DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS

Relationship of Traffic to Highway Design

Design Criteria The major traffic elements that influence highway
The elements of design are influenced by a wide design are:
variety of design controls, engineering criteria, and Average Daily Traffic The fundamental
project-specific objectives. Such factors include the (ADT) & Annual Average measures of traffic flow
following: Daily Traffic (AADT)
▪ Traffic safety considerations Design Hourly Volume The most significant
▪ Functional classification of the roadway (DHV) measure of traffic
▪ Projected traffic volume and composition volume to the designer
▪ Required design speed Directional Distribution The one-way volume in
▪ Multimodal needs of the surrounding community (D) the predominant
▪ Topography of the surrounding land direction of travel,
▪ Capital costs for construction expressed as a
▪ Agency funding mechanisms proportion of the volume
▪ Human sensory capacities of roadway users in the two-way design
▪ Vehicle size and performance characteristics hour volume. Ranges
▪ Public involvement, review, and comment from 50% – 70%.
▪ Environment considerations Percentage of Trucks (T) Expressed as the
▪ Right-of-way impacts and costs percentage of trucks
These considerations are not completely (exclusive of light
independent of one another. Of all factors that are delivery trucks) present
considered in the design of a highway, the principal in the traffic flow during
criteria are traffic volume, design speed, vehicle size the design hour.
and vehicle mix. Design Speed (V)

 The functional class of a proposed facility

Roadway Capacity
largely determined by the volume and
 Once a level of service has been chosen for a
composition of the traffic to be served. It is also
particular project design, the corresponding
related to the type of service that a highway
service volume logically becomes the design
will accommodate and the design speed that a
service volume. This implies that if the traffic
vehicle will travel while being driven along a
volume using this facility exceeds that value, the
highway.
operating conditions will be inferior to the level
 The choice of a design speed is governed
of service for which the roadway was designed.
primarily by the surrounding topography,
 An evaluation of the estimated volume of traffic
regional importance within the larger highway
anticipated to occur during the design year is
network, magnitude of related construction
useful in determining the number of lanes
impacts, and capital costs associated with
required to achieve the desired level of service
construction of the highway project.
operation.
 Once a design speed is chosen, many of the
elements of design (e.g. horizontal & vertical
alignment, shoulder width, and side slopes) Design Speed
may be established on the basis of fundamental  The assumed design speed for a highway may
human sensory capabilities, vehicle be considered as “a selected speed used to
performance, and other related operating determine the various geometric design
characteristics. features of the roadway”. The engineer should
select a design speed appropriate to assure that
road users can travel their desired speeds for
the specific facility.
 Other factors determining the selection of
design speed include terrain, traffic volume and
composition, costs of right-of-way and
construction, and aesthetic considerations.
Design Vehicle lane, as most vehicle operators drive closer to
 The dimensions of the motor vehicles that will the edge of the pavement in the presence of
utilize the proposed facility also influence the adequate shoulders.
design of a roadway project. The width of the  In mountainous areas, where the extra cost of
vehicle naturally affects the width of the traffic providing shoulders of this width may be
lane; the vehicle length has a bearing on a prohibited, the use of partial shoulders may be
roadway capacity and affects the turning radius; permitted provided that a stopped vehicle
and the vehicle height affects the clearance of would only protrude to 0.3m to1.2m into the
the various structures. adjacent travel lane.
 AASHTO recommends four design vehicle  For areas of terrain where guardrails or other
classes for geometric design of a highway vertical elements (such us retaining walls) are
vehicles. They include (1) passenger cars, (2) required, an additional 0.6m of shoulder
buses, (3) trucks, (4) recreational vehicles. widening should be provided.

