplifiers

Unit – II

REAL POWER –FREQUENCY CONTROL

Part – B

1. Explain the term Real power frequency control in detail? [CO2-L2-May/June

2007]
INTRODUCTION
PRE REQUEST
Automatic voltage regulator (AVR)
Automatic load frequency control (ALFC).

TECHNICAL TERMS
Control area:
Most power systems normally control their generators in unison. The individual control
loops have the same regulation parameters. The individual generator turbines tend to
have the same response characteristics then it is possible to let the control loop in the
whole system which then would be referred to as a control area.
Power Pool:
An association of two or more interconnected electric systems having an agreement to
coordinate operations and planning for improved reliability and efficiencies.
Prime Mover:
The engine, turbine, water wheel, or similar machine that drives an electric generator;
or, for reporting purposes, a device that converts energy to electricity directly (e.g.,
photovoltaic solar and fuel cell(s)).
Pumped-Storage Hydroelectric Plant:
A plant that usually generates electric energy during peak-load periods by using water
previously pumped into an elevated storage reservoir during off-peak periods when

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excess generating capacity is available to do so. When additional generating capacity is

needed, the water can be released from the reservoir through a conduit to turbine
generators located in a power plant at a lower level.
Regulation:
The governmental function of controlling or directing economic entities through the

process of rulemaking and adjudication

Reserve Margin (Operating):
The amount of unused available capability of an electric power system at peak load for
a utility system as a percentage of total capability.
Restructuring:
The process of replacing a monopoly system of electric utilities with competing sellers,
allowing individual retail customers to choose their electricity supplier but still receive
delivery over the power lines of the local utility. It includes the reconfiguration of the
vertically-integrated electric utility.
Retail Wheeling:
The process of moving electric power from a point of generation across one or more
utility-owned transmission and distribution systems to a retail customer
Revenue:
The total amount of money received by a firm from sales of its products and/or services,
gains from the sales or exchange of assets, interest and dividends earned on
investments, and other increases in the owner's equity except those arising from capital
adjustments.
Scheduled Outage:
The shutdown of a generating unit, transmission line, or other facility, for inspection or
maintenance, in accordance with an advance schedule.
Real power:
The real power in a power system is being controlled by controlling the driving torque of
the individual turbines of the system.

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2. Exlain basics of speed governing mechanism and modelling?

governor: [CO2-L3-Nov/Dec 2009]
The power system is basically dependent upon the synchronous generator and its
satisfactory performance. The important control loops in the system are:
(i) Frequency control, and

(ii) Automatic voltage control.

Frequency control is achieved through generator control mechanism. The governing

systems for thermal and hydro generating plants are different in nature since, the inertia
of water that flows into the turbine presents additional constrains which are not present
with steam flow in a thermal plant. However, the basic principle is still the same; i.e. the
speed of the shaft is sensed and compared with a reference, and the feedback signal is
utilized to
increase or decrease the power generated by controlling the inlet valve to turbine of
steam or water
Speed Governing Mechanism
The speed governing mechanism includes the following parts.
Speed Governor:
It is an error sensing device in load frequency control. It includes all the elements that
are directly responsive to speed and influence other elements of the system to initiate
action.
Governor Controlled Valves:
They control the input to the turbine and are actuated by the speed control mechanism.
Speed Control Mechanism:
It includes all equipment such as levers and linkages,servomotors, amplifying devices
and relays that are placed between the speed governor and the governor controlled
valves.
Speed Changer:

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It enables the speed governor system to adjust the speed of the generator unit while in
operation.

Fig Schematic diagram of speed governing mechanism

The pilot valve v operates to increase or decrease the opening of the steam inlet valve
V. Let XB and Xc be the changes in the position of the pilot valve v and control valve V
responding to a change in governor position. XA due to load. When the pilot valve is
closed XB= 0 and Xc == 0, (Le.,) the control valve is not completely closed, as the
unit has to supply its no-load losses. Let be the no-load angular speed of the turbine. As
load is applied, the speed falls and through the linkages the governor operates to move
the piston P downwards along with points A and B. The pilot valve v admits soil under n
and lifts it up so that the input is increased and speed rise. If the link Be is removed then
the pilot valve comes
to rest only when the speed returns to its original value. An "isochronous" characteristic
will be obtained with such an arrangement where speed is restored to its preload.
With the link Be, the steady state is reached at a speed slightly lower than the no load
speed giving a drooping characteristic for the governor system. A finite value of the

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steady state speed regulation is obtained with this arrangement. For a given speed
changer position, the per unit steady state speed regulation is defined by
Steady state speed regulation = No-Nr/N Where No = Speed at no - load
N r = Rated speed
N = Speed at rated load

3. Explain the term load frequency control ? [CO2-L2-May/June 2015]

The following basic requirements are to be fulfilled for successful operation of the
system:
1. The generation must be adequate to meet all the load demand
2. The system frequency must be maintained within narrow and rigid limits.
3. The system voltage profile must be maintained within reasonable limits and
4. In case of interconnected operation, the tie line power flows must be maintained at
the specified values.

frequency specification is automatically satisfied.

eactive power generation and demand, voltage
profile is also maintained within the prescribed limits.

the total MW demand plus real power losses.

different sensitivities, dead bands response times and droops.

tch the demand within their limits.

the system in a random fashion.

generation changes to preselected machines in the system after the governors have
accommodated the load change in a random manner.

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governors for proper regulation.

anner is termed load-frequency control.

fulfilled by deriving an error signal from the deviations in the specified tie-line power
flows to the neighboring utilities and adding this signal to the control signal of the load-
frequency control system.

operating condition:
I. Starting fast peaking units.
2. Load shedding for unimportant loads, and

3. Generation rescheduling.

It is apparent from the above that since the voltage specifications are not stringent.
Load frequency control is by far the most important in power system control.

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In order to understand the mechanism of frequency control, consider a small step

increase in load. The initial distribution of the load increment is determined by the
system impedance; and the instantaneous relative generator rotor positions. The energy
required to supply the load increment is drawn from the kinetic energy of the rotating
machines. As a result, the system frequency drops. The distribution of load during this
period among the various machines is determined by the inertias of the rotors of the
generators partaking in the process. This problem is studied in stability analysis of the
system.
After the speed or frequency fall due to reduction in stored energy in the rotors has
taken place, the drop is sensed by the governors and they divide the load increment
between the machines as determined by the droops of the respective governor
characteristics. Subsequently, secondary control restores the system frequency to its
normal value by readjusting the governor characteristics.

4. Explain the function of automatic load frequency control? [CO2-L2-May/June

2009]

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Fig 2.3The Schematic representation of ALFC system

Block Diagram Representation Of The Generator

The load on the system is composite consisting of a frequency independent
component and a frequency dependent component. The load can be
written as
Pe = P0 + Pf

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Pe is the change in the load;

P0 - is the frequency independent load component;
Pf - is the frequency dependent load component.
Pf = D
where, D is called frequency characteristic of the load (also called as damping constant)
expressed in percent change in load for 1% change in frequency.
If D=1.5%, then a 1% change in frequency causes 1.5% change in load.
The combined generator and the load
(constituting the power system) can then be represented as shown in Fig.
The turbine can be modeled as a first order lag as shown in the Fig.

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Gt(s) is the TF of the turbine; ΔPV(s) is the change in valve output (due to action).
Pm(s) is the change in the turbine output. The governor can similarly modeled as shown
Fig. The output of the governor is by
Where ΔPref is the reference set power, and Δw/R is the power given by governor
speed characteristic. The hydraulic amplifier transforms this signal Pg into valve/gate
position corresponding to a power PV.
Thus
PV(s) = (Kg/ (1+sTg)) _Pg(s).

