PROTEIN CONCENTRATES Procedures:

OILSEED CAKES AND MEALS  In the press process, the seed from which
oil is to be removed is cracked and
 Oilseed cakes and meals- residues that crushed to produce flakes
remain after removal of the greater part  Flakes are about 0.25 mm thick, cooked
of the oil from oilseeds. rich in protein at (104 °C for 15–20 mins) then
(200–500 g/kg) and valuable foods for temperature is raised to (110–115°C) until
farm animals the moisture content is 30 g/kg.
 Most oilseed residues are from tropical;  The material is passes through a
groundnut, cotton seed, & soya bean. perforated horizontal cylinder where it
 Castor bean yield residues are unsuitable revolves a screw of variable pitch that
for animal consumption because they gives pressures up to 40 MN/m2.
contain toxic substances  Residue from screw pressing usually has
an oil content of 25–40 g/kg and
Two processes of oil removal from Oilseed
cylindrical presses used for extraction are
 One uses pressure to force out the oil called expellers
 Organic solvent (hexane) used to dissolve  Expeller process is the method of
the oil from the seed. extraction.
 oil content (<350 g/kg) is suitable for
Decortication- process of partially removing thick solvent extraction, if oil content is higher
coat or husk (w/c is rich in fibre & low digestibility) it will undergo screw pressing to lessen
by cracking and riddling. the oil content.
 Flaking- first stage of solvent extraction;
 Removal of the husk lowers the crude process of steeping may be used
fibre content and has an important effect  The oil content of the residual material is
in improving the apparent digestibility of (<10 g/kg) and may still contain solvent,
the other constituents. w/c is removed by heating.

Contents of Oilseed Meals:

 (950 g/kg) of the nitrogen are true

protein and has the digestibility of 0.75–
0.90 w/c is a good quality
 oilseed proteins are of poorer quality
than animal proteins such as those of milk
and eggs
 Protein efficiency ratio + gross protein
value = good quality of the oilseed
 The latter is suitable for feeding adult proteins, but their chemical scores are
ruminants only because it may have a low and means that it has a poorly
particular role in maintaining the fibre balanced amino acid constitution, having
levels of the diets. Partial decortication is a large deficit of at least one essential
widely practiced over undecorticated amino acid
cakes.  oilseed proteins have a low cystine and
methionine but usually low lysine content
 The quality of the protein in a particular
oilseed is relatively constant, but that of
the cake or meal derived from it may
 vary depending upon the conditions SOYA BEAN MEAL
used for the removal of the oil
 High temperatures and pressures of the Soya beans contain 160–210 g/kg of oil and are
expeller process may denature the normally solvent-extracted; one of the best
protein and reduce its digestibility, with a sources of protein available to animals. Residual
consequent lowering of its nutritive meal has an oil content(10 g/kg)
value.
Hi-Pro soya does not have the hulls reblended and
For ruminant animals, denaturation may be has higher protein and energy and lower fibre
beneficial owing to an associated reduction in than other sources
degradability. High temperatures and pressures
Methionine is the first limiting amino acid; protein
also allow control of deleterious substances
contains all the essential amino acids, but the
(gossypol and goitrin)
concentrations of cystine and methionine are
Also, Solvent extraction does not involve pressing, suboptimal
temperatures are comparatively low, and the
Soya bean meal contains a number of toxic,
protein value of the meals is almost the same as
stimulatory and inhibitory substances (allergenic,
the original seed.
goitrogenic and anticoagulant factors)
Diets with high undegradable proteins are most
Soya contains protease inhibitors w/c are partly
useful when fed to higher-producing animals such
responsible for the growth-retarding property of
as high-yielding dairy cows, lactating ewes, and
raw soya beans and unheated soya bean meal.
young growing animals.
Retardation has been attributed to inhibition of
Heat processing decreases protein degradation in protein digestion
the rumen by denaturing proteins and the
Oilseed meals cause pancreatic hyperactivity
formation of protein–carbohydrate cross-links
results in increased production of trypsin and
(Maillard reactions) and protein–protein cross-
chymotrypsin
links.
