Site Investigation (S.

I) and
Geophysics

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 Contents
1. Site Investagation Stage
2. Desk study
3. Prelimanary
4. Main
5. Borehole
6. Geophysics
Site Investagation Stage

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5
Prediction data like soil and rock
characteristics, groundwater level &
geology structure.

Information acquires from:

1. Topographic and geological map
2. Google map
3. Report / Journal
4. Photograph
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 Topographic and geological map

https://en-gb.topographic-map.com/maps/zrb/Malaysia/

https://www.jmg.gov.my/awam/penerbitan/peta-gis-dalam-talian 7
Geological map

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Google map

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Google map

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Field workover:
1. Test pits and trenches
2. Geological mapping on rock exposed
3. Sampling on jointed rocks

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Preliminary
 Main

• Borehole drilling
• Geophysics

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 Borehole:
wash boring
• Soil samples were
taken using spilt
barrel -

• Rock samples
obtained using core
barrel.

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Borehole: wash boring

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Standard penetration test SPT

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1. Soil sample - spilt barrel

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• Boring logs: Information from the boring operation

• Records:
1. Type of soils and rocks
2. Depth
3. SPT blows
4. Water level

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Bore
log

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Bore log

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• Disturbed sample
– Grain size analysis
– Liquid & plastic limit
– Specific gravity
– Organic content
– Classification

• Undisturbed:
– Consolidation
– Hydraulic conductivity
– Shear strength

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SPT N blows correlation
SPT N blows correlation

Soil type Relationship, MPa

Sand, normally E=6N

consolidated
Sand, saturated E=0.25(N+15)
Sand, E=40+1.05N
overconsolidated
Gravelly sand E=1.2(N+6)
Clayey sand E=0.32(N+15)
Silts, sandy silt, and E=0.3(N+6)
clayey silt
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2. Rock sample - core barrel

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6 meter of core rock length for granitic rocks to make
sure the rock formation is not a BOULDER.

12 meter of core rock length of limestone to prevent from

cavity, pinnacles, sinkholes.

Rock strength tests:

1. Uniaxial Compression Test,
2. Triaxial Compression Test,
3. Point Load Test
4. Schmidt hammer.

RQD, TCR, SCR and FI must be calculated for

geotechnical interpretation. 25
• Total Core Recovery (TCR%) = Core Recovered/Length of Core

• Solid Core Recovery (SCR%) = Solid core pieces in full diameter/

Length of Core

• Rock Quality Designation (RQD%) = Solid Core Pieces >

100mm/Length of Core

• Fracture Index (FI/m run) = Number of Fractures/Length of Core

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Core Logging Calculations

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Measurement identify rock quality
(Source: Deere, 1989)

RQD (%) Descriptions Rock Quality

0-25 Very Poor
25-50 Poor
50-75 Moderate
75-90 Good
90-100 Very Good

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• Data only at the drilling location.

• Interpolation between borings to determine

conditions does involve some degree of
uncertainty.

• Human error /negligent

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Figure 7.3 (b) Borelog shows the core rock logging

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 Geophysics
• Geophysical methods can provide data
across a proposed construction site.

• Advantages - non-destructive, non-

invasive nature and relative speed of
investigation.

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32
• Seismic refraction measurements are made by measuring the travel time of a
refracted seismic wave as it travels from the surface through one layer to another
and is refracted back to the surface where it is picked up by geophones.

• Impact is made at a point, seismic waves propagated through the surrounding soil
& rock.

• The wave speed relating to the density and hardness of the material.

• The velocity is determined.

• The magnitude of the velocity is than utilized to identified the material.

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 EQUIPMENT
1

5
2
3
2
4

6
7

Seismograph
1) Terraloc MK6 Printer
2) Seismic cable
3) Trigger cable
Battery Trigger
4) Sledge Hammer (12lb) cable
Seismic cable
5) Geophone
6) Battery (12v)
7) Striker plate Hammer
shot

Legend

Shot point location

Geophone
 SEISMIC REFRACTION FIELD OPERATION
(DATA ACQUISITION)

(1) Setup the spread (2) Seismograph operator (3) Shooter ready!!!
line

Geophone
(detector)
(4) Creating a source (5) Seismic trace
SEISMIC REFRACTION PRINCIPLE

At critical angle, seismic wave travel 90

degree along the layer 2 and then
refracted to the surface.
 SEISMIC VELOCITY VALUES (Primary velocity, Vp)

• Variation of Vp was relative due to lithology,

porosity and interstitial fluids of geomaterials.
Rapibility

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Cont’d
• Uses:

➢ To determine depth at each geophones of geologic strata,

structure and anomalous conditions

➢ To determine fracture orientation

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Cont’d

• Advantages:

➢ Typical measurements are less than 35 m but can easily

made to greater depths, if necessary

➢ Can resolve up to 3 to 4 layers

➢ Can provide depth under each geophone

➢ Both P and S waves can be determined

➢ The source of seismic energy can be as simple as 10

pound sledge hammer

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Cont’d

• Disadvantages:

➢ The survey line length (source to farthest geophone) may be

4 to 5 times the desired depth of investigation

➢ Requires intrusive contact with the ground

➢ Sensitive to acoustic noise and vibrations

➢ Seismic velocity of layers must increase with depth

➢ Will not detect thin layers or layers with inverted velocities

➢ Deeper measurements will require explosives as an energy

source

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Refraction vs reflection concept
• Seismic wave propagation
• Refracted wave
• Direct wave vs refracted wave
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Seismic reflection array

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Cont’d

• Uses:

➢Primary application is for determination of

depth and thickness of rock/soil layers
and geological structural (fold/fault).

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Cont’d

• Advantages:

1. Provides a high resolution cross section (as

compared to refraction) of soil/rock along profile
line

2. Measurements can be made up to 350 m deep

using a 10 pound sledge hammer as a seismic
source

3. The survey line length (source to farthest

geophone) is usually 1 to 2 times the desired
depth of investigation.

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Cont’d

• Disadvantages:

1. Requires intrusive contact with the ground

2. Sensitive to acoustic noise and vibration

3. Requires extensive seismic wave

processing

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 Types of seismic waves

• Primary wave P-Wave - compression

wave

• Secondary wave S-Wave - shear wave

• Surface wave R-Wave

• Speed ratio : 2.2 : 1.1 : 1

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https://pnsn.org/outreach/about-earthquakes/eq-waves
Wave velocity in various soils & rock

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 Cont… P-Wave velocities of common soil materials
Material P-Wave Velocities (m/ s)
Air 330
Water 1450-1530
Petroleum 1300-1400
Loess 300-600
Soil 100-500
Snow 350-3000
Solid Glacial Ice 3000-4000
Sand (loose) 200-2000
Sand (dry, loose) 200-1000
Sand (Water Saturated, loose) 1500-2000
Glacial Moraine 1500-2700
Sand and Gravel (near surface) 400-2300
Sand and Gravel (2 km depth) 3000-3500
Clay 1000-2500
Estuarine Muds/ Clay 300-1800
Floodplain Alluvium 1800-2200
Permafrost (Quartenary sediment) 1500-4900
Sandstone 1400-4500
Limestone (soft) 1700-4200
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Limestone (hard) 2800-7000
• The electrical resistivity to measure the resistivity of the ground.

• Current injected through one pair of electrodes and the potential difference
is measured between two additional electrodes.

• The bulk resistivity calculated based on formula;

• V RA
•
R= =
I L

• ρ = resistivity , R = resistance , A = cross sectional area of medium (m²), L

= length of medium (m), V = voltage , and I = electric current (A).

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 Potential Potential
electrode electrode
P1 P2
Current Current
electrode, C1 electrode, C2

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 Resistivity
• Electrical property is shown by the ability to transmit
ions.

• The movement of ions in electrolytic solutions, moist

soils, and water-bearing rocks results in electrical
conduction.

• The resistivity is a measure of how strongly a

material opposes the flow of electrical conduction.

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 Resistivity
• Electrical resistivity value depends on:
1. porosity,
2. degree of compaction,
3. pore structure,
4. particle shape and orientation,
5. type of pore fluid,
6. degree of saturation,
7. clay content,
8. mineralogy.

• Therefore, where do you think the resistivity

technique to be adopted?
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 Application of resistivity survey

1. to determine water boundaries,

undeground river, fresh water zone, sea
water intrusion.
2. to determine sinkholes or cavity of
limestone
3. to determine weathering profiles

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 EQUIPMENT

Electrode

2 Terrameter

Electrode
8

5
7 5
1
4 3
3 6
6

1) ABEM LS 2 TERRAMETER
2) Resistivity multi core cable
3) Cable connector
4) Electrode selector/switch box
5) Data transfer cable
6) Terrameter to switch box
cable
7) Steel electrode
8) Jumper cable
 ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY
(DATA ACQUISITION)

BOREHOLE
(1) Setup the spread line

(2) Pluck in the electrode

(3) Connect the jumper cable (4) Setup the terrameter (5) Terrameter operator
 Data is acquired on the surface

Data is processed using RES2DINV software

Resistivity section of the data after processing

 Resistivity
Material
(ohm.m)
Igneous& Metamorf
Granite 5x103 –106
Basalt 103-106
Slate 600 - 4x107
Marble 100 - 2.5x108
Quarzite 100 - 2x108

Sedimentary Rock
Sandstone 8 - 4000
Shale 20 - 2000
Limestone 50 - 400

Soil and Water

Clay 1-100
Alluvium 10-800
Groundwater (Clean) 10-100
Marine water 0.15

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Cont’d

• Uses:

➢ Resistivity used for determine depth and thickness of

geologic strata.

➢ For detecting and mapping ground water,

contaminant plumes, buried wastes and mineral
exploration.

➢ To determine fracture orientation.

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Cont’d

• Advantages:

➢ Good vertical and horizontal resolution

➢ The mapping depth around ¼ array length.

➢ Various measurement protocols

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Cont’d

• Disadvantages:

➢ Requires intrusive contact with the ground

➢ Susceptible to interference from nearby metal fences,

buried pipes, cables, etc

➢ Effectiveness decreases at very low resisitivity ground.

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 GPR
• The ground penetrating radar (GPR) technique is an
electromagnetic wave transmits into the ground and
records the wave that is reflected back to a receiving
antenna.

• The wave reflected due to variations in electrical

conductivity and dielectric permittivity with depth

• The propagation of electromagnetic energy is

attenuated due to the electrical conductivity of the
material.

• GPR equipment on the market are operated at

frequencies between 25 MHz and 1 GHz

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GPR

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GPR

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GPR
GPR trace
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Sketch of gravity survey over cavity

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Thank you