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Block Diagram Representation of the Governor

5. Explain in detail about lfc control of single area and derive the steady state
frequency error ? [CO2-L2-May/June 2015]

All the individual blocks can now be connected to represent the complete ALFC loop as

Block diagram representation of the ALFC Static

Power Generation
We have
ΔPG(s) = kGkt / (1+sTG)(1+sTt)[ΔPc(s)-1/RΔF(s)]

The generator is synchronized to a network of very large size. So, the speed or
frequency will be essentially independent of any changes in a power output of the
generator
ie, ΔF(s) =0

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Therefore ΔPG(s) =kGkt / (1+sTg) (1+sTt)* ΔPc(s)

Steady state response
(i) Controlled case:

To find the resulting steady change in the generator output:

Let us assume that we made a step change of the magnitude ΔPc of the speed changer
For step change, ΔPc(s) = ΔPc/s
ΔPG(s) =kGkt/ (1+sTg) (1+sTt). ΔPc(s)/s sΔPG (s) =kGkt/ (1+sTg) (1+sTt). ΔPc(s)
Applying final value theorem,
ΔPG (stat) = Δ

(ii) Uncontrolled case

Let us assume that the load suddenly increases by small amount ΔPD.
Consider there is no external work and the generator is delivering a power to a single
load.
ΔPc = 0
Kg Kt = 1
ΔPG(s) = 1/ (1+sTG) (1+sTt) [-ΔF(s)/R] For a step change ΔF(s) = Δf/s Therefore
ΔPG(s) = 1/(1+sTG)(1+sTt)[-ΔF/sR]
Δf/ΔPG (stat) =-R Hz/MW
Steady State Performance of the ALFC Loop
In the steady state, the ALFC is in „open‟ state, and the output is obtained by
substituting s→0 in the TF.
With s→0, Gg(s) and Gt(s) become unity, then,(note that

ΔPm =ΔPT = PG =ΔPe = ΔPD;

That is turbine output = generator/electrical output = load demand)
ΔPm = ΔPref – (1/R) Δω or ΔPm = ΔPref – (1/R)Δf
When the generator is connected to infinite bus (Δf = 0, and ΔV = 0), then Δ Pm = ΔPref
. If the network is finite, for a fixed speed changer setting (ΔPref = 0), then

ΔPm = (1/R)Δf orΔf=RPm.

Concept of AGC (Supplementary ALFC Loop)

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ΔPm to match the change in load demand ΔPD.

enerating units contribute to the change in generation. But a
change in load results in a steady state frequency deviation Δf.

loop called the supplementary loop.

is objective is met by using integral controller which makes the frequency
deviation zero.

diagram of an AGC is shown in Fig.

i) to regulate t h e frequency (using both primary a n d supplementary controls);

ii) and to maintain the scheduled tie-line flows.
A secondary objective of the AGC is to distribute the required change in generation
among the connected generating units economically (to obtain least operating costs).

Block diagram representation of the AGC

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AGC in a Single Area System

-line schedule to be maintained.

the integral controller to change the reference power setting so as to change the speed
set point.

terms of overshoot, settling time) of the system.

generators in the control area are replaced by a single equivalent generator, and the
ALFC for the area corresponds to this equivalent generator.

6. Explain in detail lfc control of single area and derive the dynamic response?
[CO2-L2-May/June 2007]

Dynamic Response of the One-Area System

`Now we are going to study the effect of a disturbance in the system derived above.
Both loss of generation and loss of load can be simulated by imposing a positive or
negative step input on the variable Pload. A change of the set value of the system
frequency f0 is not considered as this is not meaningful in real power systems. From the
block diagram in Figure.

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In order to calculate an equivalent time constant Teq, Tt is put to 0. This can be done
since for realistic systems the turbine controller time constant Tt is much smaller than
the time constant

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7. Explain the model of uncontrolled two area load frequency control system ?
[CO2-L2-May/June 2013]

AGC IN A MULTI AREA SYSTEM

an interconnected (multi area) system, there will be one ALFC loop for each
control area (located at the ECC of that area).

depicted in Figure.

reference values of the generators participating in the AGC.

-area system, there are N controllers AGCi, one for each area i.

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A block diagram of such a controller is given in Figure 4.2. A common way is to

implement this as a proportional-integral (PI) controller:
Deviation in frequency in the two areas is given by
Δf=Δω1=Δω2=−ΔPD / β1 + β2

where
β1 = D1 + 1/ R1
β 2= D2+1/R2
E expression for tie-line flow in a two-area interconnected system Consider a change in
load ΔPD1 in area1. The steady state frequency deviation Δf is the same for both the
areas.
That is Δf =Δf1 =Δf2.
Thus, for area1, we have ΔPm1 -ΔPD1 -ΔP12 = D1Δf

Where, Area 2 ΔP12 is the tie line power flow from Area1to Area 2; and for ΔPm2
+ΔP12 = D2Δf
The mechanical power depends on regulation.
Hence ΔPm1= -Δf 1ΔPm2= -Δf 2 Substituting these equations, yields
(1/R1+ D1) Δf =-ΔP12- ΔPm
(1/R2+ D2) Δf =-ΔP12- ΔPm

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A G C for a multi-area operation

Solving for Δf, we get
Δf= -ΔPD1/ β1 + β2

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Where, 1 and 2 are the composite frequency response characteristic of Area1 and Area
2
respectively. An increase of load in area1 by ΔPD1 results in a frequency reduction in
both areas and a tie-line flow of ΔP12. A positive ΔP12 is indicative of flow from Area1
to Area
2 while a negative ΔP12 means flow from Area 2 to Area1. Similarly, for a change in
Area 2 load by ΔPD2, we have
Δf= -ΔPD2/ β1 + β2
8. Explain in detail about dynamic response of load frequency control loops ?
[CO2-L2-May/June 2012]

state error for a step input.

evaluated so that the initial response also can be seen for any overshoot.

the governor action can be neglected, treating it as instantaneous action.

tant to
derive a simple expression for the time response.

It has been proved that

For a step load change of magnitude k

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Neglecting the governor action and turbine dynamics

Applying Partial function,

9. Explain in detail about interconnected operation? [CO2-L2-May/June 2007]

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availability, generation limits, tie line capacities, spinning reserve allocation and area
commitment‟s are important considerations in preparing load dispatch schedules.

1. Flat Frequency Control of lnter- connected Stations

in Fig.

absorb the same.

normal at the end of the governor response period.

oad increment will be supplied partly by A and partly by B.

B parallel to itself as shown in Fig and the frequency will be restored to its normal value
fs' reducing the change in generation in A to zero.

Two area with tie line power

Assumption in Analysis:
The following assumptions are made in the analysis of the two area system:
1. The overall governing characteristic of the operating units in any area can be
represented by a linear curve of frequency versus generation.
2. The governors in both the areas start acting simultaneously to changes in their
respective areas.
3. Supplementary control devices act after the initial governor response is over
The following time instants are defined to explain the control sequence:
To=is the instant when both the areas are operating at the scheduled frequency and
Tie=line interchange and load change takes place.
tl = the instant when governor action is initiated at both A and B.
t2 =the instant when governor action ceases.
t3 =the instant when regulator action begins.
t4 = the instant when regulator action ceases.

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`
 While the initial governor response is the same as for the previous case, the action
of the controller in B will force the generation in area B to absorb the load increment in
area A.
fted parallel
to itself in B till the entire load increment in A is absorbed by B and the frequency is
restored to normal.
-line schedule
is

not maintained on the other hand.

area B, which is in charge of frequency regulation, is much larger than A, then load
changes in A will not appreciably affect the frequency of the system.

system is‟ connected to a much larger system.

10. Explain in two area systems - tie-line power model? [CO2-L2-May/June 2015]

Where X is the reactance of the line. If the angles change by f1o1, and f102 due to load
changes in areas I and 2 respectively. Then, the tie-line power changes by

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DYNAMIC RESPONSE

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Let us now turn our attention during the transient period for the sake of simplicity. We
shall assume the two areas to be identical .Further we shall be neglecting the time
constants of generators and turbines as they are negligible as compared to the time
constants of power systems. The equation may be derived for both controlled and
uncontrolled cases. There are four equations with four variables, to be determined for
given PDl and PD2. The dynamic response can be obtained; even though it is a little bit
involved. For simplicity assume that the two areas are equal. Neglect the governor and
turbine dynamics, which means that the dynamics of the system under study is much
slower than the fast acting turbine-governor system in a relative sense. Also assume
that the load does not change with frequency (D, =

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No hat both K and ro2 are positive. From the roots of the characteristic equation we
notice the system
is stable and damped.
f the damped oscillations is given by Since Hand fo are constant,
the frequency of oscillations depends upon the regulation parameter R. Low R gives
high K and high damping and vice versa .
system, just as in
the case of a single area system in the uncontrolled mode, has a steady state error but
to a lesser extent and the tie line power deviation and frequency deviation exhibit
oscillations that are damped out later

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Unit – III

REACTIVE POWER –VOLTAGE CONTROL

Part – A

1. What are the sources of reactive power? How it is controlled?[CO3-L1-

May/June 2015]
The sources of reactive power are
1) generators,
2) capacitors and
3) reactors.
These are controlled by field excitation. The excitation system amplifiers used are,
1) Magnetic amplifier
2) Rotating amplifier
3) Modern electronic amplifier.

2. When is feedback stability compensation used? [CO3-L3-Nov/Dec 2013]

High loop gain is needed for static accuracy but this causes undesirable dynamic
response, possibly instability. This conflicting situation is resolved by adding feedback
stabling
compensation to the AVR loop.

3. Give the characteristics of line compensators? [CO3-L2-May/June 2010]

The characteristics of line compensators are,
1) Ferranti effect is minimized.
2) Under excited operation of synchronous generator is not required.

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4. What is known as bank of capacitors? How it is adjusted? [CO3-L2-May/June

2007]

When a number of capacitors are connected in parallel to get the desired capacitance, it
is
known as bank of capacitors. These can be adjusted in steps by switching
(mechanical).

5. What is the disadvantage of switched capacitors are employed for

compensation? [CO3-L3-Nov/Dec 2013]
When switched capacitors are employed for compensation, these should be
disconnected
immediately under light load conditions to avoid excessive voltage rise and Ferro
resonance in
presence of transformers.

6. What are the effects of capacitor in series compensation circuit? [CO3-L3-

Nov/Dec 2015]
The effects of capacitor in series compensation circuit are,
1) Voltage drop in the line reduces.
2) Prevents voltage collapse.
3) Steady state power transfer increases.
4) Transient stability limit increases.

7. What kind capacitors used in shunt compensator? [CO3-L3-Nov/Dec 2011]

There are two kinds of capacitors used in shunt compensators, which are
1) Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM), Previously known as a Static
Condenser (STATCOM) and
2) Static Var Compensator (SVC)
But, we mostly use Static Var Compensators (SVC), which are banks of capacitors (
sometimes inductors also for use under light load conditions).

8. What is synchronous condenser? [CO3-L3-Nov/Dec 2010]

It is a synchronous motor running at no-load and having excitation adjustable over a
wide
range. It feeds positive VARs into the line under overexcited conditions and negative
VARs

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when under excited.

9. Write about Static VAR Compensator (SVC)? [CO3-L3-Nov/Dec 2010]

These comprise capacitor bank fixed or switched or fixed capacitor bank and switched
reactor bank in parallel. These compensators draw reactive power from the line thereby
regulating voltage, improve stability (steady state and dynamic), control overvoltage and
reduce
voltage and current unbalances. In HVDC application these compensators provide the
required
reactive power and damp out sub harmonic oscillations.

10. What is Static VAR Switches or Systems? [CO3-L2-May/June 2010]

Static VAR compensators use switching for var control. These are also called static
VAR
switches or systems. It means that terminology wise SVC=SVS. And we will use these
interchangeably.

11. Give some of the Static compensators schemes. [CO3-L2-May/June 2012]

1) Saturated reactor
2) Thyristor- Controlled Reactor (TCR)
3) Thyristor Switched capacitor (TSC)
4) Combined TCR and TSC compensator.

12. What is tap changing transformers? [CO3-L2-May/June 2014]

All power transformers and many distribution transformers have taps in one or more
windings for changing the turn’s ratio. It is called tap changing transformers.

13. Write the types of tape changing transformers. [CO3-L2-May/June 2009]

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1) Off- load tap changing transformers.

2) Tap changing under load transformers.

14. What is the use of off-load tap changer and TCUL ? [CO3-L2-May/June 2014]

The off- load tap changers are used when it is expected that the ratio will need to be
changed only infrequently, because of load growth or some seasonal change.
TCUL is used when changes in ratio may be frequent or when it is undesirably to
deenergize
the transformer to change the tap.

Unit – III

REACTIVE POWER –VOLTAGE CONTROL

Part – B

1.Explain the concept of Excitation System Requirements? [CO3-L2-May/June

2014]
INTRODUCTION
PRE REQUEST

- Controlled Reactor (TCR)

EXCITATION SYSTEMS REQUIREMENTS

1. Meet specified response criteria.
2. Provide limiting and protective functions are required to prevent damage to itself, the
generator, and other equipment.
3. Meet specified requirements for operating flexibility
4. Meet the desired reliability and availability, by incorporating the necessary level of
redundancy and internal fault detection and isolation capability.
ELEMENTS OF EXCITATION SYSTEM
Exciter:

stage of the excitation system.

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Regulator:

of the exciter.

Terminal voltage transducer and load compensator:

rminal voltage, rectifier and filters it to dc quantity, and
compares it with a reference which represents the desired terminal voltage.

Power system stabilizer:

Limiters and protective circuits:

capability limits of the exciter and synchronous generator are not exceeded.

Schematic picture of a synchronous machine with excitation system with several

control, protection, and supervisory functions

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2. Explain about types of excitation system ? [CO3-L2-May/June 2015]

Today, a large number of different types of exciter systems are used. Three main types
can be distinguished:
DC excitation system,
where the exciter is a DC generator, often on the same axis as the rotor of the
synchronous machine.
AC excitation system,
where the exciter is an AC machine with rectifier.
Static excitation system
where the exciting current is fed from a controlled rectifier that gets its power either
directly from the generator terminals or from the power plant‟s auxiliary power system,
normally containing batteries.
rgised
net, “black start”. The batteries are usually charged from the net.

Block Schematic of Excitation Control:

reference voltage; the difference is amplified and fed back to the exciter field winding to
change the excitation current.

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Block Diagram of excitation system

3. Explain the static excitation system ? [CO3-L2-May/June 2012]

system, the generator field is fed from a thyristor network
shown in Fig.

varied through a full range of positive to negative values very rapidly with the ultimate
benefit of generator Voltage regulation during transient disturbances.
-phase fully controlled or semi controlled
bridge rectifiers.

ensures field isolation during generator faults.

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Static Excitation System

BRUSHLESS EXCITATION SCHEME

Brushless Excitation Scheme

stationary field is employed as the main exciter.

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rotating, semiconductor diode network which is mounted on the generator shaft itself.

connected in series.

rings and brushes are completely eliminated thus offering smooth and maintenance-free
operation.
-magnet generator serves as the power source for the exciter field.

is applied to the exciter field.

set reference and utilizes the error signal, if any, to control the gate pulses of the
thyristor network.
4. Explain about ac excitation system? [CO3-L2-May/June 2014]

Ac Excitation System
Exciter and Voltage Regulator:

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The function of an exciter is to increase the excitation current for voltage drop and
decrease the same for voltage rise. The voltage change is defined

Where V1 is the terminal voltage and

Vref is the reference voltage.
Exciter ceiling voltage:
It is defined as the maximum voltage that may be attained by an exciter with specified
conditions of load.
Exciter response:
It is the rate of increase or decrease of the exciter voltage. When a change in this
voltage is demanded. As an example consider the response curve shown in
Figure.

Exciter Response
Exciter builds up:
s value
by cutting or adding.

when maximum current value is reached in the field circuit.

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AC excitation operations
When the exciter is operated at rated speed at no load, the record of voltage as function
of time with a step change that drives the exciter to its ceiling voltage is called the
exciter build up curve. Such a response curve is show in Figure

Response Curve

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250V systems up to 100MVA units.

Some use 350V and 375V system while some go up to 500V excitation system.

5. Explain about dc excitation system ? [CO3-L2-May/June 2015]

power and provide current to the rotor of the synchronous machine through slip ring .

self excited or separately excited.

permanent magnet generator.

Below figure a simplified schematic representation of a typical dc excitation system.
It consists of a dc commutator exciter which supplies direct current to the main
generator field through slip ring.

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DC Excitation System

(d) axis and the other set on its quadrature (q) axis.

ure current, thereby

cancelling negative feedback of the armature reaction.

to produce a large current in the q axis armature.

nically by the motor.

6. Explain the concept of modeling of excitation system ? [CO3-L2-May/June

2014]

performance requirement, for the design and coordination of supplementary control and
protective circuits, and for system stability studies related to the planning and purpose
of study.

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Generator Voltage Control System

generator.

ontrol system is also called as excitation control system or

automatic voltage regulator (AVR).

static device) called exciter.

e required to supply a field current of as large
as 6500A at 500V and hence the exciter is a fairly large machine.

as:
i) DC Exciters;
ii) AC Exciters; and
iii) Static Exciters.

group to represent the excitation system.

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A schematic of Excitation (Voltage) Control System.

obtain a voltage error signal ΔV.

This signal is applied to the voltage regulator shown as a block with transfer function
KA/ (1+TAs).

function Ke/ (1+Tes).

generator terminal voltage.

KF/(1+sTF). The total transfer function

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The stabilizing compensator shown in the diagram is used to improve the dynamic
response of the exciter. The input to this block is the exciter voltage and the output is a
stabilizing feedback signal to reduce the excessive overshoot.

A simplified block diagram of Voltage (Excitation) Control System.

Performance of AVR loop

acceptable values.

voltage is maintained within that value.

uracy limit is 4%, then the terminal voltage must be
maintained within 4% of the base voltage.