Cross – Section Elements Guardrails

 The width of the surfaced road and number of  A guardrail should be provided where fills are
lanes should be adequate to accommodate over 2.4m in height, when shoulder slopes are
the type and volume of traffic anticipated and greater than 1V:4H, in locations where there is
the assumed design speed of vehicles. Roads sudden change in alignment, and where a
presently in use have traditionally been greater reduction in speed is necessary. In
separated into generalized categories that locations with deep roadside ditches, steep
include two-lane, three-lane, multilane banks, or other right-of-way limitations, it is
undivided, multilane divided, and limited-access often necessary to steepen the side slopes and
highways. to require the use of a guardrail.
W-Beam-Cable- Box Beam
Pavement Crowns
 It is the raising of the centerline of the roadway Drainage Ditches
above the elevation of the pavement edges.  It should be located and shaped to avoid
creating a hazard to traffic safety. Under normal
Curb Configurations conditions, ditches should be low enough to
 The design of curbs varies from a low, flat, angle drain the water from under the pavement. A
– type, to nearly vertical barrier – type curb. In broad, flat, rounded ditch section has been
areas where sidewalks are not provided, curbs found to be safer than a V-type ditch.
adjacent to traffic lanes should be low in height
and constructed with a flatter vertical angle so Slopes
as not to create an obstruction. The face of the  The graded area immediately adjacent to the
curb should be no steeper than 45° (mountable graded roadway shoulder is the sideslope. In a
curb) so that vehicles may drive over the curb cross section with a drainage ditch, the slope on
without difficulty. the far side of the ditch where the roadside
 Curbs at parking areas and adjacent to region slopes back to natural topography is the
sidewalks should be 150 to 200 mm in height, backslope. The sideslope down to the ditch is
with a curb face that is nearly vertical. Storm often referred to as the foreslope.
water drainage and the ability to accommodate
curb inlets will also affect the shape and height Roadway Alignment
of the curb.  An ideal and most desirable roadway is one that
generally follows the existing natural alignment
Shoulders of the countryside. This is the most economical
 For roads without curbs, it is necessary to type of highway to construct, but certain
provide shoulders for safe operation and to aspects of the design that must be maintained.
allow the development of full traffic capacity. A The designer must produce an alignment in
well-maintained, smooth, firm shoulders which conditions are consistent and uniform to
increase the effective width (3m) of the traffic
 help reduce problems related to driver ROADSIDE DESIGN
expectancy.
 The ideal highway locations is one with
consistent alignment, where both vertical grade Roadside Topography
and horizontal curvature receive consideration  When a motorist leaves the roadway, the
and are configured to satisfy limiting design vehicle’s lateral encroachment and trajectory
criteria. The optimal final alignment will be that are affected by the geometry of the roadside.
in which the best balance between grade and Most roadsides are not flat. Usually, the
curvature is achieved. motorist encounters an embankment, a cut
 Terrain has considerable influence on the final slope, or a ditch. The slopes of embankments
choice of alignment. Generally, the topography may be parallel to the flow of traffic or at an
of the surrounding area is fitted into one of angle to the flow of traffic.
three classifications: level, rolling, or
mountainous. Embankments Parallel to the Flow of Traffic
 In level country, the alignment is in general AASHTO defines three categories of slopes of
limited by considerations other than grade, that embankments parallel to the flow of traffic:
is, cost of rightof-way, land use, waterways
requiring expensive bridging, existing cross 1. Recoverable Slopes. Motorists encroaching on recoverable
roads, railroads, canals, power lines, and embankment slopes can
subgrade conditions or the availability of generally stop their vehicles or slow them enough to return
safely to the road way. Slopes 1V:4H or flatter are generally
suitable borrow materials.
considered to be recoverable.
 In rolling country, grade and curvature must be 2. Non-recoverable Slopes. These slopes are traversable, but
carefully considered and to a certain extent motorists who encroach on then will be unable to stop or to
balanced. Depths of cut and height of fill, return to the roadway safely. Slopes between 1V:3H and
drainage structures, and number of bridges will 1V:4H are typically considered to be non-recoverable.
depend on whether the route follows the 3. Critical Slopes. Critical slopes are those on which a vehicle
ridges, the valleys, or a cross-drainage is likely to overturn. Slopes generally steeper than 1V:3H
alignment. occur with critical slopes, and protective roadside barriers
 In mountainous country, grades provide the may be required to restrict access to these slopes.
greatest problem, and, in general, the
horizontal alignment or curvature is controlled Drainage Features
by maximum grade criteria.  Ditches and drainage structures are integral and
necessary elements of the highway cross
Sight Distance section. These elements must, however, be
 Safe highways must be designed to give drivers thoughtfully and properly designed,
a sufficient distance of clear vision ahead so constructed, and maintained, with
they can avoid hitting unexpected obstacles and consideration given to their effect on a safe
can pass slower vehicles without danger. roadside environment.
 Sight Distance is the length of highway visible
ahead to the driver of a vehicle. For roadway Ditches
segments, three general types of sight distance  The side slopes of ditches should be as flat as
should be considered: possible consistent with drainage requirements.
1. The stopping sight distance is the minimum distance Preferably, the bottoms of ditches should be
required to stop a vehicle traveling near the design speed wide and rounded so as to be traversable by
before it reaches a stationary object in the vehicle’s path. out-of-control vehicles. If deep, narrow side
2. When the sight distance is long enough to enable a vehicle ditches must be used, they may need to be
to overtake and pass another vehicle on a two-lane highway shielded by roadside barriers.
without interference from opposing traffic, this distance is
referred to as passing sight distance.
3. Often a driver may encounter an unexpected road feature.
The sight distance required for a driver to make decisions
and successfully execute required maneuvers at complex
locations is decisions sight distance.
Drainage Structures leaving the roadway and striking a fixed object
 It is important that curbs, cross-drainage or traversing a terrain feature that is considered
structures, parallel drainage culverts, and drop more hazardous than the barrier itself.
inlets be designedwith proper consideration for  Various types of roadside barrier systems are
safety. To enhance roadside safety, the flexible, semirigid, and rigid systems. Flexible
following guidelines apply: and semirigid barriers are commonly referred to
1. Eliminate all nonessential drainage structures. as guardrails. Some agencies have successfully
2. Design, relocate, or modify drainage structures so they are used the so-called weak post system where the
traversable and not otherwise hazardous to an out-of-control post collapse when struck, and the rail deflects
vehicle. and absorbs the energy of impact.
3. Shield hazardous drainage features that cannot be
redesigned or relocated with a suitable traffic
barrier. Median Barriers
 Median Barriers are used primarily to prevent
Curbs vehicles from crossing the median and
 The use of curbs along high-speed roadways encroaching into opposing lanes.
should be avoided. It is common for vehicles
that are sliding sideways or slipping to overturn Bridge Railings
upon impact with curbs. If a curb must be used  Bridge railings are special types of longitudinal
along high-speed highways where a barrier is barriers designed to prevent vehicles from
present, it is preferable to place it flush with the running off the edge of bridges or culverts. They
barrier or behind it. differ from roadside barriers in that they are
connected to the structure and are usually
Cross-Drains designed to have little or no deflection.
 Cross-drain structures, which are designed to
carry water underneath the roadway Crash Cushions
embankment, are varied in size and design.  Crash Cushions are used to decelerate errant
Care should be taken to ensure that cross- vehicles to a stop, greatly reducing the severity
drains do not become a hazard, either as a of head-on impact with a fixed object by
protruding fixed object or as an opening into spreading the energy of impact over time and
which a vehicle can drop. space. A variety of crash cushions have been
proposed and tested, including rows of barrels,
Longitudinal Barriers entrapment nets, and arrays of containers filled
 Longitudinal Barriers are used to prevent with sand or water.
vehicles from leaving the roadway and crashing
into roadside obstacles, overturning, or crossing
into the path of vehicles traveling in the
opposite direction.
 The three main classes of longitudinal barriers:
roadside barriers, median barriers & bridge
railings.
 Before they are placed into service, longitudinal
barriers and related energy absorbing terminals
and transitions are usually tested and evaluated
by full-scale vehicle crash tests.

