2.

1 Introduction
2.2 Laboratory Test
2.2.1 Index Test
2.2.2 Strength Test
2.3 Estimate of Joint Shear Strength
2.4 Parameters Affecting Laboratory Test
2.5 Common Sense Guidelines for Laboratory Testing of Rock
ROCK MASS
 7.1 Introduction
• Laboratory rock testing is performed to:
– Determine the strength and elastic properties of intact samples, and
– Determine the potential for decomposition of the rock material.

• The derived are used in part for the design of rock fills, cut
slopes, shallow and deep foundations, tunnels, and the assessment of shore
protection materials.

• Strength properties of intact samplens aid in evaluating the larger-scale

rock mass.

• Rock strength controlled by discontinuity

.
 Laboratory tests for testing of rock
samples:
• Rocks are naturally occurring material, they are
inhomogeneous & anisotropic.

• Even rock of the same class, collected from the same

location may display variation.

• Testings are to measure & to evaluate change in rock

properties & behavior when acted upon by loading.

• The properties include physical, index & strength of rock

materials.

• Behaviour include mode of failure.

Rock Mass vs Intact Rock Material
 7.2 LABORATORY TESTS
• Common laboratory tests for intact rocks
include:
– (point load index,
compressive strength, Brazilian test, direct shear),
(ultrasonics), and
(slaking).

• Table 2.1 gives a summary list of laboratory rock

tests and procedures by ASTM.
Table 2.1 STANDARDS & PROCEDURES FOR LABORATORY TESTING OF INTACT ROCK
Table 2.1 STANDARDS & PROCEDURES FOR LABORATORY TESTING OF INTACT ROCK
(cont’)
 Sample
Preparation For
Intact/Fresh Rock

Preparation of rock core

sample using laboratory
coring machine (tungsten
carbide coring bit)
Coring of rock block in laboratory – to obtain
cylindrical sample 54 mm diameter & 108 mm
height
Coring of rock block in laboratory – to obtain
cylindrical sample 54 mm diameter & 108 mm
height
Trimming of core sample to the required height
or length using diamond disc cutter.
Trimming of core sample to the required height
or length using diamond disc cutter.
Lapping of core sample to ensure end surfaces
are smooth and perpendicular to core axis.
Prepared granite core samples – 54mm dia. & 108mm height.
Prepared granite core samples – 54mm dia. & 108mm ht.
Prepared sandstone core samples – 54mm dia. & 108mm ht.
 SAMPLE PREPARATION FOR WEATHERED ROCK
BLOCK SAMPLING METHOD

Fig. A a) First approach, a) sampling using Fig. B a) second approach, a) sampling using Fig. C a) third approach, a) sampling using
modified Groenewoud (1960) technique block sampling technique, b) sample is wax in block mold based on Fookes (1997),
and Ponder and Alley (1997) technique, b) damage during coring. b) block samples are well prepared.
sample is completely destroyed.
 CORING FOR WEATHERED ROCK
Coring Process

Fig. D a) Block sample Grade IV using fluid Fig. E a) Block sample Grade V damage using Fig. F a) Block sample Grade V using UD
drilling technique, b) Remain nothing. air drilling technique, b) sample obtained sampler and UTM machine, b) sample
from air drilling technique obtained from penetration technique
[a] Index test & indirect strength test :

• Index tests are relatively simple & rapid, but do not provide
fundamental property.

• Data is an indicator on rock property being tested.

• Apparatus is generally simple and portable (allow test to be

conducted on site).

• Tests may not require detailed sample preparation. Certain

tests are ‘non-destructive’ which test NOT to fail.
[a] Index test & indirect strength test :

• Data is not suitable for detailed design purpose but, it

is valuable for preliminary / pre-feasibility assessments.

• Index tests:

- Point-load index test,

- Schmidt / Rebound Hammer (surface hardness) test,
- Slake’s durability index test,
- Sonic wave velocity test (PUNDIT),
- Brazilian / Indirect tensile strength test.
 Point Load Index
(ASTM D 5731 / ISRM 2007)
• Purpose:
– To determine strength of
rock materials through an
index test.

• The test can be performed in the field with

portable equipment or in the laboratory.

• The point load index is used to estimate the

uniaxial compressive strength (F).

• On the average, F = 24 Is(50).

• However, the conversion factor vary from
15 to 50 depending on rock types,
especially for anisotropic rocks.
Conversion Factor, K in PLT & UCS
correlation in various rock types
 Point Load Index
(ASTM D 5731 / ISRM 2007)
 Point Load Index
(ASTM D 5731 / ISRM 2007)
 Point Load Index
(ASTM D 5731 / ISRM 2007)
 Point Load Index
(ASTM D 5731 / ISRM 2007)
 CALCUALTION

F = (De/50)0.45

σc=(14 + 0.175D)Is (50)

Correlation PLT and UCS

ASTM D 5731
 Schmidt Rebound Hammer
(ASTM D 5873 / ISRM 2007)
PURPOSE:
• For rapid measure the hardness of rock.