Important Protease Inhibitor:
Underheating results in little effect on ruminal
degradability, it reduces intestinal digestibility and  Kunitz factor (Kunitz anti-trypsin factor)
a significant loss of lysine. is inactivated (30–40 per cent) by human
gastric juice in vivo at pH 1.5–2.0.
These protected sources decrease rumen-
 Bowman–Birk factor (Bowman–Birk
degradable protein and increase the rumen-
undegradable protein content by approximately
chymotrypsin inhibitor) is inactivatedin
its passage through the intestine of the
100–350 g/kg dietary protein, it also reduces
chick.
intestinal digestibility. In the Cornell net
carbohydrate and protein system, Maillard Haemagglutenin- contributes to growth
products are assumed to be totally indigestible retardation and is capable of agglutinating red
blood cells in rats, rabbits and human beings but
The oilseed cakes can be a significant contribution
not in sheep and calves (toxic agents belongs to
to the energy content of the diet, when the oil
lectins)
content is high. , if oil is unsaturated, milk or body
fat may be soft (carcass quality lowered) Lectins have also been shown to cause inhibition
of brush-border hydrolases. It impairs the body’s
 High P content, which tends to
defence system against bacterial infection, and
aggravate their generally low Ca
increases the tendency for invasion of the body by
content the gut microflora
 Has Vita B, low in carotene and Vita E
They exert their toxicity by binding to the Another factor to be considered when using
epithelial cells lining the small intestine, disrupting cotton seed meal is its costive action
the brush border and reducing the efficiency of
the absorption of nutrients. Cotton seeds contain 0.3 g/kg to 20 g/kg DM of a
yellow pigment (gossypol), and concentrations of
About half the growth-retarding effect of soya 4–17 g/kg DM (kernels).
bean meal in monogastric animals has been
attributed to the lectin content Gossypol is a polyphenolic aldehyde (alkanal),
which is an antioxidant and polymerisation
Lectins can be removed through heating and inhibitor toxic to simple-stomached animals.
toasting. Overtoasting may cause reduce the
availability of lysine and arginine and reduce the Gossypol toxicity symptoms are depressed
value of the protein appetite, loss of weight, laboured breathing and
cardiac irregularity. Death is usually associated
Soya lacks Vitamin B which causes sows to with a reduced oxygen-carrying capacity of the
produce weak litters w/c grows slowly because of blood, haemolytic effects on the erythrocytes and
reduced milk yields; older pigs show lack of circulatory failure. Post-mortem show extensive
coordination and failure to walk. Breeding hens oedema in the body cavities, indicating an effect
produce eggs of poor hatchability, giving chicks of on membrane permeability. Although acute
poor quality toxicity is uncommon, ingestion of small amounts
over a prolonged period can be lethal
Soya lacks Vitamin K, increase of susceptibility to
haemorrhages in chicks, but soya is rich in Ca and Free gossypol content of cotton seed meal
P. Oil in the soya bean has a laxative effect and decreases during processing and varies according
may cause soft body fat to be produced. to the methods used. Shearing effect of screw
press (expeller process) is an efficient gossypol
Soya protein concentrates are produced by inactivator at temperatures that do not reduce
solvent extraction and removal of insoluble protein quality.
carbohydrate.
Pig & poultry diet should contain (100 mg free
Protein concentration is of the order of 70 per gossypol/kg & cotton seed meal 50–100 kg/t)
cent. During processing, antigenic and
antinutritional substances are removed and the Low levels of the meal may cause an olive-green
materials are suitable for inclusion in calf milk discoloration of the yolk in storage. An associated
replacers and baby pig diets. pink discoloration of the albumen is now
considered to be due to cyclopropenoids and not
COTTON SEED MEAL gossypol.
The protein of cotton seed meal is of good quality Poultry and calves (100 mg/kg), Pigs (60 mg/kg),
but has low content of cystine, methionine and Cattle, sheep and goats (500 mg/kg)
lysine. Lysine is the first limiting amino acid.
Cotton cakes and meals are allowed to contain up
Low source of Ca,P, carotene, but rich in B1 to 1200 mg free gossypol/kg and moisture content
of 120 g/kg.