Roadside Barriers
 Used to shield motorists from hazards located
along each side of a roadway. They are intended
to redirect errant vehicles away from a hazard
rather than to protect or prevent damage to a
sign or other highway appurtenances. Their
primary purpose is to prevent a vehicle from
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN FOR HIGHWAYS  Values represent the minimum acceptable
design speeds for the various conditions of
INTRODUCTION: The alignment of a highway or street terrain and traffic volumes associated with new
produces a great impact on the environment. The or reconstructed highway facilities
alignment consists of a variety of design elements that
combine to create a facility that serves traffic safely and
efficiently, consistent with the facility’s intended II. Horizontal alignment
function. Each alignment element should complement  Horizontal alignment for linear
others to achieve a consistent, safe, and efficient transportation facilities such as highways
design. and railways consist of Horizontal tangent.
Circular curves and possibly transition
I. DESIGN SPEEDS
curves. In the case of highways. Transition
⚫ Design speed is defined by the AASHTO Green Book
curves are not always used. The figure
as: ...the maximum safe speed that can be maintained
over a specified section of highway when conditions illustrates horizontal alignments with and
are so favorable that the design features of the without transition curves.
highway govern.
⚫ Design Speed should: Horizontal Tangents
1) “…be consistent with the speed the driver is likely to  are describes in terms of their lengths (as
expect.” and expressed in the stationing of the job) and
2) “. . .fit the travel desires and habits of nearly all drivers.”
their directions.
⚫ Not posted speed and not operating speed (but
ALWAYS higher than both.

Design Speed Considerations

 Functional classification of the highway
 Character of the terrain
 Density and character of adjacent land uses
 Traffic volumes expected to use the highway
 Economic and environmental considerations

Design Speed (suggested minimum design speed) Circular Curves

 Circular curves horizontal curves are normally
Rural Arterials circular. horizontal curves are described by Radius
⚫ 60 – 120 kph (40-75 mph) (R) Central Angle ()( which is equal to deflection
⚫ Depends on … angle between the tangent) Length (L) Semitangent
distance (T). Middle ordinate (M). External distance
⚫Terrain
(E ) and Chord (C ). The curve begins at the Tangent-
⚫Driver expectancy to-curve point (TC) and ends at the curve-to-tangent
⚫Alignment (reconstruction) point (CT).

Urban
 Locals 20-30 mph
 Collectors 30 mph+
 Arterials 30-60 mph
 Transition Curve Important Components of Simple Circular Curve:
 Transition cures are used to connect tangents to
circular curves. Several forms of curve have
been used for this purpose. The most logical
choice from a theoreticals and point. And the
only one discussed here is the clothoid spiral.
For which theradius of curvature varies as the
inverse of the distance along the curve from its
beginning.

III. Superelevation
 Superelevation is the transverse slope provided
to counteract the effect of centrifugal force and
reduce the tendency of vehicle to overturn and
Design of Horizontal Alignment to skid laterally outwards by raising the
DETERMINATION OF : pavement outer edge with respect to inner
1. Minimum Radius edge. superelevation is represented by “ e ”.
2. Length of the curve
3. Computation offset from the tangent of the
curve to facilitate the setting of the curve.

Horizontal Curve Design

 Design a based on appropriate relationship
between design speed and curvature and their
relationship with side friction and
superelevation.
 Turning the front wheels. Side friction and
superelevation generate an acceleration toward
center of curvature ( centripetal acceleration)

Horizontal Curve Calculations: