Journal of Environmental Management 69 (2003) 275–287

www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman

Applying local knowledge: the contribution of oral history to wetland

rehabilitation at Kanyapella Basin, Australia
Hugh A. Robertsona,*, Tara K. McGeeb
a
School of Ecology and Environment, Deakin University, 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood, Vic. 3125, Australia
b
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alta. T6G 2G8, Canada

Abstract
Local knowledge of the history and ecology of wetland ecosystems can be a valuable resource in wetland rehabilitation projects. This is
especially the case when other historical ecological information is unavailable. As well as providing a source of historical information, time
spent acquiring local knowledge can enhance public participation in environmental management and facilitate early conflict resolution
between stakeholders and the community. This paper investigates the use of oral history as a tool to collate a history of the flooding, ecology
and management of Kanyapella Basin, a 2581 ha wetland on the floodplain of the Murray and Goulburn Rivers, Australia. Interviews were
held with nine local residents and 11 natural resource managers. Oral history proved an effective way to obtain information about changes in
the frequency and distribution of flood events over the last 60 years. Observations of rare and threatened fauna, and comments regarding the
success of past management were also recorded. Results from the oral history have been used to direct ecological research and develop
alternative management options at Kanyapella Basin. In addition to its use in gathering ecological information, oral history also proved
effective in enabling the values and concerns of local community and stakeholders to be articulated, increasing managers’ understanding of
the social context of the particular locality, which is fundamental to sound environmental decision-making.
q 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Oral history; Public participation; Floodplain wetland; Rehabilitation

1. Introduction Local ecological knowledge is the knowledge of a

particular group of people about local ecosystems, and in
Public participation is now considered a necessary contrast to traditional ecological knowledge, does not
component of environmental management planning, assume a continuous historical and cultural connection
decision-making, and implementation (Johnson and with the ecosystem (Olsson and Folke, 2001). Local
Walker, 2000; Burroughs, 1999). Generally, it is accepted ecological knowledge can be collated using questionnaires
that public participation facilitates increased democracy, (e.g. Lunney et al., 2000), by examining written documents
which empowers local communities and increases the and maps such as diaries of early explorers and squatters
likelihood of management actions being supported (Kapoor, (e.g. Curr, 2001), and through oral history (Clark, 1990;
2001; Shindler and Cheek, 1999). Public participation in Egan and Howell, 2001). Oral history, as defined by Fogerty
natural resource management often entails the involvement (2001, pp. 102), is ‘a structured conversation between two
of community members in the implementation of on-ground people—an interviewer pursuing a carefully defined line of
management actions, for instance, in monitoring water inquiry, and a narrator with information that the interviewer
quality or revegetation of a cleared site (Davis et al., 2001a; seeks to acquire’.
Moore et al., 2001; Stenhouse, 2001). Public involvement in Several studies have highlighted the value of oral history
the planning phase of natural resource management projects as a means to incorporate local ecological knowledge in
is equally important (Kapoor, 2001). One way for people to ecosystem management and rehabilitation (e.g. Showers and
participate is by providing local knowledge of their Malahleha, 1992; Taylor and Albert, 1999; WinklerPrins,
environment. 1999; Calheiros et al., 2000; Fernandez-Gimenez, 2000;
Olsson and Folke, 2001; Hamerlynck, 2003; Robertson et al.,
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 61-3-9251-7439; fax: þ61-3-9251-7626. 2000). For example, Taylor and Albert (1999) interviewed
E-mail address: [email protected] (H.A. Robertson). 98 Zuni hunters from New Mexico, USA, to investigate the
0301-4797/$ - see front matter q 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0301-4797(03)00155-5
276 H.A. Robertson, T.K. McGee / Journal of Environmental Management 69 (2003) 275–287

sustainability of their hunting practices on nongame bird Australia (e.g. Sanders, 1991; Finlayson and Brizga, 1995;
species. Due to the detailed knowledge of the Zuni, Taylor Lane, 1997; Scott, 1998; Davis and Finlayson, 2000;
and Albert (1999) were able to suggest specific management Nursey-Bray, 2000; Roberts and Sainty, 2000). Roberts
actions to reduce the impacts on threatened nongame species and Sainty (2000) note that oral history is still struggling to
in the region. A further example of the value of oral history is be accepted within ecological science disciplines, and
that of Olsson and Folke (2001), who interviewed 10 though there has been increased utilisation of the technique
individuals that had key knowledge of crayfish populations in water management, it is not widespread. They suggest
of a particular Swedish lake. The interviews supplemented a that this may be partly due to the fact that it has not been
questionnaire previously distributed to 73 households. The comprehensively evaluated as an information source for
study concluded that locals had substantial knowledge of the environmental history. While in some studies oral history
ecosystem, from the crayfish level to that of the entire lake information has been later applied to wetland rehabilitation
watershed, and that combination of local ecological knowl- projects (e.g. Sanders, 1991; Scott, 1998), generally, oral
edge with established scientific information leads to manage- history has not been used to obtain information and gauge
ment that is ‘in tune with ecosystem dynamics’ (Olsson and community opinion when planning wetland rehabilitation.
Folke, 2001). Although oral history is often used in Consequently, management decisions regarding the rehabi-
conjunction with other historical ecological techniques, litation of floodplain wetlands frequently are made without
such as comparison with historical documents (e.g. Showers comprehensive analysis of all available historical infor-
and Malahleha, 1992), in some environments local knowl- mation. The lack of consideration of local perspectives on
edge is the only available source of historical information management of local wetland systems is also likely to
(Fernandez-Gimenez, 2000; Lykke, 2000). Interestingly, alienate the local community.
Calheiros et al. (2000) noted in their study of the Pantanal
wetlands in Brazil, that oral history information was found to
be superior to that of the scientific community on certain 2. Study area
topics. In particular, local knowledge of the causes and
effects of ‘dequada’, a local limnological phenomenon that The oral history project that is the basis of this paper is
leads to fish kills, was reported as being superior to existing part of a larger study based at Kanyapella Basin, a nationally
documentation. Calheiros et al. (2000) also noted that, significant (Environment Australia, 2001) wetland of
following their participants’ involvement in research, they 2581 ha located on the floodplain of the Murray and
were more likely to accept policy change concerning the Goulburn Rivers in Victoria, Australia (Fig. 1). River
local wetland system. Thus, oral history was found to regulation of the Murray and Goulburn Rivers has had
improve scientific understanding and enhance policy considerable effect on the water regime at Kanyapella
implementation. Basin. The first major impoundment on the Goulburn River
In southeast Australia degradation of floodplain wetlands
(Goulburn Weir) was completed in 1891. Since then the
is widespread, with many wetland systems being lost
construction, in particular, of Hume Dam (Murray River,
altogether since European settlement (Walker, 1985; King-
1936), Eildon Dam (Goulburn River, 1950), an extensive
sford, 2000; Environment Australia, 2001). Floodplain
network of levees along the Lower Goulburn River, and the
wetland rehabilitation projects generally strive to rehabili-
development of irrigated agriculture have isolated the
tate aspects of the wetland system that have been lost or
floodplain from natural wetting and drying cycles (SMEC,
degraded due to human activities. Information describing the
1998; Kingsford, 2000; Gippel and Blackham, 2002). The
hydrological and ecological history of the wetland, there-
lack of an appropriate water regime is recognised as one of
fore, provides essential reference information from which to
the main factors leading to the degradation of wetland
define rehabilitation goals, determine the rehabilitation
habitat at Kanyapella Basin (Environment Australia, 2001).
potential of sites and to evaluate the success of management
Rehabilitation of Kanyapella Basin by the reestablishment
decisions. Historical ecological information can be drawn
of an ecologically appropriate water regime1 is currently in
from a number of sources, including environmental records
the planning phase (Robertson and James, 2002). The
(i.e. information contained in the environment itself, e.g.
wetland is surrounded by private property, predominantly
pollen records), instrument records (e.g. river flow measure-
grazing pasture. Therefore, any future management activi-
ments), written records (e.g. explorers notes) and oral
ties that occur within the wetland are likely to be of interest
records (Clark, 1990; Swetnam et al., 1999). Where there is a
to local landholders.
paucity of recorded data for a particular site, oral reports of
Existing sources of historical ecological information
long-term residents and local landholders may be one of the
relevant to Kanyapella Basin include flora and fauna
few available sources of information; and where there is
records collected between 1990 and 2000 (Disken and
existing recorded data, local knowledge can be used to
validate remotely obtained information. 1
The water regime of floodplain wetlands is defined as the cycle of
Oral history has been formally applied on only a wetland inundation and drying as characterized by the frequency, duration,
handful of occasions in water management projects in timing and size of flood events (Boulton and Brock, 1999).
 H.A. Robertson, T.K. McGee / Journal of Environmental Management 69 (2003) 275–287 277

