T227/U02/ PPP 2

Automatic
Controllers

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 1

 Pneumatic Relays
• In a pneumatic controller, a nozzle–flapper amplifier acts
as the first-stage amplifier and a pneumatic relay as the
second stage amplifier.
• The pneumatic relay is capable of handling a large
quantity of airflow.
• Types of pneumatic relays
– Bleed type
– Nonbleed type
– Reverse acting
– Adding and subtracting relay

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 2

 Pneumatic Components
• Bellows: It consists of a thin metal which is formed into a
wave cylinder shape. When air pressure is increased, bellow
will extend and displacement exists. This displacement is
linked to the convenient ‘lever’ to give the pressure increase
reading.

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 3

 Principle

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 4

Bleed Type Relay

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 5

 Bleed Type Relay
• As the nozzle back pressure increases, the diaphragm valve
moves downward. The opening to the atmosphere decreases and
the opening to the pneumatic valve increases, thereby increasing
the control pressure.
• When the diaphragm valve closes the opening to the
atmosphere, the control pressure becomes equal to the supply
pressure When the nozzle back pressure decreases and the
diaphragm valve moves upward and shuts off the air supply, the
control pressure drops to the ambient pressure. The control
pressure can thus be made to vary from 0 psig to full supply
pressure, usually 20 psig.
• In all positions of the valve, except at the position to shut off the
air supply, air continues to bleed into the atmosphere, even after
the equilibrium condition is attained between the nozzle back
pressure and the control pressure. Thus the relay is called a
bleed-type relay. Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 6
Nonbleed Type Relay

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 7

 Nonbleed Type Relay
• In this one the air bleed stops when the equilibrium
condition is obtained and, therefore, there is no loss of
pressurized air at steady-state operation.
• Note, however, that the nonbleed-type relay must have
an atmospheric relief to release the control pressure
from the pneumatic actuating valve.

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 8

 Reverse Acting Relay
• Here, as the nozzle back pressure increases, the ball valve is
forced toward the lower seat, thereby decreasing the control
pressure Thus, this relay is a reverse-acting relay.

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 9

 Adding and Subtracting Relay
• 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟑 = 𝑷𝟐 + 𝑷𝟒
• 𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟒 = 𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟑

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 10

P Controller (Force Distance Type)

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 11

 P Controller (Force Distance Type)
• Generates output pressure proportional to the displacement at one
end of the beam.
• Increasing process variable (PV) pressure attempts to push the right-
hand end of the beam up, causing the baffle to approach the nozzle.
• This blockage of the nozzle causes the nozzle’s pneumatic
backpressure to increase, thus increasing the amount of force applied
by the output feedback bellows on the left-hand end of the beam and
returning the flapper (very nearly) to its original position.
• If we wish to reverse the controller’s action, we need to swap the
pneumatic signal connections between the input bellows, so that the
PV pressure will be applied to the upper bellows and the SP pressure
to the lower bellows.
• The ratio of input pressure(s) to output pressure is termed as a gain
(proportional band) adjustment in this mechanism. Changing bellows
area (either both the PV and SP bellows equally, and the output
bellows by itself) influences this ratio. Gain also affects by the change
in output bellows position. Moving the fulcrum left or right can be
used to control the gain, and in fact is usually the most convenient to
engineer.
Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 12
P+I Controller

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 13

 P+I Controller
• Integral action requires the addition of a second bellows (a “reset”
bellows, positioned opposite the output feedback bellows) and
another restrictor valve to the mechanism.
• As the reset bellows fills with pressurized air, it begins to push down
the left-hand end of the force beam. This forces the baffle closer to
the nozzle, causing the output pressure to rise.
• The regular output bellows has no restrictor valve to impede its
filling, and so it immediately applies more upward force on the
beam with the rising output pressure.
• With this greater output pressure, the reset bellows has an even
greater “final” pressure to achieve, and so its rate of filling
continues.

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 14

P+D Controller

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 15

 P+D Controller
• To add derivative control action to a P-only controller, all we need to
place a restrictor valve between the nozzle tube and the output feedback
bellows, causing the bellows to delay filling or emptying its air pressure
over time.
• If any sudden change occurs in PV or SP, the output pressure will saturate
before the output bellows has the opportunity to equalize in pressure
with the output signal tube. Thus, the output pressure “spikes” with any
sudden “step change” in input: exactly what we would expect with
derivative control action.
• If either the PV or the SP ramps over time, the output signal will ramp in
direct proportion (proportional action). But there will be an added offset
of pressure at the output signal in order to keep air flowing either in or
out of the output bellows at a constant rate to generate the necessary
force to balance the changing input signal.
• Thus, derivative action causes the output pressure to shift either up or
down (depending on the direction of input change) more than it would
with just proportional action alone in response to a ramping input.
Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 16
PID Controller

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 17

 PID Controller
• Three mode controller is the most common type, because it can
be used to accomplish any of the previous modes by setting of
restrictions.
• By opening or closing restrictions, the three mode controller can
be used to implement the other composite modes.
• Proportional gain, reset time, and rate are set by adjustment of
bellows separation and restriction size.

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 18

 Advantages of pneumatic controllers

• Simplicity of the components and no complex structure

• Easy maintainability
• Safe and can be used in hazardous atmospheres
• Low cost of installation
• Good reliability and reproducibility
• Speed of response is relatively slow but steady
• Limited power capacity for large mass transfer

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 19

 Limitations of pneumatic controllers

• Slow response
• Difficult to operate in sub-normal temperatures
• Pipe-couplings can give rise to leaks in certain ambient
conditions
• Moving parts - more maintenance

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 20

 Introduction
• In the previous chapter the various forms of automatic control required to
operate a plant satisfactorily were explained.
• This chapter explains how the automatic controller produces the signals to
carry out these functions. Fig. shows a force balance beam type controller.
Here the desired value or set point signal is fed into diaphragm 1 and the
measured value signal is fed on to the diaphragm 2.
• These two diaphragms act as a controller element of the controller.
• The beam is balanced on an adjustable pivot and operates a relay at the
opposite end.
• or proportional control diaphragm 3 is open to atmosphere. Assume that
under equilibrium conditions, the pressures on diaphragm 1 and 2 are
equal at 0.6 bar. Consider the control of lubricating oil temperature and a
condition of an increased engine loading so that the oil temperature rises.
• The measured value signal also rises as the sensor or detecting element
monitors rise and causes the measuring element (or transmitter) to
increase its output signal, (measured value) in proportion.
Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 21
• Proportional Controller

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 22

• Let this increase be 0.1 bar so that the pressure on diaphragm 2 is 0.7 bar,
whilst that on diaphragm 1 is at the desired value at 0.6 bar, representing
the required operating temperature.
• An error of 0.1 bar indicates that the deviation has occurred and the
imbalance of the diaphragm loading causes the beam to rotate clockwise.
With the pivot in the middle (x=1:y=1) the right hand side of the beam
moves the same amount as the left hand side, and the relay exhaust valve
shuts, the inlet opening so that the output increases by 0.1 bar.
• This is zero again or a 100% proportional band settings as the full range of
the measured value signal is required to produce a full range output
signal from the controller.
• If the pivot is moved towards the right hand side of the beam so that
x=1.5 and y=0.5 then for the same temperature change and error of 0.1
bar, taking moments about the pivot
• (0.7-0.6)x1.5=output changex0.5
• (0.1x1.5)/0.5 =output change = 0.3 bar

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 23

• Thus by moving the pivot, for the same deviation the gain has been
increased (3 in this case) and the proportional band narrowed to 33
1/3 % with the sensitivity increased. Moving the pivot further to
the right would increase the gain further ,bringing the controller
virtually to an ON-OFF condition such move would be likely to
promote hunting. In general (P2-P1)X = ( P0-P3)Y
• or (P2-P1)X/Y+P3
• P0 is open to atmosphere and thus is zero as all the pressure
involved use atmospheric pressure as datum .
• Moving the pivot to the left reduces the gain and widens the
proportional band .
• As this is a proportional controller , the valve controlling the cooling
water flow or the lubricating oil by-pass at the cooler would only
move an amount proportional to the error or the deviation and
depending upon the gain or proportional band setting there would
be some degree of offset in the lubricating oil temperature.
Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 24
• Integral action or Reset action may be applied to eliminate this
offset ( and to allow the proportional band to be widened to
eliminate hunting if this is present due to attempt to reduce the
offset) , by adding an adjustable resistance valve and a capacitor
between diaphragm 3 and the output pressure lying as in figure.

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 25

• Assume similar condition as previously with an increase in
lubricating oil temperature causing an increase in controller output
pressure.
• If the proportional band is set for a gain of three so that for a
deviation signal of 0.1 bar , the output is 0.3 bar in fig. this output
signal is now led to the resistance
• Valve which determines the time taken for the pressure in
diaphragm (3) to be affected by any change in the output pressure
as this output pressure increases 0.3 bar , so the pressure
diaphragm 3 increases , the increasing force tending to move the
beam further clockwise about the pivot.
• This opens the supply valves of the relay further , again increases
the output, which in turn increases the force on diaphragm 3. this
integral or reset action continues until the maximum output of 1.0
bar is reached or until the temperature deviation has been
eliminated and the set point and the measured values of signals
are equal.
Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 26
• The effect of this increasing output signal is to open up the sea
water on the cooler or shut in the bi pass, beyond the position
created by proportional control unit the set point temperature has
been restored possibly to the limit of its stroke, and then bring it
back to a position for equilibrium as the reset action dies away.
• The time taken to do this depends upon the resistance valve setting.
With the valve just cracked to open, the time taken for the output
pressure to affect diaphragm 3 and adjust the valve beyond the
proportional control position would be considerable. With it wide
open the time would be short and over correction and hunting
would be likely to occur.
• This is an example of positive feedback. The reverse to the above
events takes place if there is a fall in lubricating oil temperature.

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 27

• Derivative or Rate Action is achieved by the use of the second
controller connected as shown in the fig. the measured value is fed
to the diaphragm 5 without any restriction and also to diaphragm
(6) but this time with a restriction orifice and capacitor.

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 28

• Thus any increase in measured value due to, for example, an
increase in lubricating oil temperature, causes an immediate
increase in pressure on diaphragm 5 but the change in pressure on
diaphragm 6 depends upon the amount the restriction valve is
open.
• If it is wide open then the force on the two diaphragms cancel each
other and there is no rate action. If it is just cracked open, the
initial force difference between the diaphragms is large and then
the beam would move rapidly in a clockwise direction, giving a very
large increase in the output signal.
• As the pressure builds up on diaphragm 6 so restoring force slowly
comes into action.
• The effect of the two term controller will also tend to move the
beam clockwise adding its own output signal to that of the rate
action.

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 29

• The reverse procedure happens with a decrease in lubricating oil
temperature.
• In this way a quick response is obtained to a deviation to
overcome time lags and give rapid correction, but again with the
rate restriction valve shut in too far, over a correction can result to
give hunting.
• A rate action time of about 1/5th to 1/8th of the integral action
time is a guide to assist adjustment, but adjustments should be
made in small amounts and the system behaviour checked
carefully.
• Note that to increase rest or integral action the restriction valve is
open, whilst to increase rate action the valve is shut in. adjustment
of the pivot will also affect the immediate rate behaviour.
• Although rate can be added to proportional control without reset
action, most marine controllers are to term, with the third term
added in special cases of long plant time delays.
Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 30
• Fig shows a three term controller employing a nozzle/flapper and
relay valve to generate a signal .

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 31

• The set point can be adjusted remotely by using a bellows to set the
nozzle/flapper gap to give the required operating condition . The
input signal (pressure, temperature , transducer, etc.).
• Adjust the flapper about the fixed pivot provided by the set point
bellows, varying the air flow to the air valve and hence the output
pressure .
• Proportional band adjustment is provided by moving the pivot
between the levers – when at the top feedback is reduced, when at
the bottom it is increased .
• Negative feedback (feedback that moves flapper back towards its
original position) is provided by bellows B1 with the valve ‘D’ wide
open and ‘I’ shut this is then a proportional controller.
• As valve ‘I’ is opened , so any change in output signal pressure
affects bellow B2 and opposes the feedback bellows B1 movement.

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 32

• This reset action depends upon the settings of restrictions valve ‘I’
when it is cracked open, the pressure change in bellows B2 is over a
long period and the opposition to bellows B1 take time to build up
giving a weak integral action effect. It valve ‘I’ is wide open then
pressure change in bellows B2 is immediate, as it is in bellows B1 and
there is no feedback. This gives a strong reset action.
• For rate action a restrictor value is placed in the line to the bellows
B1. as this value ‘D’ is shut in, the air flow to the bellows B1 is
restricted when an output signal change takes place and this delays
the provision of negative feedback to flapper depends upon the
relative settings of the values ‘I’ and ‘D’, but in the extreme, with ‘D’
shut and ‘I’ wide open, the flapper would move even further in
direction of the initial movement given by the input bellows (i.e., if
the input signal reduces the gap, then the above condition would
reduce it further).

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 33

• A stacked type controller is shown in the fig. A the diaphragms are
of a material such as Neoprene and the smaller cones are usually
half the area of the larger.

Fig A

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 34

• The set point and measured value signals are applied as shown and
proportional band or gain adjustment is achieved by the adjustable
restrictor Rg which varies the feedback from the output to the space
from above the upper diaphragm.
• The pressure in this chamber is determined by setting of this value
and the restrictor Y in a line from a constant pressure source, in this
case the set point. In some designs it is taken from the supply.
• Under equilibrium conditions. Forces up = Forces down.
• 𝑃 × 𝐴 + 𝑃𝑆𝑃 (A−𝑎) = 𝑃1 × 𝐴 + 𝑃𝑚𝑣 (A - a)
• (𝑃 − 𝑃1 ) A = (𝑃𝑚𝑣 − 𝑃𝑆𝑃 ) (A −𝑎)
• And under no error conditions 𝑃𝑚𝑣 = 𝑃𝑆𝑃 and P = 𝑃1 .

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 35

• If the measured value signal rises ( Pmv increases) for example, due
to the difference in diaphragm areas ,the control column moves
down restricting the flow of air through the nozzle to atmosphere so
that the output pressure P increases .
• P is also negative feedback acting to lift the diaphragm in opposition
to the original movement.
• This pressure is then fed back to the upper chamber through Rg
(provided this is open) so that P1 increases.
• The resultant output pressure is then P=(𝑃𝑚𝑣 − 𝑃𝑆𝑃 ) (A-a)/A +
increase in 𝑃1 .
• This is positive feedback.

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 36

Fig.87(b) shows a proportional +reset stack relay. A change in
measured value will cause the central rod to move and adjust the
output signal as described above.

Fig b

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 37

• This signal is now fed back to chamber R via adjustable
restriction valve ‘I’ where it adjust a second nozzle/flapper
created by diaphragm 1 .
• This varies the pressure in the chamber beneath by adjusting
the air flow to atmosphere .
• Through the restriction (2) the pressure in chamber 𝑃1 is
altered causing further readjustment of the central rod and
the cycle of events starts again with the central rod
continuously altering the output as long as an error exists.
• Fig (c) shows a derivative or rate action unit which would
have to be added to the above to give a three term controller
.

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 38

• Fig (c) shows a derivative or rate action unit which would
have to be added to the above to give a three term controller
.

Fig C

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 39

• Here an increasing measured value signal restricts the air
escape to atmosphere by closing in the exhaust and via
adjustable restriction D passes air back to the middle
chamber to try to achieve equilibrium.
• The pressure from the lower chamber is passed to the
measured value chamber in the stack relay.
• By adjusting ‘I’ and ‘D’ in both relays the response can be
made to suit plant requirements as in the previous types.

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 40

• Pulse controller:- In the conventional control systems featured so
far, the controller generates an output signal continuously in order
to position a valve, for example, and then once the valve position is
set, it must maintain a fixed output to hold it there.
• The pulse controller only transmits a signal to the valve actuator
when it needs to be moved and in the absence of a signal the
actuator stays where last placed indefinitely.
• As fig. shows, a step change in set value signal produces a long
constant amplitude pulse followed by a number of narrow pulses
of the same amplitude, with the valve moving at constant velocity
for the length of each pulse.
• The controller, instead of varying over a standard signal range has
only three separate outputs-raise, lower and zero and as the
actuator only responds to raise or lower demand signals, when
there is no signal it holds its previous position.
• This behaviour allows instantaneous ‘bumpless’ transfer from Auto
to Hand and vice-versa and also a ‘fail safe in the last position’
feature.
• Two term control can be provided.
Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 41
• Controller adjustments:- the following is offered as a general guide
towards setting up the various forms of controller, but the
manufacturers handbook instructions should be given preference, if
available.
• In all cases the first step is to put the system into manual control and
adjust so that the measured value and desired value are the same.
• For proportional control only, set the proportional band to the
widest value, switch to automatic control according to makers
instructions, and then set up or down the set point value and have
the proportional band, then step the set point again to assess plant
response.
• Repeat this procedure, returning to set point etc., until the plant
oscillates for 1.5 cycles before settling.
• This is then the optimum proportional band and is sometimes called
quarter amplitude damping.

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 42

• For a two term controller after carrying out the first step set the
proportional band to 100% and open the reset action valve momentarily,
then close it and follow by switching to automatic control under makers
instructions.
• There should be no offset. Step the set point up or down a small amount,
sufficient to get a plant response and repeat the procedure for
proportional control adjustment until the plant produces four cycles
before settling, this is the Critical Proportional Band.
• Measure the time for one oscillation under this condition and then double
the proportional band, put in a step change as previously and see weather
plant settles in 1.5 oscillations (If not make slight adjustments until this
condition is achieved).
• Set the integral (reset) action time to that taken previously for one
oscillation, this is the periodic time of the plant, and then keep applying
step adjustments and watching plant response, returning to the original
set point each time, whilst adjusting the reset action time until the plant
makes around two cycles before settling.

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 43

• To set up a three term controller, carry out the first step as previously set
proportional band to 100%, open both reset and rate action valves,
shutting the former after about a minute.
• Switch to automatic control as per makers instructions and proceed as for
the two term controller until the critical proportional band is found,
measuring the periodic time at this condition.
• Double the proportional band, checking and adjusting for optimum
conditions as described previously. Set the reset action time at plant
period time and adjust around this setting until the plant settles after
about two oscillations.
• Set the rate action time to about 1/5th to 1/8th of the reset action time and
then keep applying step inputs, returning to the desired value each time,
whilst adjusting the rate time until the plant gives the minimum settling
time and minimum overshoot.
• The plant behaviour may vary with load, such that hunting occurs on low
load operation but not a high load, or vice-versa, and the best plant
response will have to be selected for the most important operating
condition, with adjustments made to suit other short term operating
periods.
Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 44
• Relays:- these can be used for a variety of purposes such as adding,
subtracting and averaging and the connections for these are shown in fig.
• Fig shows a means of remote adjustment of set point by generation of a
pneumatic signal. This could also be used for remote operation of a valve
etc.
• The output signal pressure acting on the diaphragm produces a force
equal to the spring force setup by the hand control knob.
• Changing the spring pressure enables the operator to change the output
signal.
• The basic operation of this switch consists of a bellows which expands and
contracts as the process condition being monitored (e.g. pressure or
temperature) changes.
• The bellows movement operates the pivoted beam and is counterbalanced
by the main spring pressure.
• When a pre-set spring pressure is exceed by the bellow pressure the pivot
arm moves and opens or closes the contacts.

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 45

• To prevent arcing at the contacts and to ensure a clean, sharp make
or break in the power supply of the device being operated a
differential spring is built in.
• If the bellows contract due to a drop in pressure or temperature of
the monitored process, the main spring extends, and at the pre-set
switch condition the differential spring lever contacts the main bell
crank.

Fig. : Remote Set Point adjustment

Prof. S.J.Gambhire, MANET, Pune 46