When cotton seed meal is used as a protein
source for young, pregnant or nursing pigs, or COCONUT MEALS
young or laying poultry, fishmeals (rich in Ca&P),
Vita A, and Vita D should be supplemented. It increases milk fat content. Also, it increases
butterfat contents in the milk of cows but the
Butter made from such fat is often difficult to basal diet had a fat content of 10 g/kg only. Milk
churn and tends to develop tallowy taints. fats produced on diets (w/ coconut meals) are
firm and excellent for butter making.
Disadvantage is being susceptible to becoming hydrolysing it with the evolution of hydrogen
rancid in store. Protein is low in lysine and cyanide; extremely toxic.
histidine but generally have high fibre content
(120 g/kg). It limits the use of the meal for simple- Combination of the cyanide with cytochrome
stomached animals. Oil content (25 g/kg to 65 oxidase leads to death; immediate cessation of
g/kg) cellular respiration and anoxia

Coconut meal has the valuable property of Meals are safe if given in the dry state, since the
absorbing up to half its own weight of molasses pH of the stomach contents of the pig is
and as a result is popular in compounding. sufficiently low to inactivate linase. Normal
processing conditions destroy linase, and most of
PALM KERNEL MEAL the linamarin and the resultant meals are quite
safe.
Palm kernel meal is the product obtained after
solvent extraction of palm oil from the oil palm, In ruminants, rapid detoxification in the liver and
whereas palm kernel cake (product) is produced excretion via the kidney and lungs ensures that it
by mechanical extraction. never reaches toxic levels in the blood.

Low content of protein, and the balance of amino Linseed meal has a protective action against
acids is poor. The first limiting amino acid is lysine. selenium poisoning. Protein of linseed meal has
Contains favorable amount of Ca &P lower methionine and lysine contents.

It increases the fat content of milk, and its chief Linseed meal has only a moderate Ca content but
use is for dairy cows. Palm kernel meal has been is rich P (present in phytate). It is a useful source
the balanced for milk production, but contains too of thiamin, riboflavin, nicotinamide, pantothenic
high a proportion of protein to energy. acid and choline.

Not widely used in pigs and poultry unpalatable It has the ability of the mucilage to absorb large
and has high fibre content (150 g/kg DM), which amounts of water, resulting in an increase in the
reduces its digestibility. Recommended (50 kg/t) bulk of the meal; this may increase retention time
in the rumen and give a better opportunity for
Relatively high content of β-mannan in palm microbial digestion.
kernel meal has been act as a prebiotic and
reduce intestinal load of Salmonella and improve The lubricating character of the mucilage also
the immune system in birds. protects the gut wall against mechanical damage
and, together with the bulkiness, regulates
In dairy cows, palm kernel meal has been included excretion and is claimed to prevent constipation
at up to 150 g/kg DM without an adverse effect on without causing looseness.
milk yield or composition.
There is faster gain in fattening animals. The meal
LINSEED MEAL is readily eaten by dairy cows but tends to
produce a soft milk fat that is susceptible to the
It contains 30–100 g/kg of mucilage and almost
development of oxidative rancidity.
completely indigestible by non-ruminant animals
but can be broken down by the microbial Retardation of chick growth happens when
population of the rumen. It is readily dispersible in linseed contents of the diet exceeds 30kg/t. It can
water, forming a viscous slime. be avoided by autoclaving the meal or by
increasing the levels of vitamin B6 in the diet.
Immature linseed contains small amount of
Pelleting or coarse granulation can overcome this
yanogenetic glycoside, linamarin, and an
trouble.
associated enzyme, linase, which is capable of
RAPESEED MEAL (Brassica napus) kernels, and the whole pod used as the source of
an undecorticated meal
Extraction of the oil by a prepress solvent
extraction procedure leaves a residue containing Screw pressing- most common method of
about 400 g protein/kg DM. It contains more fibre extraction; produces 50–100 g/kg of oil. The
(140g/kg DM) than soya bean meal; its composition of the meal will depend on the raw
metabolisable energy value is lower, about 7.4 material and the method of extraction used.
MJ/kg DM for poultry and 12.0 MJ/kg DM for
ruminants, and it has a digestible energy ontent of Groundnut meal has suboptimal amounts of
11.8 and 12.3 for pigs and horses. cystine and methionine, the first limiting amino
acid is lysine. There are deficiencies of vitamin B12
Digestible, fair amount of amino acid, satisfactory and calcium.
Ca & p. Less methionine and more lysine
It tends to produce a soft body fat and may have a
Reduced in intake may cause minor liver damage troublesome laxative action. A growth factor and
and reduced volatile fatty acid production when an antitrypsin factor occur in groundnut meal. The
the toxins have been administered orally. Also, latter has antiplasmin activity and so shortens
meals with high glucosinolate levels may reduce bleeding time; it is destroyed by heating.
food intake, growth and carcass quality.
Toxic factor was shown to be a metabolite of the
Piglets have shown poor survival rates and fungus Aspergillus flavus and was named
enlarged thyroids when maternal diets included aflatoxin. Turkey poults and ducklings are highly
high levels of glucosinolates. susceptible, and calves and pigs are susceptible,
but mice and sheep are classed as resistant. Young
Erucic acid causes heart lesions in experimental are more prone than adults.
animals.
SUNFLOWER SEED MEAL
Rapeseed meals contain tannins which are
polyphenolic compounds that complex with The meal is produced when the oil is removed
proteins and carbohydrates to form enzyme- from the seed by hydraulic pressure or solvent
resistant substrates with a consequent lowering of extraction.The hulls are usually partially rather
digestibility. Tannins may cause damage to the than completely removed, but the resulting high-
intestinal mucosa and are known to interfere with fibre meals (up to 420 g NDF/kg DM) are readily
iron absorption. accepted by older animals, provided they are
finely ground.
Diets higher than 50 kg/t may cause:
Removing the hulls from the meal produces a
 Chick growth may be adversely affected more digestible product with a higher crude
 Eggs of some hens producing brown- protein content and is often referred to as HiPro
shelled eggs are susceptible to the sunflower meal.
development of fishy taints
Sunflower oil has high content of polyunsaturated
This is because of the inability of these birds to fatty acids and may cause soft body fat in pigs.
oxidise trimethylamine produced from the The oil is very susceptible to oxidation, and the
polyphenolic choline ester sinapine. meals have a short shelf life owing to the
development of rancidity, which renders them
GROUNDNUT MEAL unpalatable. The meals are useful sources of
protei. Lysine the main limiting amino acid, but
Seeds contain 250–300 g/kg of crude protein and
has about twice as much methionine as soya
350–600 g/kg of lipid material Pod or husk is
protein.
largely fibrous. Groundnut meal is made from
SESAME SEED MEAL (needs to be decorticated) LEGUMINOUS SEEDS

The meals currently available may be produced by Leguminosae are a large family of plants, with
hydraulic pressing or solvent extraction. The about 12 000 recognised species. Four tribes
former have the lower protein content (about 400 within the family and includes all the common
g/kg DM compared with 500 g/kg DM for the peas and beans.
solvent-extracted material) but have oil contents
of more than 100 g/kg DM compared with 20 g/kg The Hedysareae contain the groundnut; the
DM for the extracted meal and make a Vicieae include the genera Vicia, Cicer, Pisum,
significantly greater contribution to the energy of Lens and Lathyrus; the Genisteae contain the
the diet. genus Lupinus; and the Phaseoleae include the
genera Phaseolus, Dolichos and Glycine
Rich in leucine, arginine and methionine but is
relatively low in lysine. For ruminants, the protein Many leguminous plants are toxic to animals.
has degradability of 0.65–0.75, depending upon Consumption of certain species within the genus
the rate of passage through the rumen. The Lathyrus (Indian pea (L. sativus)) may result in the
residual oil of the cake or meal is highly condition known as lathyrism.
unsaturated.
Osteolathyrism- characterised by bone
The oil rapidly becomes rancid and unpalatable, deformationsand weakness in connective tissue
and implicated in cases of vitamin E deficiency.
Neurolathyrism- characterised by retardation of
Meal has a high content of phytic acid, which
sexual development and increasing paralysis,
makes much of its phosphorus unavailable;
which may prove fatal if the larynx is affected
rations containing the meal may also need extra
supplementation with calcium. Favism- caused by Vicia faba (broad bean) which is
characterised by haemolytic anaemia, and
EXTRACTED COCOA BEAN MEAL
affected individuals have nausea, shortness of
The meals contain varying concentrations of breath, abdominal pain, fevers and sometimes
theobromine, an alkaloid that is lethal to chickens renal failure. It is a genetic deficiency of glucose-6-
and toxic to other monogastric animals and young phosphate dehydrogenase in their erythrocytes.
ruminants. The materials are therefore suitable
Cicer ensiformis, Dolichus biflorus, D. lablab, P.
only for adult ruminants.
lunatus, P. vulgaris and P. communis, are known
SHEANUT MEAL to contain lectins, which are toxic upon oral
ingestion. Unfamiliar leguminous seeds should be
Contain an alkaloid, saponine, which causes injury treated with caution until they have been proved
to the digestive mucosa and haemolytic changes to be safe.
in the blood. It is particularly toxic to pigs but can
be tolerated by adult ruminants. BEANS

Can be replacement to cocoa butter in chocolate It belongs to Vicieae and Phaseoleae and are used
and it is used for cosmetics. Mean protein content as food for human beings and animals all over the
of about 150 g/kg DM, but this can range from 80 world.
g/kg DM to 250 g/kg DM. Their protein
Vicia faba- (chief member of Vicieae) known as
digestibility (cattle) is very low, at about 0.12.The
the broad bean, horse bean, tick bean and field
energy value for adult ruminants is usually
bean
considered to be about half that of barley
Phaseolus- most numerous genus in the
Phaseoleae and best-known species is P. vulgaris
Ex of Phaseoleae (butter beans (P. lunatus), a digestible energy content of 15.0 MJ/kg DM for
runner beans (P. coccineus), Vigna, Dolichus and pigs.
Canavalia. There are a large number of varieties of
field bean, which fall into two classes: winter and They are particularly useful in that they are able to
spring replace soya bean meal in pig and poultry diets,
whereas beans are largely confined to ruminant
 Contains high lysine, good source of diets.
energy and phosphorus, and low content
of calcium Lupin seed meal
 Beans have little or no carotene or
Lupin seed meal is made by grinding the whole
vitamin C, but they may contain
seeds.
significant amounts of thiamin,
nicotinamide and riboflavin. 3 species of lupin (distinguished by the colour of
 High proportion of linoleic and α-linolenic flowers):
acids
 contain little or no sodium or chlorine and  Lupinus albus are white
are poor sources of manganese  L. angustifolius blue
 levels of cystine and methionine are  L. luteus yellow
lower than in common animal and
vegetable proteins. These are important The seed coat is fibrous, and its inclusion in the
in the diets of poultry owing to the meal adversely affects its digestibility, especially
demands of feathering, and beans may be for young monogastric animals.
expected to be of limited value for
poultry White varieties have the lowest fibre and highest
oil and protein contents, and meals made from
Beans are used in the diets of all the major classes them are more valuable for pigs and poultry than
of farm animal. Levels in the diets of calves up to 3 are the blue and yellow varieties.
months of age are usually of the order of 150 kg/t
Rapid oxidation of the oil, the meal has to be used
but can be increased considerably thereafter.
immediately or an antioxidant must be
Mixtures containing 400 kg/t have been used
quite satisfactorily for intensively fed steers.The incorporated
beans are usually cracked, kibbled or coarsely ANIMAL PROTEIN CONCENTRATES
ground for feeding, but it would appear that
whole beans are quite satisfactory for older Not used primarily as sources of protein per se but
ruminants, which rapidly adapt to chewing them. are used to make good deficiencies of certain
Dairy cow concentrates may contain 150–200 kg/t essential amino acids from which non-ruminants
of beans, and recent work has shown that levels may suffer when they are fed on all-vegetable-
of up to 350 kg/t may be used with no loss of milk protein diets
yield.
Salmonella infection from meat and bone meal
PEAS (Pisum sativum) continues to be a matter of concern. Mammalian
meat and bone meal cannot be given to ruminant
Ex. chick pea (Cicer arietinum) or non-ruminant animals; mammalian protein
Peas has the better balance of amino acids, having other than meat and bone meal may be given to
higher contents of lysine, methionine and cysteine non-ruminant animals but not to ruminant
but methionine is still the main limiting amino animals.
acid. Peas make a significant contribution to the Processed animal proteins- meat and bone meal,
energy intake of the animal, having a meat meal, bone meal, blood meal, dried plasma
metabolisable energy content of 13.4 MJ/kg DM and other blood products, hydrolysed proteins,
for ruminants and 12.7 MJ/kg DM for poultry, and hoof meal, horn meal, poultry offal meal, dry
greaves, fishmeal, dicalcium phosphate and Contents of Fishmeal:
gelatin
 The protein contents of various fishmeals
MEAT BY-PRODUCTS vary over a range of about 500–750 g/kg
 high mineral content (100–220 g/kg)
The protein of meat by-products is of good quality  high proportion of calcium and
(BV approximately 0.67 for adult man) and is phosphorus and a number of desirable
particularly useful as a lysine supplement. It is a trace minerals, including manganese, iron
poor source of methionine and tryptophan. and iodine
Meat products are more valuable for simple-  good source of B complex vitamins,
stomached than for ruminant animals since the particularly choline, B12 and riboflavin,
latter have less need of a dietary supply of high- and have enhanced nutritional value
quality protein because of their content of growth
factors: animal protein factor (APF)
Maize being particularly low in tryptophan,  high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids,
Considerable care is required in storing meat and the ratio of omega-3 to the more
products to prevent the development of rancidity abundant omega-6 acids
and loss of vitamin potency.  contain significant amouts of
eicosapentaenoic and docosohexenoic
FISHMEAL acids
Fishmeal is produced by cooking fish and then Fishmeals find their greatest use with simple-
pressing the cooked mass to remove most of the stomached animals. Importance of fishmeal for
oil and water. The aqueous liquor is concentrated such animals is as a source of undegradable
and added to the pressed mass and the whole protein
dried.
They are used mostly in diets for young animals,
Fish solubles - products obtained during the whose demand for protein and the indispensable
manufacture of fishmeal which has been amino acids is particularly high and for whom the
separated and stabilized by acidification or drying growth-promoting effects of APF are valuable.
There are two main types of dryer: Vulnerable to taint development (animals
producing milk and eggs)
 Direct- hot air (at about 500 °C) is passed
over the material as it is tumbled in a BLOOD MEAL
cylindrical drum
 Indirect- the dryers are steam-jacketed (Chocolate-coloured powder with a characteristic
cylinders or cylinders containing steam- smell) product obtained by drying the blood of
heated discs, which again tumble the slaughtered warm-blooded animals. The product
material during drying. The latter process must be substantially free of foreign matter.
is slower but controlled more easily. The
dried product is ground so that less than It is manufactured by passing live steam through
10 per cent passes a 1 mm screen and blood until the temperature reaches 100 °C. This
more than 90 per cent passes a 10 mm ensures efficient sterilization and causes the blood
screen to clot. It is then drained, pressed to express
occluded serum, dried by steam heating and
The temperature (80–95 °C), but it may be much ground.
higher if the process is not carefully controlled.
Blood meal is one of the richest sources of lysine ,
arginine, methionine, cystine and leucine
Deficient in isoleucine and contains less glycine quality, but it is marred by a slight deficiency of
than fish, meat, or meat and bone meals. the sulphur-containing amino acids, cystine and
methionine
Owing to the poor balance of amino acids, its
biological value is low; in addition, it has a low Ash content of milk is low, low magnesium
digestibility. Its protein has low rumen content and is seriously deficient in iron. Normally
degradability. milk is a good source of vitamin A but a poor one
of vitamins D and E. It is a good source of thiamin
The meal is unpalatable and its use has reduced and B2 and contains small amounts of vitamin
growth rates in poultry so that it is not B12.
recommended for young stock. It tends to cause
scouring and is best regarded as a food for Two milk by-products
boosting dietary lysine levels.
SKIM MILK
HYDROLYSED FEATHER MEAL
 residue after the cream has been
Product obtained by hydrolyzing, drying and separated from milk by centrifugal force
grinding poultry feathers. It undergoes steam  fat content is very low, below 10 g/kg,
cooking under pressures of 2.8–3.55 kg/cm2 for and the gross energy is much reduced to
30–45 minutes, when temperatures of 140–150 °C 1.5 MJ/kg as compared with 3.1 MJ/kg for
are achieved. whole milk
 skim milk is a poor source of the fat-
Feather meal has high protein content, typically soluble vitamins, but it does result in a
about 850 g/kg, with individual samples varying concentration of the SNF constituents
from 610 g/kg to 930 g/kg. Histidine and lysine are  mainly used as a protein supplement in
joint first limiting amino acids, with methionine the diets of simple-stomached animals
being third limiting. Ileal digestibility is of the and is rarely used or ruminant animals
order of 0.5, with digestibility values for individual
 For poultry, skim milk has the
amino acids varying from 0.20 to 0.70
disadvantage of having a low cystine
The meal is of low palatability and must be content
introduced into the diet gradually. It is not used
WHEY
for weaner and creep-fed pigs or chicks.
 Treated with rennet in the process of
Salmonella- increases risk of contamination of the
cheese making, casein is precipitated and
base material
carries down with it most of the fat and
MILK PRODUCTS about half the calcium and phosphorus
 remaining serum is known as whey
Whole milk from cows contains about 875 g/kg of  poorer source of energy (1.1 MJ/kg), fat-
water and 125 g/kg of dry matter which are total soluble vitamins, calcium and phosphorus
solids and 37.5 g/kg is fat  The major carbohydrate in whey is
lactose, which is antiprotozoal and
Solids-not-fat (SNF) consists of protein (33 g/kg), increase microbial protein synthesis
lactose (47 g/kg) and ash (7.5 g/kg). within the rumen.
 Lactose has also been demonstrated to
Most of the fat consists of neutral triacylglycerols
have a stabilizing effect on ruminal pH
having a characteristically high proportion of fatty
when included at rates of 50 g/kg DM,
acids of low molecular weight and providing an
which is independent of its effect on
excellent source of energy.
protozoal numbers
Casein (chief milk protein) contains about 78 per
cent of the total nitrogen and has excellent
 SINGLE-CELL PROTEIN NON-PROTEIN NITROGEN COMPOUNDS AS
PROTEIN SOURCES
Protein for feeding animals has been produced by
microbial fermentation (yeast & bacteria grows Useful sources of nitrogen for ruminant animals,
quickly 3-4hrs) and simple nitrogenous compounds such as
ammonium salts of organic acids can be utilized to
Nutrient substrates can be used, including cereal a very limited extent by pigs and poultry.
grains, sugar beet, sugarcane and its byproducts,
hydrolysates from wood and plants, and waste Non-protein nitrogen compounds are important
products from food manufacture. for ruminants only. Their use depends upon the
ability of the rumen microorganisms to use them
Bacteria such as Pseudomonas spp. can be grown in the synthesis of their own cellular tissues.
on more unconventional materials such as
methanol, ethanol, alkanes, alkanals and organic Ammonium acetate, ammonium succinate,
acids acetamide and diammonium phosphate are better
substrates for microbial protein synthesis than
Contains higher sulphur-containing amino acids urea, but from considerations of price,
but a lower concentration of lysine. Single-cell convenience, palatability and toxicity, urea has
protein (SCP) contains unusually high levels of been the most widely used and investigated non-
nucleic acids protein nitrogen compound in foods for farm
animals.
Purine and pyrimidine bases in these acids can be
used for nucleic acid biosynthesis (end products: Urea
Large amounts of uric acid or allantoin)
Urea is a white, crystalline, deliquescent solid
it is not composed of cellulose, hemicelluloses and
lignin as in foods of plant origin; the fibre consists Pure urea has a nitrogen content of 466 g/kg,
chiefly of glucans, mannans and chitin. which is equivalent to a crude protein content of
466 6.25
SYNTHETIC AMINO ACIDS
2913 g/kg. Feed urea contains an inert conditioner
Excess of total protein has to be supplied which is
to keep it flowing freely, and this reduces its
deaminated and the nitrogen is excreted; both
nitrogen content to 464 g/kg, equivalent to 2900
processes require energy, and such protein
g/kg crude protein.
oversupply is wasteful in terms of both protein
and energy metabolism Urea is hydrolysed by the urease activity of the
rumen microorganisms with the production of
Amino acids can be produced industrially by
ammonia.
chemical and microbial processes and are readily
available 2 major problems
Reductions in crude protein content have  Excessive absorption of ammonia from
maintained a balanced supply of amino acids and the rumen.
resulted in improved rates of liveweight gain and  wastage of nitrogen may occur, and there
food conversion efficiency may be a danger of ammonia toxicity
Cows (methionine first limiting amino acid next is May cause muscular twitching, ataxia, excessive
lysine) salivation, tetany, bloat and respiration defects
(both rapid, shallow and slow, deep breathing
The response to feeding protected amino acids on
have been reported)
milk production in dairy cows is variable and
dependent on factors including the basal ration
and animal production level
Most toxic at high ruminal pH owing to the Compound foods containing urea, must by law
increased permeability of the rumen wall to un- carry a declaration of:
ionised ammonia compared with the ammonium
ion, which predominates at low pH ■ Name of the material;

Urea should be given in such a way as to slow ■ Amount present;

down its rate of breakdown and encourage
■ Proportion of nitrogen, expressed as protein
ammonia utilization for protein synthesis.
equivalent, provided by the nonprotein
To avoid the danger of toxicity, not more than nitrogenous content of the food;
one-third of the dietary nitrogen should be
■ Directions for use specifying the animals for
provided as urea and, where possible, this should
food is intended and the maximum level of non-
be inthe form of frequent and small intakes
protein nitrogen which must not be exceeded in
Deficiencies of the Sulphur containing amino acids the daily ration.
may occur, Urea does not provide energy,
Poultry waste
minerals or vitamins for the animal
Product obtained by drying and grinding waste
When urea is included in the concentrate diet,
from slaughtered poultry and must be free from
thorough mixing is essential to prevent localised
feathers
concentrations
Caged layers has a lower fibre content than broiler
Low-yielding dairy cows use urea-containing
litter, which has a base of the straw, wood chips
concentrates efficiently owing to their low
or sawdust used as bedding
concentrate intakes; cows of moderate and high
yield receiving large meals of concentrates at Most of the nitrogen (600 g/kg at least) is present
milking do not. There is much evidence for as non-protein compounds, mostly urates, which
reduced performance by such animals given diets must be converted first into urea and then into
containing urea. ammonia in order to be utilised by the animal.
Slower-release urea-based sources The conversion to urea is a slow process, and
wastage and the danger of toxicity are both less
Means to reduce the rate of nitrogen release from
than with foods containing urea itself. Layer
urea in the rumen (and subsequent post-feeding
wastes are excellent sources of calcium (about 65
peak in rumen and plasma ammonia
g/kg DM), but the ratio of calcium to phosphorus
concentrations) have been developed, with
is rather wide, at 3 : 1;
varying degrees of success.
Broiler litters have less calcium, with ratios closer
Biuret is produced by heating urea. It is a
to 1 : 1
colourless, crystalline compound
Fear of health hazards arising from the presence
Biuret is utilised by ruminants, but a considerable
of pathogens (Salmonella and the presence of
period of adaptation is required. Adaptation is
pesticide and drug residues)
speeded by inoculation with rumen liquor from an
adapted rumen. The best method of treating poultry wastes for
use as animal foods is by drying, but this is costly;
The nitrogen of biuret is not utilised as efficiently
ensiling, either alone, with forage, or with barley
as that of urea, and it is very much more
meal and malt, has proved satisfactory
expensive. It has the considerable advantage that
it is non-toxic even at levels very much higher Poultry wastes must, by law, carry a declaration of
than those likely to be found in foods. the amount of protein equivalent of uric acid if 1
per cent or greater and of calcium if in excess of 2
per cent
SUMMARY