7. DISCUSSS GENERATION AND ABSORPTION OF REACTIVE POWER.?

Synchronous Generators:

depending upon the excitation (a form of generator control) applied.

.

Synchronous Compensators:

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em,
can be declutched from their turbine and provide reactive power without producing real
power.

Capacitive and Inductive Compensators:

ces an electric field thereby generating reactive

power An inductive compensator produces a magnetic field to absorb reactive power.

hybrid to provide both generation and absorption of reactive power.

1. Overhead lines and underground cables, when operating at the normal system
voltage, both produce strong electric fields and so generate reactive power.
2. When current flows through a line or cable it produces a magnetic field which absorbs
reactive power.
3. A lightly loaded overhead line is a net generator of reactive power while a heavily
loaded line is a net absorber of reactive power.

4. In the case of cables designed for use at 275 or 400kV the reactive power generated
by the electric field is always greater than the reactive power absorbed by the magnetic
field and so cables are always net generators of reactive power.
5. Transformers always absorb reactive power.
8.Explain how voltage control can be effected by injection of reactive power?
[CO3-L2-May/June 2010]
Reactors

shunt connected, while series connected reactors are used to limit fault currents, shunt
reactors are used for var control.

70% of charging power while the remaining 30% power at no-load can be provided by
the under excited operation of the generator.

cut-out.

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Figure - Typical Shunt Reactor

Shunt Capacitors

improve the stability limit.

age transients, sub-

synchronous resonance, etc.

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Shunt capacitor
Series capacitors

point and the

load.

through the capacitor, protective devices like spark gaps and non linear resistors are to
be in corporate.
tor is shown in the figure (b).

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a) Series capacitor b) Phasor diagram

Relative merits between shunt and series capacitors.
1. If the load var requirement is small, series capacitors are of little help.
2. If the voltage drop is the limiting factor, series capacitors are effective; also to some
extent the voltage fluctuations can be evened.
3. If the total line reactance is high, series capacitors are very effective and stability is
improved.
4. With series capacitors the reduction in line current is small, hence if the thermal
considerations limits the current, little advantage is from this, so shunt compensation is
to be used.
Synchronous compensators:
or running without a mechanical
load and depending on the excitation level; it can either absorb or generate reactive
power.

overexcited at times of high loads and under excited at light loads.

associated voltage – var output characteristics

its stored energy is useful for riding through transient

disturbances, including voltage drops.

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Synchronous Compensator

STATIC VAR COMPENSATORS

Static VAR Compensator

compensation
devices for use in shunt reactive control.

linear reactors and capacitors) configured into a var compensating system.

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voltage side of a down transformer, the capacitor banks may be distributed between
high and low voltage buses.

harmonic currents from flowing in the transformer and the high voltage system.

ctor (TCR) is operated on the low voltage bus.

connected to the secondary of a transformer.

Reactor Compensator

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n be adjusted to anywhere between 10%

to the rated value.

inductive power can be obtained.

uit breaker
is needed.

network.

the reactor transformer with 200% leakage impedance between primary and secondary
windings.

via one circuit breaker per sub bank.

reactive power required to meet the control objective at the primary side of the
compensator is obtained.
ristic from no load to full
load condition.

generated

due to saturation.

The following requirements are to be borne in mind while designing a compensator.

1. Reaction should be possible, fast or slow, whenever demanded. No switching of
capacitor should take place at that time to avoid additional transients in the system.
Commutation from capacitor to reactor and vice versa should be fast.
2. No switching of the capacitors at the high voltage bus bar, so that no higher
frequency
Transients is produced at EHV level.
3. Elimination of higher harmonics on the secondary side and blocking them from
entering the system.

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In a three phase system the thyristor controlled inductors are normally delta connected
as shown in Figure to compensate unbalanced loads and the capacitors may be star or
delta connected

Unbalanced loads
the thyristor controlled reactor, the inductive reactance is controlled by the
thyristors.

the applied voltage V is represented in Figure. As the inductance is varied, the

susceptance varies over a

the voltage Changes by v volts.

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Unbalanced loads

with the conduction angle such that each successive half cycle is a smaller segment of
a sine wave.
ch case.

input to the firing angle control Static var compensators when installed reduce the
voltage swings at the rolling mill and power system buses in drive system applications.

factor.

power systems since the changes in arc furnace load impedance are rapid.

compensates for the unbalanced reactive load of the furnace and the thyristor controller
will respond quickly in order to minimize the voltage fluctuations or voltage flicker seen
by the system.

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Application of the static VAR compensator

the static var compensator.

ication of the static var compensator to an arc furnace
installation for reactive power compensation at the HV bus level.
9. Explain different types of static var compensator with a phasor diagram.?
[CO3-L2-May/June 2015]

TYPES OF SVC
1. Variable impedance type
2. Current source type
3. Voltage source type
The followings are the basic types of reactive power control elements which makes all
or parts of SVC
Saturated reactor

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1. Thyristor controlled Reactor

2. Thyristor switched capacitor
3. Thyristor Switched Reactor
4. Thyristor controlled Transformer
APPLICATION OF STATIC VAR COMPENSATOR

STEADY STATE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

The control loop must regulate the output voltage VI so that the error is made equal to
zero. It is also imperative that the response must be reasonably fast, yet not cause any
instability problem.
The performance of the AVR loop is measured by its ability to regulate the terminal
voltage of the generator within prescribed static accuracy limit with an acceptable speed
of response. Suppose the static accuracy limit is denoted by Ac in
percentage with reference to the nominal value.
The error voltage is to be less than (Ac/100)Δ|V|ref.
From the block diagram, for a steady state error voltage Δe;

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Larger the overall gain of the forward block gain K smaller is the steady state error. But
too large a gain K cans instability

DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF VOLTAGE REGULATION CONTROL

Consider

The response depends upon the roots of the characteristic eqn. 1 + G(S) = o.
As there are three time constants, we may write the three roots as S1, S2 and S3. A
typical root locus plot is shown in Figure

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Root locus
From the plot, it can be observed that at gain higher than Kc the control loop becomes
ln stable

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Unit – IV

UNIT COMMITMENT AND ECONOMIC DISPATCH

Part – A

1. Define economic dispatch problem? [CO4-L2-May/June 2014]

The objective of economic dispatch problem is to minimize the operating cost of active
power generation.

2. Define incremental cost? [CO4-L2-May/June 2015]

The rate of change of fuel cost with active power generation is called incremental cost.

3. Define base point? [CO4-L2-Nov/Dec 2013]

The present operating point of the system is called base point.

4. Define participation factor? [CO4-L2-Nov/Dec 2012]

The change in generation required to meet power demand is called as participation
factor.

5. Define hydrothermal scheduling problem? [CO4-L2-Nov/Dec 2010]

The objective is to minimize the thermal generation cost with the constraints of water
availability.

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6. Define Unit Commitment? [CO4-L2-May/June 2015]

Commitment of minmum generator to meet the required demand.

7. Define spinning reserve? [CO4-L2-Nov/Dec 2010]

It is the term describe the total amount of generation availability from all units
synchronized on the system.

8. What is meant by scheduled reserve? [CO4-L2-Nov/Dec 2012]

These include quick start diesel turbine units as well as most hydro units and pumped
storage hydro units that can be brought online, synchronized and brought up to full
capacity
quickly.

9. What are the thermal unit constraint? [CO4-L2-Nov/Dec 2014]

1) Minimum up time,
2) minimum down time crew constraints.

10. Define minimum up time? [CO4-L2-Nov/Dec 2007]

Once the unit is running, it should not be turned off immediately.

11. Define minimum down time? [CO4-L2-May/June 2014]

Once the unit is decommited, there is a minimum time before it can be recommended.

12. Define crew constraints? [CO4-L2-May/June 2015]

If a plant consist of two (or) more units, all the units cannot be turned on at the same
time
since there are not enough crew members to attend both units while starting up.

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13. What are the two approaches to treat a thermal unit to operating temperature?
[CO4-L2-May/June 2012]

The first allow the unit boiler to cool down and then heat backup to operating
temperature in time for a scheduled turn on. The second requires that sufficient energy
be input
to the boiler to just maintain operating temperature.
14. What are the techniques for the solution of the unit commitment problem?
[CO4-L2-May/June 2015]

1) Priority list method

2) dynamic programming
3) Lagrange relation

15. What are the assumptions made in dynamic programming problem? [CO4-L2-
Nov/Dec 2007]
A state consists of an array of units with specified units operating and the rest of the
time.
The startup cost of a unit is independent of the time it has been offline. There are no
costs for
shutting down the units.

16. Define long range hydro scheduling problem? [CO4-L2-Nov/Dec 2010]

The problem involves the long range of water availability and scheduling of reservoir
water releases. For an interval of time that depends on the reservoir capacities.