• Provide dimensionless number and converted via

empirically formula to uniaxial compressive strength
(UCS).

• This test method is not use on very soft rock (UCS < 1
MPa) or very hard rock (UCS > 100 Mpa) (ASTM D
5873).
Schmidt Rebound Hammer
(ASTM D 5873 / ISRM 2007)
Schmidt Rebound Hammer
(ASTM D 5873 / ISRM 2007)
Schmidt Rebound Hammer
(ASTM D 5873 / ISRM 2007)
Procedure to Conduct
 Hammer types
• Two types: L-Type & N-Type.

• Impact energy for L- type: 0.735 Nm

• Impact energy for N- type: 2.207 Nm

• Provided that the hammer impact results in uniform compaction

(i.e., without crushing of discrete grains, skeletal collapse, or
extensive cracking and chipping off):

• Both hammer types were used for testing rocks of a large range of
the uniaxial compressive strength (UCS), 1–100 MPa.
What the Difference Between
L & N Type?
Common Types of Schmidt's Hammer
Rebound Hammer Chart
 Slake’s Durability Index Test
(ASTM D 4644-87 / ISRM 2007)

• PURPOSE

• The test method is used to estimate qualitatively the durability of

rocks

• To determine the resistance index or durability of weak and

soluble rocks such as shale, clay-bearing rocks, travertine and weak
limestones, as it represents the degradability.

• The slake durability assessment of rock is based on the second cycle

of the test. (Can be conducted up to five cycle).
 Equipments
slake durability device:

1. A test drum comprised of a 2.0 mm (No.

10) standard square-mesh cylinder of
unobstructed length of 100 mm and
diameter 140 mm, with a solid fixed
base.

2. The ends shall be rigid plates, with one

removable end.

3. The drum and plates must be

sufficiently strong to retain their shapes
during use.

4. The drum shall be able to withstand a

temperature of 110 ± 5º C.
Overview of Apparatus
 Sample Preparation:
Slake durability device
1. The test specimen shall
consist of ten representative,
intact, roughly quidimensional
fragments weighing 40 g to 60
g each.

2. The total test specimen shall

weigh 450 to 550 g.
Calculation 2nd Cycle
 Tensile Strength (Brazilian Test for Intact Rock)
(ASTM D 3967 / ISRM 2007)
• Purpose :
– To evaluate the (indirect) tensile strength of rock.
• Core specimens with length-to-diameter
ratios (L/D) of between 2 to 2.5 are placed
in a compression loading machine with the
load platens situated diametrically across
the specimen.

• The maximum load (P) to fracture the

specimen is recorded and used to calculate
the tensile strength.

• The tensile strength is significantly more

convenient and practicable for routine
measurements than the direct tensile
strength test (T0).
Tensile strength (Brazilian Test for Intact Rock)
(ASTM D 3967 / ISRM 2007)
Tensile strength (Brazilian Test for Intact Rock)
(ASTM D 3967 / ISRM 2007)
Tensile strength (Brazilian Test for Intact Rock)
(ASTM D 3967 / ISRM 2007)
Tensile strength (Brazilian Test for Intact Rock)
(ASTM D 3967 / ISRM 2007)
 [b] Direct strength test:
• Test procedure requires detailed preparation of sample
(standard shape & finishing).

• Sample preparation process is equipment related & it

is costly.

• The testing itself involving sophisticated & large

equipment, thus detailed testing procedures.

• May require complex analysis, again it is costly.

• However data obtained is fundamental property &

direct presentation of property being evaluated.
 [b] Direct strength test:

• The uniaxial (or unconfined)

compression standard tests on
cylinder shape.

• The uniaxial compressive

strength (qu) is obtained by

and

. uniaxial compressive strength (UCS)

 Uniaxial Compressive Strength
(ASTM D 2938/ ISRM 2007)
• Purpose:
– To determine the uniaxial compressive strength of rock (qu).
• The uniaxial compression test is most direct means of
determining rock strength.

• The results are influenced by the moisture content of the

specimens, and thus should be noted.

• The rate of loading and the condition of the two ends of

the rock will also affect the final results.

• Ends should be planar and parallel per ASTM D 4543.

• The rate of loading should be constant as per the ASTM test

procedure (1mm/min).

• Inclined fissures, intrusions, and other anomalies will often

cause premature failures on those planes.
• These should be noted so that, where appropriate, other
tests such as triaxial or direct shear tests can be required.
Uniaxial Compressive Strength
(ASTM D 2938/ ISRM 2007)
Uniaxial Compressive Strength
(ASTM D 2938/ ISRM 2007)
Uniaxial Compressive Strength
(ASTM D 2938/ ISRM 2007)
 Uniaxial Compressive Strength
(ASTM D 2938/ ISRM 2007)

• Elastic modulus of rock (E) is the

gradient of the graph at 50% ultimate
stress (UCS):
E = stress / strain = (σ) / (ε)
unit σ is MPa; ε is unitless and E is Gpa

Poisson ratio,ν n is the ratio of radial

(lateral) strain to axial (vertical) strain
taken at 50% UCS:
n = εr / εa

Axial strain at failure is εa at ultimate

UCS.

Strain at failure indicate the brittleness

& ductility of sample.
Axial Young’s Modulus
Compaction phase (I) – the pre-existing
Unstable fracturing phase (IV) – crossing the
cracks and joints, and intergrain pores
macro-dilatancy limit the crack opening mode
close under rising load. The stress-strain
starts, then the crack sliding mode initiates and
curve can be linear or non-linear because
their unstable propagation. Through the
of the primary micro cracks' density and
increase and joining of
their geometry

Linear elastic deformation phase (II) – Rock degradation phase (V) – macro shear
elastic deformation predominates in surfaces form and then slip failure occurs.
this phase, but some non-linear
behaviour is possible. The stress-strain
curve is linear;
Stable fracturing phase (III) –
the start of this phase is the
microdilatancy limit when the
separation of cracks and their
propagation in the directions
parallel to the main
compressive stress direction
starts. The stress-strain curves
for volumetric and transversal
deformations stop being linear.
Acoustic emission grows
 Uniaxial Compressive Strength (ASTM D 2938/ ISRM 2007)
Axial Young’s Modulus
Tangent Young’s modulus Etan – at fixed percentage of ultimate stress. This is defined as the
slope of a line tangent to the stress-strain curve at a fixed percentage of the ultimate strength
(Fig. a). Generally taken at a stress level equal to 50% of the ultimate UCS;

Average Young’s modulus Eav– of the straight-line part of a curve. The elastic modulus is defined
as the slope of the straight-line part of the stress-strain curve for the given test (Fig. b);

Secant Young’s modulus Esec – at a fixed percentage of ultimate stress. It is defined as the slope
of the line from the origin (usually point (0; 0)) to some fixed percentage of ultimate strength,
usually 50% (Fig. c).
Uniaxial Compressive Strength
(ASTM D 2938/ ISRM 2007)
Uniaxial Compressive Strength
(ASTM D 2938/ ISRM 2007)
 Uniaxial Compressive Strength
(ASTM D 2938/ ISRM 2007)

σu =68 MPa


E @ 50% UCS

34  10 6
E  100
0.056
E  60.7GPa
σu /2=34 MPa
h
v @ 50% UCS
v
0.009
v  100
0.056
v  1.61
εh = 0.009 εv = 0.056
Typical values of E & for various
types of fresh rock
 Failure under uniaxial compression test:
• Sample modes of failure during testing indicate the
degree of hardness & brittleness of rock.

• Under uniaxial compression, normally the rock

sample fails in a sudden manner & fracture planes .

– For strong rock like gabbro (igneous), crushed material.

– For softer rock like shale (sedimentary rock), failure is

gradual.
Failure under uniaxial compression test: (Cont’)
• Brittle & hard rocks – the strain at failure is relatively smaller
& the stress at failure is higher.

Modes of failure of rock sample under loading

 Mode of Failure

Fracture planes in failed rock sample

Fracture planes in failed sandstone sample (UCT)
 Mode of Failure Granite under UCS test

Basu & Mishra (2014) A method for estimating crack-initiation stress of rock materials by porosity
Shear Fracture in Compression of rock through
Uniaxial Compression Test
Stress-strain curve for rock samples of different
hardness: ductile and brittle
 Triaxial
compression test
X meter
 Triaxial compression test
• Triaxial compression test (mampatan 3-paksi) is to
evaluate the strength of rock under confinement
(terkurung), e.g. rock samples obtained from deep
seated rock mass (effect of hydrostatic pressure P =
ρgh, due to weight of overburden).

• Rock displays a higher strength when confined and

deformation behaviour becomes ductile / strain
hardening).
 Triaxial compression test
• The test is used to assess load bearing capability of
rock at depth (20 m from surface). Example the
bedrock (batu dasar) where a large structure is to be
founded & strength of rock surrounding a deep
tunnel.

• Test requires high capacity compression machine,

Hoek’s cell & confining pressure generator.
Hoek’s Cell & sample sleeve for triaxial compression test
on core sample of 54 mm D & 108 mm H
Hoek’s Cell for use in triaxial compression
test
Preparation to install sample in Triaxial Cell
Test set-up for triaxial
compression test
Mohr Circle Failure Envelop
Mohr Circle Failure Envelop
[b] Direct strength test:
• Direct shear test measures
.

Direct shear tests

Concept of Direct Shear Test
Direct Shear
Test
Surface of rock joint after shear test
2.3 Estimation of joint shear strength:
• The shear joints will affect the stability of excavation
face created in jointed rock mass.

• If sufficient information is available to allow realistic

analysis of stability, then some quantitative assessment
of joint strength is possible.

• The shear strength can be estimated perfectly

adequately from the following formula, provided that
exposed joint surfaces are available in situ, or at least
in core samples.
 Estimation of joint shear strength:

τ : peak shear strength

σn : effective normal stress
JRC : joint roughness coefficient
JCS : joint wall compressive strength
(obtained Rebound Hammer test on joint surface).
φb : is the basic friction angle (obtained from residual shear
test on flat unweathered surfaces

• The shear strength estimated using the above formula

includes apparent cohesion of the joint
Estimation of joint shear strength:
• In practice φb may vary between 250 and 350, and the assumption of
300 will be adequate.

• JCS is obtained from Rebound Hammer test on joint surface and R is

converted to JCS using formula (Broch & Franklin, 1972):

• JRC can be interpolated from roughness profile.

• A simpler, but more approximate means of estimating frictional

shear strength (excluding apparent cohesion) is to take into
account of the roughness using description given in the following
table and add the basic friction angle.
 2.4 Parameters affecting laboratory tests

• Factors affecting variations in test data include:

• Testing procedures – used standard methods.

• Condition of sample – saturation & preparations.
• Environment (lab test) – temperature & humidity.
• Specimen size – when small-scale discontinuities
are present in sample (sedimentary &
metamorphic rock).
 Effect of loading
orientation on UCS of
sample displaying
lamination
(metamorphic rock
e.g. schist)
 gneiss

shale

Minerals arrangements due to sedimentation

(lamination) and due to metamorphism
(foliation) are is small scale discontinuities rock
schist (e.g. shale, sandstone slate & schist)
Being small scale discontinuities, they occur in laboratory
rock sample. Fracture/failure can be easily induced along
the lamination/foliation, but not perpendicular to it. Thus
rock sample displaying lamination/foliation may display
different strength when loaded at different direction.
Factors affecting variations in test data include:

• Loading rate (kN/s), straining rate (%/s) & shearing

rate (mm/s) – higher loading rate, lower strength.

• Flatness & smoothness of specimen surfaces –bending

& flexural effect, cracks may initiate failure.

• For H/D greater than 2.0, UCS remains constant, thus

the recommended H/D=2 to eliminate size effect.

• End-conditions affect UCS. The stronger the end

platens (e.g. steel vs. graphite).
 VARIATIONS ON ROCK PROPERTIES
• Samples variation: rock is inhomogeneous & anisotropic
(contributes 10 - 20 % error on lab data (Waltham, 2002)

• Machine accuracy: typically at 500 kN max. capacity, accuracy

is ± 3 to 5 % (Jaeger & Cook, 1979)

• Existing fractures: leads to premature failure in some samples

 COMMON SENSE GUIDELINES FOR LABORATORY
TESTING OF ROCKS
1. Provide protection of samples to avoid moisture loss and structural disturbance.
2. Clearly indicate proper numbering and identification of samples.
3. Storage of samples in controlled environments to prevent drying, overheating, & freezing.
4. Take care in the handling & selection of representative specimens for testing.
5. Consult the field logs while selecting test specimens.
6. Recognizing disturbances & fractures caused by coring procedures.
7. Maintain trimming & testing equipment in good operating condition.
8. Use of proper fittings, platens, o-rings, & membranes in triaxial, uniaxial, and shear tests.
9. Careful tolerances in trimming of ends and sides of intact cores.
10. Document frequency, spacing, conditions, & infilling of joints and discontinuities.
11. Maintain calibration of instruments used to measure load, deflections, temperatures, & time.
12. Use of properly-determined loading rate for strength tests.
13. Photo documentation of sample cores, fracture patterns, & test specimens for report.
14. Carefully align & level all specimens in directional loading apparatuses and test frames.
15. Record initial baselines, offsets, and eccentricities prior to testing.
16. Save remnant rock pieces after destructive testing by uniaxial, triaxial, & direct shear.
17. Conduct nondestructive tests (i.e., porosity, unit weight, ultrasonics) prior to destructive
strength testing (compression, tensile, shear).