17. What are the optimization technique for long range hydro scheduling
problem? [CO4-L2-May/June 2014]
1) Dynamic programming
2) composite hydraulic simulation methods
3) statistical production cost method.

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18. Define short range hydro scheduling problem? [CO4-L2-Nov/Dec 2007]

It involves the hour by hour scheduling of all generators on a system to achieve
minimum
production condition for the given time period.

19. Define system blackout problem? [CO4-L2-May/June 2014]

If any event occurs on a system that leaves it operating with limits violated, the event
may be followed by a series of further actions that switch other equipment out of
service. If the
process of cascading failures continues, the entire system of it may completely collapse.
This is
referred as system blackout.

20. What is meant by cascading outages? [CO4-L2-May/June 2015]

If one of the remaining lines is now too heavily loaded, it may open due to relay action,
thereby causing even more load on the remaining lines. This type of process is often
termed as
cascading outage.

Unit – IV

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UNIT COMMITMENT AND ECONOMIC DISPATCH

Part – B

1. Explain the following terma involved in UC Problem? [CO4-L2-May/June 2014]

INTRODUCTION

power.

buses.
-problems, i.e.,optimum allocation of
generator station at various station load levels and optimum allocation of generation to
each station load level and optimum allocation of generation to each station for various
system load levels.

PRE REQUEST

power generation.

IMPORTANT TERMS
Incremental cost
generation is called incremental
cost.
Pg-pd-pl=0.

Participation factor

factor.

Hydrothermal scheduling
ze the thermal generation cost with the constraints of water
availability.

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Scheduled reserve

pumped storage hydro units that can be brought online, synchronized and brought up to
full capacity quickly.

Thermal unit constraint

Minimum up time

Minimum down time

recommended.

Crew constraints

time since there are not enough crew members to attend both units while starting up.

2. Explain the economic dispatch without loss ? [CO4-L2-May/June 2015]

N thermal-generating units connected to a single bus-bar
serving a received electrical load Pload input to each unit, shown as FI,represents the
cost rate of the unit.
Pi, is the electrical power generated by that particular unit.
The total cost rate of this system is, of course, the sum of the costs of each of the
individual units.
int on the operation of this system is that the sum of the output
powers must equal the load demand.

FT, is equal to the total cost for supplying the indicated

load.
FT subject to the constraint that the sum of the powers

generated must equal the received load.

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explicitly stated when formulating this problem. That is,

N thermal units committed to serve a load of Pload.

advanced calculus methods that involve the Lagrange function.

function, add the constraint function to the objective function after the constraint function
has been multiplied by an undetermined multiplier.
Lagrange function and is shown in Eq(7)

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we take the first derivative of the Lagrange function with respect to each of the
independent variables and set the derivatives equal to zero. In this case,there are N+1
variables, the N

, plus the undetermined Lagrange multiplier, λ.

merely gives back the constraint equation.

N equations that result when we take the partial derivative of
the Lagrange function with respect to the power output values one at a time give the set
of equations shown as Eq. 8.

When we recognize the inequality constraints, then the necessary conditions may be
expanded slightly as shown in the set of equations making up Eq. 9.

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THERMAL SYSTEM DISPATCHING WITH NETWORK LOSSES

-thermal power generation system connected to an equivalent
load bus through a transmission network.

slightly more complicated to set up than the previous case.

losses.
, is the same as that defined for Eq.10

 The same procedure is followed in the formal sense to establish the necessary
conditions for a minimum-cost operating solution, The Lagrange function is shown in
Eq.11.

power outputs, Pi, it must be recognized that the loss in the transmission network, Ploss
is a function of the network impedances and the currents flowing in the network.

independent variables Pi and the load Pload taking the derivative of the Lagrange
function with respect to any one of the N values of Pi results in Eq. 11. collectively as
the coordination equations

losses since this second set involves the computation of the network loss in order to
establish the validity of the solution in satisfying the constraint equation.

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here have been two general approaches to the solution of this problem.

network solely as a function of the power output of each of the units.

-formula method discussed at some length in Kirchmayer‟s Economic
Operation of Power Systems.

flow equations as essential constraints in the formal establishment of the optimization

problem.
.

N thermal units serving load through transmission network

3. Explain the economic dispatch solution by lambda-iteration method ? [CO4-L2-
May/June 2014]
-iteration method of solution for the all-thermal,
dispatching problem-neglecting losses.

for solving the problem and then extending this into the area of computer algorithms.

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-machine system and wish to find the optimum economic

operating point.

three units on the same graph, In order to establish the operating points of each of
these three units such that we have minimum cost and at the same time satisfy the
specified

demand, we could use this sketch and a ruler to find the solution.
(λ) and find the power outputs of
each of the three units for this value of incremental cost. the three units for this value of
incremental cost.

the total power output is

too low, we must increase the 3. value and try another solution.

to the desired value of total received power.

otal demand versus the incremental cost, we can rapidly
find the desired operating point.

total power supplied for different incremental cost levels and combinations of units.

accomplish the same objective as we have just done with ruler and graph paper.

incremental cost rate are of very little importance.

between the stored power points to find exact power output for a specified value of
incremental cost rate.
d be to develop an analytical function for the power output as
a function of the incremental cost rate, store this function (or its coefficients) in the
computer, and use this to establish the output of each of the individual units.
iterative type of computation, and we must establish stopping
rules.

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- iteration procedure converges very rapidly for this particular type of

optimization problem.

,since it is necessary to observe the operating limits on each of the units during the
course of the computation.
-known Newton-Raphson method may be used to project the incremental
cost value to drive the error between the computed and desired generation to zero.

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Economic Dispatch by Lambda-iteration method

BASE POINT AND PARTICIPATION FACTORS

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to be solved
repeatedly by moving the generators from one economically optimum schedule to
another as the load changes by a reasonably small amount.
-the base point.
ates how much each
generating unit needs to be moved (i.e.,“participate” in the load change) in order that the
new

load be served at the most economic operating point.

function are available (Le., both F; and Fy exist). The incremental cost curve of ith unit
given in the fig.
As the unit load is changed by an amount, the

This is true for each of the N units on the system, so that

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The total change in generation (=change in total system demand) is, of course, the sum
of the individual unit changes. Let Pd be the total demand on the generators (where
Pload+Ploss&),
Then

The earlier equation, 15, can be used to find the participation factor for each unit as
follows

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 The computer implementation of such a scheme of economic dispatch is

straightforward.
FY as a function of the load
levels and devising a simple scheme to take the existing load plus the projected
increase to look up these data and compute the factors.

repeat economic dispatch calculation at.

-point economic generation values are then subtracted from the new
economic generation values and the difference divided to provide the participation
factors.
re the execution time for
the economic dispatch is short and will always give consistent answers when units
reach limits, pass through break points on piecewise linear incremental cost functions,
or have non convex cost curves.
4. Explain the concept of unit commitment ? [CO4-L2-May/June 2012]
INTRODUCTION

also follows regularly repeated cycles or pattern in daily life.

on of electrical energy also follows a predictable daily,
weekly and seasonal pattern.

nto
service to meet the demand.

plant in the most economical manner.

for operation at any one time is also desired for carrying out the aforesaid task.

from a few minutes to several hours.

From daily schedules weekly patterns can be developed.

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thly, seasonal and annual schedules can be prepared taking into

consideration the repetitive nature of the load demand and seasonal variations.

in plants to service with the time at which individual units should be taken out from or
returned to service

CONSTRAINTS IN UNIT COMMITMENT

here is by no means exhaustive.

impose different rules on the scheduling of units, depending on the generation makeup,
load-curve characteristics, and such.

Spinning Reserve
Spinning reserve is the term used to describe the total amount of generation
available from all units synchronized (i.e., spinning) on the system, minus the present
load and losses being supplied.

cause too far a drop in system frequency.

make up for the loss in a specified time period.

ional
reliability councils (in the United States) that specify how the reserve is to be allocated
to various units.

demand, or that reserve must be capable of making up the loss of the most heavily
loaded unit in a given period of time.

sufficient generation to meet the load.

eration-unit failure, but
the reserves must be allocated among fast-responding units and slow-responding units.

interchange quickly in the event of a generating-unit outage.

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of “scheduled reserves” or “off-line” reserves.

-start diesel or gas-turbine units as well as most hydro-units and
pumped-storage hydro-units that can be brought on-line, synchronized, and brought up
to full capacity quickly.
As such, these units can be “counted” in the overall reserve assessment, as long as
their time to come up to full capacity is taken into account.

system limitations (often called “bottling” of reserves) and to allow various parts of the
system to run as “islands,” should they become electrically disconnected.
Thermal Unit Constraints

turned off.
erature changes, and this translates
into a time period of some hours required to bring the unit on-line.
As a result of such restrictions in the operation of a thermal plant, various constraints
arise, such as:

1. Minimum up time: once the unit is running, it should not be turned off immediately
2. Minimum down time: once the unit is decommitted, there is a minimum time before it
can be recommitted.
Cc = cold-start cost (MBtu)
F = fuel cost
Cf= fixed cost (includes crew expense, maintenance expenses) (in R)
α = thermal time constant for the unit
t = time (h) the unit was cooled
Start-up cost when banking = Ct x t x F+Cf
Where
Ct = cost (MBtu/h) of maintaining unit at operating temperature

Up to a certain number of hours, the cost of banking will be less than the cost of cooling,
as is illustrated in Figure.
Finally, the capacity limits of thermal units may change frequently, due to maintenance
or unscheduled outages of various equipment in the plant; this must also be taken.

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Other Constraints
Hydro-Constraints
-
units.

problem can be separated from the unit commitment problem.

in an optimal solution.

Must Run
-run status during certain times of the year for reason of
voltage support on the transmission network or for such purposes as supply of steam
for uses outside the steam plant itself.

Fuel Constraints
fuel scheduling” problem system in which some units have limited
fuel, or else have constraints that require them to burn a specified amount of fuel in a
given time, presents a most challenging unit commitment problem.

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5.Explain the unit commitment solution methods ? [CO4-L2-May/June 2015]

The commitment problem can be very difficult. As a theoretical exercise, let us
postulate the following situation.
1. We must establish a loading pattern for M periods.
2. We have N units to commit and dispatch.
3. The M load levels and operating limits on the N units are such that any one unit
can supply the individual loads and that any combination of units can also supply
the loads.
Next, assume we are going to establish the commitment by enumeration (brute force).
The total number of combinations we need to try each hour is,
C (N, 1) + C (N,2) + ... + C(N, N - 1) + C ( N , N ) = 2N – 1 ---------------------------------- (18)
Where C (N, j) is the combination of N items taken j at a time. That is

For the total period of M intervals, the maximum number of possible combinations is (2N
- l)M, which can become a horrid number to think about.
For example, take a 24-h period (e.g., 24 one-hour intervals) and consider systems with
5, 10, 20 and 40 units.

required.
-capacity relationships of typical
utility systems are such that we do not approach these large numbers.

the high dimensionality of the possible solution space.

-about techniques for the solution of the unit commitment problem
are:

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Priority-list schemes,

2. Dynamic programming (DP),

3. Lagrange relation (LR).

6. Explain the Priority-List Method ? [CO4-L2-May/June 2012]

units.
-down rule or priority-list scheme could be obtained after an exhaustive
enumeration of all unit combinations at each load level.
- load
average production cost of each unit, where the full-load average production cost is
simply the net heat rate at full load multiplied by the fuel cost.

Priority List Method:

Priority list method is the simplest unit commitment solution which consists of creating a
priority list of units.
Full load average production cos t= Net heat rate at full load X Fuel cost
Assumptions:
1. No load cost is zero
2. Unit input-output characteristics are linear between zero output and full load
3. Start up costs are a fixed amount
4. Ignore minimum up time and minimum down time Steps to be followed
1. Determine the full load average production cost for each units
2. Form priority order based on average production cost
3. Commit number of units corresponding to the priority order
4. Alculate PG1, PG2 ............... PGN from economic dispatch problem for the feasible
combinations only.
5. For the load curve shown.
Assume load is dropping or decreasing, determine whether dropping the next unit will
supply
generation & spinning reserve.

If not, continue as it is
If yes, go to the next step
6. Determine the number of hours H, before the unit will be needed again.
7. Check H< minimum shut down time.
If not, go to the last step If yes, go to the next step

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8. Calculate two costs

1. Sumof hourly production for the next H hours with the unit up
2. Recalculate the same for the unit down + start up cost for either cooling or banking
9. Repeat the procedure until the priority
list Merits:
1. No need to go for N combinations
2. Take only one constraint
3. Ignore the minimum up time & down time
4. Complication reduced
Demerits:
1. Start up cost are fixed amount
2. No load costs are not considered.
7. Explain the concept of Dynamic-Programming Solution ? [CO4-L2-May/June
2011]
Dynamic programming has many advantages over the enumeration scheme, the chief
advantage being a reduction in the dimensionality of the problem. Suppose we have
found units in a system and any combination of them could serve the (single) load.
There would be
a maximum of 24 - 1 = 15 combinations to test. However, if a strict priority order is
imposed, there are only four combinations to try:
Priority 1 unit
Priority 1 unit + Priority 2 unit
Priority 1 unit + Priority 2 unit + Priority 3 unit
Priority 1 unit + Priority 2 unit + Priority 3 unit + Priority 4 unit
The imposition of a priority list arranged in order of the full-load averagecost rate would

result in a theoretically correct dispatch and commitment only if:

1. No load costs are zero.
2. Unit input-output characteristics are linear between zero output and full load.
3. There are no other restrictions.
4. Start-up costs are a fixed amount.
In the dynamic-programming approach that follows, we assume that:
1. A state consists of an array of units with specified units operating and
2. The start-up cost of a unit is independent of the time it has been off-line
3. There are no costs for shutting down a unit.
4. There is a strict priority order, and in each interval a specified minimum the rest off-
line. (i.e., it is a fixed amount).amount of capacity must be operating.

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A feasible state is one in which the committed units can supply the required load and
that meets the minimum amount of capacity each period.
8.Explain in detail about Forward DP Approach? [CO4-L2-May/June 2015]
-programming algorithm to run backward in time starting
from the final hour to be studied, back to the initial hour.

to the final hour.

For example, if the start-up cost of a unit is a function of the time it has been off-line
(i.e., its temperature), then a forward dynamic-program approach is more suitable since
the previous history of the unit can be computed at each stage.
actical reasons for going forward.

time as long as required.

forward dynamic-programming algorithm is shown by the flowchart

The recursive algorithm to compute the minimum cost in hour K with combinati
Fcost(K,I)= min[Pcost(K,I)+Scost(K-1,L:K,I)+Fcost(K-1,L)] ----------------------------------
(20)
Where
Fcost(K, I ) = least total cost to arrive at state ( K , I )
Pcost(KI, ) = production cost for state ( K ,I )
Scost(K - 1, L: K , I)= transition cost from state (K - 1, L) to state ( K , I )
State (K, 1) is the Zth combination in hour K. For the forward dynamic programming
approach, we define a strategy as the transition, or path, from one state at a given hour
to a state at the next hour.
Note that two new variables, X and N, have been introduced in Figure.
X = number of states to search each period
N = number of strategies, or paths, to save at each step
These variables allow control of the computational effort (see below Figure).For
complete enumeration, the maximum number of the value of X or N is 2n – 1

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Compute the minimum cost

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Figure: Forward DP Approach

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Unit – V

COMPUTER CONTROL OF POWER SYSTEMS

Part – A

1. What are the functions of control center? [CO5-L2-May/June 2014]

1) System monitoring
2) contingency analysis
3) security constrained
4) optimal power flow.

2. What is the function of system monitoring? [CO5-L2-May/June 2015]

System monitoring provides uptodate information about the power system.

3. Define SCADA system? [CO5-L2-May/June 2013]

It stands for supervisory control and data acquisition system, allows a few operators to
monitor the generation and high voltage transmission systems and to take action to
correct
overloads.

4. What are the states of power system? [CO5-L2-May/June 2012]

1) Normal state
2) alert mode
3) contingency mode
4) emergency mode.

5. Define alert mode? [CO5-L2-May/June 2010]

The occurrence of all possible outages the system does not remain in the secure is
called
alert mode.

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6. What are the distribution factors? [CO5-L3-Nov/Dec 2010]

Line outage distribution factor, generation outage distribution factor.

7. Define state estimation? [CO5-L3-Nov/Dec 2008]

State estimation is the process of assigning a value to an unknown system state

variable
based on measurements from that system according to some criteria.

8. Define maximum likelihood criterion? [CO5-L3-Nov/Dec 2011]

The objective is to maximize the probability that estimate the state variable x, is the true
value of the state variable vector (i.e, to maximize the P(x)=x).

9. Define weighted least-squares criterion? [CO5-L3-Nov/Dec 2014]

The objective is to minimize the sum of the squares of the weighted deviations of the
estimated measurements from the actual measurement.

10. Define minimum variance criterion? [CO5-L3-Nov/Dec 2012]

The objective is to minimize the expected value of the squares of the deviations of the
estimated components of the state variable vector from the corresponding components
of the true
state variable vector.

11. Define must run constraint? [CO5-L3-Nov/Dec 2010]

Some units are given a must run status during certain times of the year for reason of
voltage support on the transmission network.

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12. Define fuel constraints? [CO5-L3-Nov/Dec 2010]

A system in which some units have limited fuel or else have constraints that require
them
to burn a specified amount of fuel in a given time.

are assumed
13. What are the assumptions made in priority list method? [CO5-L2-May/June
2013]

No load cost are zero unit input-output characteristics are linear between zero output
and
full load there are no other restrictions startup cost are affixed amount.

14. State the advantages of forward Dynamic Programming approach? [CO5-L2-

May/June 2014]

If the start up cost of a unit is a function of the unit is a function of the time it has been
offline, then a forward dynamic program approach is more suitable since the previous
history of
the unit can be computed at each stage.

15. State the disadvantages of dynamic programming method? [CO5-L2-May/June

2012]

It has the necessity of forcing the dynamic programming solution to search over a small
number of commitment states to reduce the number of combinations that must be
tested in each
period.
16. What are the known values in short term hydro scheduling problem? [CO5-L2-
May/June 2010]

The load, hydraulic inflows & uit availabilities known.

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17. What are the functions of security constraints optimal power flow? [CO5-L2-
May/June 2013]

In this function, contingency analysis is combined with an optimal power flow which
seeks to make changes to the optimal dispatch of generation. As well as other
adjustments, so
that when a security analysis is run, no contingency result in violations.

18. Define the state of optimal dispatch? [CO5-L2-May/June 2014]

This is the state that the power system is in prior to any contingency. It is optimal with
respect to economic operation but may not be secure.

19. Define post contingency? [CO5-L2-May/June 2012]

This is the state of the power system after a contingency has occurred.

20. What are the priorities for operation of modern power system? [CO5-L2-
May/June 2010]

Operate the system in such a way that power is delivered reliably. Within the constraints
placed on the system operation by reliability considerations, the system will be operated
most
economically.

21. What is meant by linear sensitivity factor? [CO5-L2-May/June 2010]

Many outages become very difficult to solve if it is desired to present the results quickly.
Easiest way to provide quick calculation of possible overloads is linear sensitivity
factors.

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22. What are linear sensitivity factors? [CO5-L2-May/June 2010]

Generation shift factors line outage distribution factors.

23. What is the uses of line distribution factor? [CO5-L2-May/June 2015]

It is used to apply to the testing for overloads when transmission circuits are lost.

24. What is meant by external equivalencing? [CO5-L2-May/June 2014]

In order to simplify the calculations and memory storage the system is sub divided into 3
sub systems called as external equivalencing.

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Unit – V

COMPUTER CONTROL OF POWER SYSTEMS

Part – B

1.Explain the concept of Energy Management System(EMS)? [CO5-L2-May/June

2014]

INTRODUCTION

in normal mode require sophisticated control, instrumentation and protection.

uments in the control room and their distance apart
make the observation of more than a few vitaloncs almost impossible, especially during
the intense activity of plant start up.

These requirements led to the development and application of more advanced solid
state modular electronic instruments, computer based direct control and date
processing systems.

PRE REQUEST

factors

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (EMS)

or more EMS vendors.

and maintenance of EMS within ECCs.

engineers with good software development capabilities.

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applications were developed for installation on the control centers computers.

the software resides on the vendor‟s computer and control center personnel access
it from the Internet.

software system and reduced installation cost

model building (including topology processing and state estimation), security

assessment, automatic generation control, and dispatch.
detail in the following subsections.

generation, transmission and distribution of electrical energy.

roduce energy
fed through transformers to the high-voltage transmission network (grid),
interconnecting generating plants, and load centers.

transformation, measurement, and control.

-voltage circuits typically operate radially, i.e., no normally closed paths

between substations through sub transmission or distribution circuits.(Underground
cable networks in large cities are an exception.)

must be balanced by either generation or load.

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nts, and automatic

generation control is performed by control center computers remote from generating
plants.
- side management, extends remote
supervision and control to subtransmission and distribution circuits, including control of
residential, commercial, and industrial loads.

Functionality Power EMS:

1. System Load Forecasting-Hourly energy, 1 to 7 days.
2. Unit commitment-1 to 7days.
3. Economic dispatch
4. Hydro-thermal scheduling- up to 7 days.
5. MW interchange evaluation- with neighboring system
6. Transmission loss minimization
7. Security constrained dispatch
8. Maintenance scheduling
9. Production cost calculation
Power System Data Acquisition and Control

terminal units (RTUs) for the purpose of allowing operators to observe and control
physical plants.

installation is becoming more common in distribution substations as costs decrease.

RTUs transmit device status and measurements to, and receive control commands and
set point data from, the master station.

4800 bits/s with the RTU responding to periodic requests initiated from the master
station (polling) every 2 to 10 s, depending on the criticality of the data.

a) Data acquisition: Provides telemetered measurements and status information to

operator.

b) Supervisory control: Allows operator to remotely control devices, e.g., open and close
circuit breakers. A “select before operate” procedure is used for greater safety.

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c) Tagging: Identifies a device as subject to specific operating restrictions and prevents

unauthorized operation.
d) Alarms: Inform operator of unplanned events and undesirable operating conditions.
Alarms are sorted by criticality, area of responsibility, and chronology. Acknowledgment
may be required
e) Logging: Logs all operator entry, all alarms, and selected information.

f) Load shed: Provides both automatic and operator-initiated tripping of load in response
to system emergencies.
g) Trending: Plots measurements on selected time scales.

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Layers of a modern EMS.

Since the master station is critical to power system operations, its functions are
generally distributed among several computer systems depending on specific design. A

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dual computer system configured in primary and standby modes is most common.
SCADA functions are listed below without stating which computer has specific
responsibility.
• Manage communication circuit configuration
• Downline load RTU files
• Maintain scan tables and perform polling
• Check and correct message errors

Convert to engineering units

• Detect status and measurement changes
• Monitor abnormal and out-of-limit conditions
• Log and time-tag sequence of events
• Detect and annunciate alarms
• Respond to operator requests to:
– Display information
– Enter data
– Execute control action
– Acknowledge alarms Transmit control action to RTUs
• Inhibit unauthorized actions
• Maintain historical files
• Log events and prepare reports
• Perform load shedding
2. Explain the concept of Automatic Generation Control ? [CO5-L2-May/June
2015]

Automatic generation control (AGC) consists of two major and several minor
functions that operate online in real time to adjust the generation against load at
minimum cost.

which is described below.

system; interchange scheduling, which initiates and completes scheduled interchanges;

and other similar monitoring and recording functions.

Load Frequency Control

Load frequency control (LFC) has to achieve three primary objectives, which are stated
below in priority order:

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1. To maintain frequency at the scheduled value

2. To maintain net power interchanges with neighboring control areas at the scheduled
values
3. To maintain power allocation among units at economically desired values.
 The first and second objectives are met by monitoring an error signal, called area control error
(ACE), which is a combination of net interchange error and frequency error and represents the power
imbalance between generation and load at any instant.

ACE are not translated into control action.

parameters have to be tuned specifically for each control area.

s modified by limiters, dead bands, and gain constants that are

tuned to the particular system.

participation factors to obtain unit control errors (UCE).

derivative of the cost of unit generation so that the units would be loaded according to
their costs, thus meeting the third objective.
deration because the different units may
have different response rates and it may be necessary to move the faster generators
more to obtain an acceptable response.

monitored to see that the corrections take place.

frequency and net interchange do tend to accumulate over time.

s have to be corrected by
adjusting the controller settings according to procedures agreed upon by the whole
interconnection.

that each system should follow its own

load very closely during normal operation, while during emergencies; each system
should contribute according to its relative size in the interconnection without regard to
the locality of the emergency.

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st important factor in obtaining good control of a system is its inherent

capability of following its own load.

adequate response capability.

Systems that have mainly thermal generation often have difficulty in keeping up with the
load because of the slow response of the units
3. Explain in detail about supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA)?
[CO5-L2-May/June 2012]

Supervisory control indicates that the

operator, residing in the energy control center (ECC), has the ability to control remote
equipment.
Data acquisition indicates that information is gathered characterizing the state of the
remote equipment and sent to the ECC for monitoring purposes.

in what is known as the remote terminal unit (RTU).

capability. Older RTUs are equipped with modems to provide the communication link
back to the ECC, whereas newer RTUs generally have intranet or internet capability.
ocated within the RTU, on command from the ECC, open or close selected
control circuits to perform a supervisory action.

switch, modifying a transformer tap setting, raising or lowering generator MW output or

terminal voltage, switching in or out a shunt capacitor or inductor, and the starting or
stopping of a synchronous condenser.

analog information and status indicators.

and reactive power flows.

-temperature, low relay battery voltage,
illegal entry) and whether switches and circuit breakers are open or closed.

second scan cycle is typical.

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4. Explain the functions of scada systems ? [CO5-L2-May/June 2014]

1. Data acquisition
2. Information display.
3. Supervisory Control (CBs:ON/OFF, Generator: stop/start, RAISE/LOWER command)
4. Information storage and result display.
5. Sequence of events acquisition

Remote terminal unit processing.

7. General maintenance.
8. Runtime status verification.
9. Economic modeling.
10. Remote start/stop.
11. Load matching based on economics.
12. Load shedding.
CONTROL FUNCTIONS

auxiliary
devices, etc.
-and a station-wide interlocking

bar

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MONITORING FUNCTIONS:

power, energy, temperature, etc.

PROTECTION FUNCTIONS:

indication and relay operating time and setting and reading of relay parameters.

daptive protection by switch-over of the active parameter set.

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES
telemetry. Telemetry is the
measurement of a quantity in such a way so as to allow interpretation of that
measurement at a distance from the primary detector.

includes

provision for converting the measure into a representative quantity of another kind that
can be transmitted conveniently for measurement at a distance.

frequency proportional to the quantity being measured is developed and transmitted on

a communication channel to the receiving location, where the received signal is applied
to a meter calibrated to indicate the quantity being measured, or it is applied directly to a
control device such as a ECC computer.

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e current, pulse-amplitude, pulse-length,

and pulse-rate, with the latter two being the most common.

sequence of pulses transmitted indicates the quantity.

he advantages to digital telemetering is the fact that accuracy of data is not
lost in transmitting the data from one location to another.

converters, as illustrated.

wires; although simple and economic for short distances, it suffers from reliability
problems due to breakage, water ingress, and ground potential risk during faults

common, traditional type of telemetry mediums based on leased-wire, power-line

carrier, or microwave.
voice grade forms of telemetry, meaning they represent communication
channels suitable for the transmission of speech, either digital or analog, generally with
a frequency range of about 300 to 3000 Hz.

SCADA REQUIRES COMMUNICATION BETWEEN MASTER CONTROL

STATION AND REMOTE CONTROL STATION:
-wire means use of a standard telephone circuit; this is a convenient and
straightforward means of telemetry when it is available, although it can be unreliable,
and it requires a continual outlay of leasing expenditures.

user and the telephone company.

-line carrier (PLC) offers an inexpensive and typically more reliable alternative
to leased-wire.
circuit itself is used to modulate a communication signal

at a frequency much greater than the 60 Hz power frequency.

-500 kHz.

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located
inside the substations. One disadvantage of PLC is that the communication cannot be
made through open disconnects, i.e., when the transmission line is outaged.

addition, PLC is susceptible to line noise and requires careful signal-to-noise ratio
analysis.

suppliers during the last few years.

-high-frequency (UHF) radio systems operating above

1 GHz.

communication is now quite common for EMS/SCADA applications. This form of

communication has obvious advantages over PLC and leased wire since it requires no
physical conducting medium and therefore no right-of-way.

communication, and therefore it is not applicable in some cases.

lopment has concerned the use of fiber optic cable, a technology

capable of extremely fast communication speeds. Although cost was originally
prohibitive, it has now decreased to the point where it is viable.
round power cables or they may be
fastened to overhead transmission line towers just below the lines.

t to power system
control.

communications courses to have this background. Students specializing in

communication should consider taking power systems courses as an application area.

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5. Explain the security analysis & control? [CO5-L2-May/June 2015]

Security monitoring is the on line identification of the actual operating conditions of a

power system. It requires system wide instrumentation to gather the system data as well
as a means for the on line determination of network topology involving an open or
closed position of circuit breakers. A state estimation has been developed to get the
best estimate of the status .the state estimation provides the database for security
analysis shown in fig.5.6.
Data acquisition

1. To process from RTU

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2. To check status values against normal value

3. To send alarm conditions to alarm processor
4. To check analog measurements against limits.
Alarm processor:

1. To send alarm messages

2. To transmit messages according to priority
Status processor:
1. To determine status of each substation for proper connection

Reserve monitor:

1. To check generator MW output on all units against unit limits

State estimator:

1. To determine system state variables

2. To detect the presence of bad measures values.
3. To identify the location of bad measurements
4. To initialize the network model for other programs

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Practical Security Monitoring System

Security Control Function:

-V, δ,P,Q.

Security enhancement-existing overload using corrective control action. Preventive

action.
System Security

1. System monitoring.
2. Contingency analysis.
3. Security constrained optimal power flow
Security Assessment

acceptable state and second, whether the system would respond in an acceptable

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manner and reach an acceptable state following any one of a pre-defined contingency
set.
contingency is the unexpected failure of a transmission line, transformer, or
generator.
fault, or short-circuit, to one of
these components.

component, and therefore also the fault, from the system.

effects may occur.

le, some remaining circuit may overload, or some bus may experience an
undervoltage condition. These are called static security problems.
Dynamic security problems may also occur, including uncontrollable voltage decline,
generator overspeed (loss of synchronism), or undamped oscillatory behavior

Security Control

components such as transmission lines, generators, and transformers to be

unexpectedly removed from service.

and frequency levels without loss of load.

experienced by the
system, many of which are not anticipated in planning.

security control starts with a specific state: the current state if executing the real-time
network sequence; a postulated state if executing a study sequence

1. Determine the state of the system based on either current or postulated conditions.
2. Process a list of contingencies to determine the consequences of each contingency
on the system in its specified state.

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3. Determine preventive or corrective action for those contingencies which represent

unacceptable risk.
topological processing to build network models and uses
large-scale AC network analysis to determine system conditions.

includes the following functions:

Topology processor:
Processes real-time status measurements to determine an electrical connectivity (bus)
model of the power system network.
• State estimator:
Uses real-time status and analog measurements to determine the „„best‟‟ estimate of
the state of the power system. It uses a redundant set of measurements; calculates
voltages, phase angles, and power flows for all components in the system; and reports
overload conditions.
• Power flow:
Determines the steady-state conditions of the power system network for a specified
generation and load pattern. Calculates voltages, phase angles, and flows across the
entire system.
Contingency analysis:
Assesses the impact of a set of contingencies on the state of the power system and
identifies potentially harmful contingencies that cause operating limit violations.
Optimal power flow: Recommends controller actions to optimize a specified objective
function (such as system operating cost or losses) subject to a set of power system
operating constraints.
• Security enhancement:
Recommends corrective control actions to be taken to alleviate an existing or potential
overload in the system while ensuring minimal operational cost

• Preventive action:
Recommends control actions to be taken in a “preventive” mode before a
contingency occurs to preclude an overload situation if the contingency were to occur.
• Bus load forecasting:
Uses real-time measurements to adaptively forecast loads for the electrical connectivity
(bus) model of the power system network
• Transmission loss factors:
Determines incremental loss sensitivities for generating units;
calculates the impact on losses if the output of a unit were to be increased by 1 MW.

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• Short-circuit analysis:
Determines fault currents for single-phase and three-phase faults for fault locations
across the entire power system network

Real-time and study network analysis sequences

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6.Explain state transition diagram showing various state transition and control
strategies or various operating states? [CO5-L1-May/June 2015]

VARIOUS OPERATING STATES:

Operating states
1. Normal state
2. Alert state
3. Emergency state
4. Extremis state
5. Restorative state
Normal state:

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A system is said to be in normal if both load and operating constraints are satisfied .It is
one in which the total demand on the system is met by satisfying all the operating
constraints.
Alert state:

contingency states, consists of the constraint limits violated.

disturbance increases, the system may be in alert state .

system may not have all the inequality constraints satisfied.

cy state. To bring
back the system to secure state, preventive control action is carried out.

Emergency state:

violated, but the load constraint is satisfied .

this state, the equality constraints are unchanged.

disconnection of faulted section or load sharing.

Extremis state:

then it goes to either emergency state or extremis state.

islanding.
the generating units are strained beyond their capacity .

emergency state or normal state.

Restorative state:
alert state or secure state
.The latter is a slow process.

secure state .

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Emergency state:
id to be in emergency state if one or more operating constraints are
violated, but the load constraint is satisfied .

tions,
disconnection of faulted section or load sharing.

Extremis state:

then it goes to either emergency state or extremis state.

r nor the operating constraint is satisfied, this result is
islanding.

emergency state or normal state.

Restorative state:

.The latter is a slow process.

secure state .
done using restorative control action.

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