Fig. 1. Location of Kanyapella Basin, Victoria, Australia.

Rose’Meyer, 1991; Baxter, 1999; Bosomworth, 2000; needed in order to determine the water regime requirements
DNRE, 2001). Aerial photography of the site is available of wetland habitat at Kanyapella Basin.
from 1945 to 1992 (Department of Sustainability and
Environment (DSE), Victoria) and a digital elevation
model of the wetland has recently been produced (DSE 3. Aim
pers. comm. 2002). Daily water level records are available
for the Murray River (c1957-present) and Goulburn River This paper aims to investigate whether local ecological
(c1965-present) at two sites relatively close to the wetland knowledge is a valuable and valid resource for planning of a
from the Murray –Darling Basin Commission (MDBC wetland rehabilitation project at Kanyapella Basin, using
pers. comm. 2001). Yet, due to the extensive network of oral history methods to obtain information about the
drains in the region, it is difficult to extrapolate flooding, ecology and environmental management history
hydrographs for Kanyapella Basin from existing water of the wetland. In particular, information was sought about
level data. A comprehensive study of the Lower Goulburn how the water regime has changed over time, from a time
River provides an overview of flooding in the region (both when there was little regulation, to present day.
prior to river regulation and for current conditions),
including Kanyapella Basin (Cameron McNamara Pty Ltd,
1987a,b). However, the study describes a relatively large 4. Methods
area, more than 60 km of Lower Goulburn River and its
associated floodplain, and concentrates mostly on major Oral history for our study was defined, based on Fogerty
flood events. Consequently, the report lacks detail of the (2001), as a semi-structured to unstructured conversation
incidence and extent of flooding at Kanyapella Basin, such between an interviewer, seeking historical information
as accounting for local catchment processes and the effect regarding a particular phenomenon or period of time, and
of human activities (e.g. water diversion for farm a participant who through personal experience or associ-
irrigation) on the wetland hydrology. ation may possess relevant information. In-depth, unstruc-
Despite the existence of some documented historical tured interviews were held with nine local landholders, and
information, knowledge gaps exist with respect to the 11 local natural resource managers with past or present
ecological and management history of Kanyapella Basin, management responsibility at Kanyapella Basin. All local
that limit the development of an appropriate rehabilitation residents interviewed had lived in the area and regularly
strategy for the wetland. Specifically, historical and current visited Kanyapella Basin for at least 10 years, with many
information about the areas of the wetland frequently recollecting information from 40– 60 years before present.
inundated and the frequency of different sized floods, and Of the 14 private properties adjacent to Kanyapella Basin,
observations of the ecological impacts of different flood landholders from five properties were included in this study.
regimes on wetland habitat are lacking. This information is All other locals lived within the local district, no more than
278 H.A. Robertson, T.K. McGee / Journal of Environmental Management 69 (2003) 275–287

10 km from the wetland. Eight of the nine locals floods of 1956 and 1993 on their properties and in the
interviewed had been or still were agricultural farmers wetland, and observed long-term changes in the environ-
indicating a close association to the land, with the other ment such as the decline in water quality and the incidence
being an amateur naturalist. The managers interviewed all of tree clearing and regeneration. Managers typically
had on-ground experience at Kanyapella Basin and had provided information that related to specific management
worked in the region for a period ranging from six years to activities and their effects on the hydrology and ecology of
30 years. Participants were prompted were necessary to the wetland. There was some crossover between the two
recall information relating to the flooding, ecology and groups, with managers and local landholders noting the
management of Kanyapella Basin and the surrounding influence of larger-scale human activities, like the effect of
region. Potential participants were contacted initially during levee banks and regulation structures on water movement in
August and September 2000, via an article in newsletters of the region. These two perspectives were combined during
the two non-governmental organisations involved in the analysis since the information combined was seen as
project (i.e. the local Landcare group and Field and Game providing a better general overview of the history of
Australia), and by mailing letters to all landholders flooding, ecology and management at the wetland than
bordering Kanyapella Basin and staff from local offices of when viewed independently.
relevant government departments and the rural water
authority. The letters invited recipients to assist in the 5.1. Water regime
research by participating in an interview. The snowball
sampling method (Neuman, 2000) was used to obtain Participants agreed that flood conditions have changed
further participants, whereby participants often provided significantly at Kanyapella Basin, as numerous structures
names of other individuals that may be willing to be such as the levee banks along the Goulburn River now
interviewed. These potential participants were contacted by impede the flow of floodwater in the region. In particular,
phone in order to introduce the study and ascertain their the occurrence and severity of floods reportedly declined as
willingness to be involved in an interview. In addition, flood protection increased over the last 60 years. Before
posters were displayed in local libraries, post offices, sports river regulation predominantly all of the water flooding
clubs and pubs to reach individuals that were not contacted Kanyapella Basin originated from the Goulburn or Murray
through other means. All interviews were held during Rivers. Although the floodplain is now protected by levees,
October and November 2000. Interviews were held with 14 most participants noted that large floods still inundate
of the 20 participants at either their place of work or their Kanyapella Basin every 15 –20 years, while minor flooding
private residence. Phone interviews were held with the other occurs in most wet years, albeit artificially (i.e. minor floods
six participants, including two local landholders, who were generally occur due to the retardation of irrigation outfall
unable to be interviewed in person. Interviews were water in the wetland). Notably however, participants
unstructured and conversational. All interviews held in observed that the frequency of intermediate-sized flood
person were audio tape recorded and later transcribed. events seems to have decreased over the last 60 years.
Detailed written notes were taken for the phone interviews. The Lower Goulburn River Floodplain Management
Interviews were analysed qualitatively. Recurring themes Study (Cameron McNamara Pty Ltd, 1987a,b) evaluated the
were drawn out from the interview notes and transcripts, and impact of river regulation on the Lower Goulburn Flood-
compared to the views of the other interviewees. The results plain by comparing the extent of 1:100, 1:20 and 1:5 year
of the oral history interviews were compared with available flood events prior to river regulation with the extent of
recorded data, including the Lower Goulburn River Flood- floods under current hydrological conditions (as at 1987).
plain Management Study: Shepparton to Kanyapella Results indicated that under current conditions, Kanyapella
(Cameron McNamara Pty Ltd, 1987a,b), which modelled Basin would be completely inundated by 1:100 year and
flood events; aerial photographs of Kanyapella Basin taken 1:20 year events but not by 1:5 year floods. This is
in 1945, 1970, 1971, 1990 and 1992; and the digital consistent with the oral history records, in that major floods
elevation model of the wetland. were observed to occur every 15 –20 years. It is important to
note, however, that the Cameron McNamara study did not
take into account the contribution of water from other
5. Results sources, such as irrigation outfall water, thus would not have
identified the minor flooding that was reported by
The type of historical information provided by the two participants. The Cameron McNamara study also modelled
groups of participants (local landholders and managers) the volume and peak flow of water at Yambuna Creek (the
during the oral history, though comparable, differed in many main surface water input to Kanyapella Basin), both before
respects. Local residents often recollected experiences river regulation and under existing conditions. It calculated
dating back to their childhood, and observations passed that the 1:5 year events have decreased in flood volume and
down from their parents or previous residents in the area. peak flow (at Yambuna Creek) since river regulation
For example, locals often recalled the effects of the major (Table 1), which coincides with oral history evidence that
 H.A. Robertson, T.K. McGee / Journal of Environmental Management 69 (2003) 275–287 279

Table 1 elevations (Fig. 4), which would typically have been

Modelled volume (million m3) and peak flow (m3 per second) of water at inundated only during larger flood events. Thus, in
Yambuna Creek prior to and after river regulation
accordance with participants’ observations, it appears that
Modelled flood (ARI) the levees, drains, and in particular the past water manage-
ment activities have altered the pattern of flooding in the
1:100 year 1:20 year 1:5 year wetland.
Volume Peak Volume Peak Volume Peak During the oral history interviews participants also
flow flow flow identified several other impacts of river regulation, includ-
ing those on vegetation. One adjacent landholder observed:
Prior to river 21 84 10 25 8 25
regulation
Current conditions 116 420 43 156 1 8
“The extreme wetting and drying behaviour of the
(as at 1987) anabranches (adjoining creeks) stopped occurring…
and that is why the River Red Gum (Eucalyptus
ARI, annual recurrence interval. Source, Cameron McNamara Pty Ltd camaldulensis) tress in Yambuna Creek are now all
(1987b).
dead” (i.e. due to permanent inundation of water)
intermediate-sized events have decreased in frequency at
Kanyapella Basin. In comparison, the volume and peak flow Large-scale death of eucalypts due to prolonged inunda-
of larger floods (1:100 and 1:20 year) at Yambuna Creek tion is frequently observed in rivers and lakes in southeast
increased since regulation (Table 1). Participants did not Australia (e.g. Goulburn Weir, Victoria). Although water
report an increase in the extent of water flowing from levels have not been measured, the construction of irrigation
Yambuna Creek into Kanyapella Basin during major floods, outfall drains has led to water being ponded almost year
they simply commented that major flood events occurred round in the Creeks at Kanyapella Basin, and seems the
every 15 –20 years. likely explanation for the death of eucalypts reported.
The distribution of water during floods over the last 60 According to two long-term residents, water quality in
years was also reported during the oral history interviews. Warrigal Creek and Yambuna Creek at Kanyapella Basin
Participants recalled that floods between 1940 and 1970 has declined. They noted that before 1960, Warrigal Creek
(Fig. 2(a)) were concentrated in the north-central regions of was less turbid and recollected that locals used to frequently
the wetland adjacent to Warrigal Creek and Yambuna Creek. swim in the Creek. Following the establishment of
During recent floods (1990-present, Fig. 2(b)), floodwaters Cumbungi (Typha spp.), a decrease in water levels and
tended to be spread to southern areas of the wetland. The increase in turbidity, they reported that swimming is not an
differences in the distribution of floodwater were predomi- option and would not be enjoyable. Participants also spoke
nantly attributed by participants to the construction of the about an increase in salinity levels in the creeks that pass
irrigation outfall drains (e.g. Tongala outfall drain, Fig. 2(b)) through the wetland. As one irrigator pointed out:
and levee banks, and past managers directing water to
specific areas of the wetland to attract waterfowl. “The quality of water gets pretty bad, and salty, over
2

This oral evidence of the distribution of floodwater 3000 mS/cm at times. I have noted algal blooms in the
compared favourably with information provided in five creeks during summer also.”
aerial photographs taken between 1945 and 1992 (e.g. Fig. 3)
and a digital elevation model of Kanyapella Basin (Fig. 4). The increased occurrence of algal blooms has been
For example, the 1990 aerial photograph (Fig. 3) shows documented in a report of the water quality in the region
Kanyapella Basin in predominantly dry conditions, but with (EPA, 1999), while available (1998 –2002) water quality
discrete areas where standing water is present that monitoring at Warrigal Creek just downstream of the
indicate areas subject to more frequent inundation. The wetland recorded a maximum salinity of 1550 mS/cm
areas inundated to the south of the wetland in the aerial (Goulburn-Murray Water, pers. comm., 2002), which is
photograph correspond closely to the areas of the wetland lower than that reported by the local farmer. The difference
that were noted by interview participants as experiencing an in the maximum salinity levels noted by the two sources
increased frequency of inundation. The digital elevation may be due to a number of factors, such as the frequency of
model of the wetland was used to further evaluate the sampling in Warrigal Creek and the effect of flow on
distribution of water in the wetland. Before the establish- diluting salinity levels. The accuracy of level recorded by
ment of drains and levees in Kanyapella Basin and the the local irrigator also needs to be confirmed, though the
initiation of management activities, the distribution of result does highlight the potential for greater salinity levels
in Kanyapella Basin than previously measured.
floodwater reported by participants generally coincided with
the areas of lowest elevations in the wetland (Fig. 4). Yet, 2
A salinity level of 3000 (mS/cm) at Kanyapella Basin is regarded as
from 1990 to the present, some of the areas frequently degraded based on national water quality guidelines for wetlands (EPA,
inundated (Figs. 2(b) and 3) correspond with higher 1999; ANZECC and ARMCANZ, 2000).
280 H.A. Robertson, T.K. McGee / Journal of Environmental Management 69 (2003) 275–287

Fig. 2. (a) Areas of Kanyapella Basin frequently inundated by floodwater between 1940 and 1970, according to the oral history. (b) Areas of Kanyapella Basin
frequently inundated by floodwater from 1990 to present, according to the oral history.

5.2. Past wetland management article describing the rehabilitation efforts at Kanyapella
Basin during the late 1970s (McGuire, 1980). However,
There were a number of attempts to rehabilitate the many participants said that continued over-flooding has
wetland at Kanyapella Basin between 1977 and the early been responsible for the death of a number of mature Black
1990s. Though initially regarded as successful by regional Box (Eucalyptus largiflorens) and River Red Gum trees, and
government staff, rehabilitation efforts were eventually the dense growth of the floating fern Pacific Azolla (Azolla
abandoned, predominantly due to a reduction in water filiculoides) that limited the amount of open water habitat.
available to flood the wetland. During years when there was Other negative side effects of past management practices
sufficient water, much of the wetland remained inundated that were reported by participants included an increase in
for prolonged periods, which increased the number and aquatic weeds and algal blooms, problems associated with
diversity of water birds and lead to the establishment of increased public usage of the wetland (e.g. damage to
wetland plants. These observations were also noted in an tracks), and flooding of private property due to irrigation
 H.A. Robertson, T.K. McGee / Journal of Environmental Management 69 (2003) 275–287 281

Fig. 3. Aerial photograph of Kanyapella Basin, 1990, showing areas of standing water. (Source: Qasco Victoria/VicImage, Melbourne).

drains being filled over capacity. One adjacent landholder property due to the limited capacity of the outfall drain.
said that his land was repeatedly inundated during the 1980s Throughout the oral history interviews, participants
and early 1990s: observed that past management efforts did not appear
scientifically rigorous.
“Water does flow (into the wetland) from that
structure (drain structure in Kanyapella Basin that
was used to divert water into the wetland during past “Management from what I understood was very ad hoc,
management efforts) but it kept the water too high (in we had a guy, a Land Protection Officer, and from I
the drain), and the water backed up from the structure, understand he was probably about the only one that did
and that is why it flooded our place.” go and actually manipulate any of the structures (to
divert or drain water into or from the wetland). There
The above observation was reiterated in an interview with seemed to be no rhyme or reason as to how it was
a manager from the rural water authority, who described managed, and no firm documentation on what (basis) it
how on occasion water spilled into this landholder’s was managed on.”

Fig. 4. Digital elevation model of Kanyapella Basin. (Data provided by Department of Sustainability and Environment, Victoria).
282 H.A. Robertson, T.K. McGee / Journal of Environmental Management 69 (2003) 275–287

To date, no specific documentation exists for the observations of the incidence of certain weed species,
management of Kanyapella Basin. Although a draft details of revegetation activities in the region, and
management plan was prepared for Kanyapella Basin, this observations of dominant trees and shrubs over the past
was not implemented, which backs up the observation that 60 years, such as the incidence of Wattle trees (Acacia spp.).
past and current management is not carefully planned. Although the accuracy of some of this information needs to
These perspectives on past wetland rehabilitation attempts be validated, it also provides information that may lead to an
are important to planning future rehabilitation attempts in increased understanding of the general ecology and nature
that potential negative impacts on the wetland ecosystem of vegetation communities in the wetland.
and private landholders can be reduced.
5.4. Fauna
5.3. Vegetation
Many observations of native and introduced fauna
Interview participants stated that some vegetation were mentioned during the interviews. Reports of the
communities have become degraded due to the effects of diversity and abundance of water birds over the past 60
farming and tree clearing prior to 1967; the continued years were especially common. For example, a number
grazing of sheep, cattle and horses; and as a result of of participants noted that during the flood of 1993
prolonged flooding during past attempts at wetland hundreds of ibis, herons and cormorants were breeding in
rehabilitation. The effect of horses on inhibiting Black the wetland. One local farmer, who was also an amateur
Box regeneration was noted specifically. Interestingly, naturalist, provided a list of native fauna that he had
many local landholders were aware of some of the observed in Kanyapella Basin over the last 10 years.
negative effects of grazing animals on the wetland These records were compared with existing lists of fauna
ecosystem, such as how hoof damage can damage soil observed at the wetland. Approximately 90 different
structure and native plant establishment. The effects of species were observed by the local resident, compared to
grazing by sheep and cattle on native vegetation were also the 38 species identified in the published material
highlighted in a report describing some of the issues (DNRE, 2001; Environment Australia, 2001). Perhaps
regarding the ecology and management of Kanyapella most significantly, two participants independently cited
Basin (Disken and Rose’Meyer, 1991). These reports the presence of Bush-Stone Curlew (Burhinus grallarius)
highlight that damage to wetland habitat continues to in Kanyapella Basin, a threatened bird species in the
occur due to inappropriate management, which can be region (DNRE, 2000). These observations had direct
taken into consideration in decisions regarding the management implications, with decisions regarding future
conservation of plant communities. Interestingly, one water regimes needing to take into account the potential
farmer reported that he had removed cattle from his impact on the survival and reproduction of the Bush
grazing lease to see what effect it would have on the Stone Curlew.
vegetation. In the months and years that followed this
removal of cattle, he noticed that: 5.5. Current wetland management planning

“The section parallel to the creek did not used to have any Many participants offered suggestions regarding the
regeneration. Now, since the cattle have been kept off it, it future management and rehabilitation of Kanyapella Basin.
is thick with River Red Gum. This proves that regener- For instance, one participant proposed:
ation will occur if grazing is managed appropriately.”
“It is a mistake to concentrate flooding to the wildlife
A number of participants also recommended how the bays (west) side as they did before. At the Warrigal
water regime of the present rehabilitation program should be Lagoon (Yambuna Creek, Fig. 1) overflow, that is where
modified in terms of frequency and duration of flooding, in the wetland area should be, and it should probably flood
order to be suitable for River Red Gum and Black Box. there every 8 out of 10 years”
These responses provided a local perspective of the water
requirements of vegetation in the wetland. For example, one Participants also recommended alternative sources of
resident said: water and methods for delivering floodwater in to the
wetland. For example, during the oral history interviews
“Black Box is your 1 in 10 year and 1 in 15 year regime, natural resource managers said that 500 ML of high quality
and flooding for say only two months at most. I think the irrigation water could be obtained during May from the local
Red Gum should get flooded maybe 3 years out of 5 or 7 irrigation district for the purpose of flooding Kanyapella
years out of 10”. Basin. This suggestion was subsequently confirmed through
consultation with the rural water authority and incorporated
Other botanical information about the wetland that was into the draft management plan for Kanyapella Basin
reported during the oral history interviews included (Robertson, 2003). In addition, the needs of downstream
 H.A. Robertson, T.K. McGee / Journal of Environmental Management 69 (2003) 275–287 283

irrigators for water at different times of the year and for more readily recollected than others. For example,
different weather conditions were discussed. For example, observations of animal species, especially birds, were
one landholder noted that he diverted water during periods of recalled more frequently than plants. Lane (1997)
high flow in Warrigal Creek but was concerned that future similarly noted that local knowledge appears to be
management decisions as part of the rehabilitation project more useful for some aspects of environmental change
may reduce the amount of water available. Landholders were than for others. Significant environmental disturbances
also concerned about the effect that reestablishment of a such as major flood events are usually well remembered
flooding regime would have on their properties and on the in comparison to less destructive events (Slovic, 2000).
wetland itself. Of primary concern was that purposefully In addition, Finlayson and Brizga (1995) note that
inundating Kanyapella Basin would also increase the risk of erroneous ideas can often be given legitimacy simply
floodwaters inundating their properties should a large flood by being quoted frequently. This may have implications
occur, given the reduced storage capacity of the wetland. at Kanyapella Basin. As rehabilitation aims to reestablish
Various other concerns were also raised that highlighted the minor and intermediate-sized flood regime, can we
potential management issues, including the potential assume that the frequency and extent of the smaller less
increase in mosquito populations; the control of pest animals, intrusive floods reported by the participants are correct?
particularly foxes (Vulpes vulpes); potential for increased If the information is not trustworthy, results may only be
threat of fire due to increased plant biomass; and issues of use in identifying the years that flooding occurred,
associated with increased public usage of the wetland (e.g. which provides a broad overview of flooding history,
degradation of roads). as opposed to being able to provide specific details of
the timing and extent of floods. However, by verifying
oral records with other evidence, as has been the
6. Discussion case in this study, inaccurate recollections can be
identified (Table 2).
6.1. The contribution of oral history results to wetland Comparison of participants’ reports with aerial photo-
rehabilitation graphs, a hydrological modelling study, and digital
elevation model, enabled much of the oral history
Oral history proved an effective way to obtain infor- information to be validated, and provided a more complete
mation regarding the hydrological history of Kanyapella overview of the hydrological history of the wetland.
Basin, as many of the individuals interviewed had a detailed Individually, the aerial photographs, modelling study,
understanding of the water regime of the wetland and the digital elevation model and oral history described only a
surrounding area. For example, participants consistently small component of the water regime, which may have led
described the impact of past management on changing the managers to interpret the water requirements of the
distribution of floodwater (Fig. 2) and on decreasing the wetland incorrectly. For example, the hydrological report
frequency of intermediate-sized flood events. Ecological (Cameron McNamara Pty Ltd, 1987a,b) modelled flood
information, such as descriptions of the effects of past events broadly across the floodplain but did not take into
management attempts on flora and fauna communities, was account the contribution of local runoff to flooding that, as
also obtained during the interviews. identified by interview participants, causes frequent minor
How valid is the oral history information? In this flooding of Kanyapella Basin. While many participants’
study, it is important to note that some subjects were responses were detailed, greater insight was obtained by

Table 2
Types of oral history information recorded at Kanyapella Basin and the information source used to validate the participants’ observations

Type of information Example Information source used in validation

Hydrological (water regime) Reports of the extent and frequency Aerial photographs (e.g. 1990, Qasco Victoria/Vic
of inundation, and the effects of Image); Digital elevation model (DSE pers.
increased river regulation on flooding comm. 2002); Floodplain study (Cameron McNamara 1987a,b)
Water quality Incidental observations of surface water salinity, Unpublished water quality monitoring data (GMW
turbidity and algal blooms pers comm. 2002); Regional water quality
assessments (EPA, 1999)
Vegetation Indication of the water regime required Existing scientific knowledge (Roberts and Marston, 2000)
for conservation of eucalypts
Fauna Lists of bird species and other Existing fauna records (Disken and Rose’Meyer, 1991; DNRE, 2001;
fauna Environment Australia, 2001)
Management Descriptions of the effects of past Previous draft management plan Anderson, 2001); Existing literature
management on the wetland (McGuire, 1980)
284 H.A. Robertson, T.K. McGee / Journal of Environmental Management 69 (2003) 275–287

utilising multiple sources of information. Integration of Basin management committee recommending that extra
multiple sources of information in constructing an research needs to be completed regarding the distribution
environmental history of floodplain wetlands, as studies and abundance of Bush– Stone Curlew and other threa-
of other ecosystem types have shown (e.g. Lane, 1997; tened biota, to ensure their populations are not adversely
Davis and Finlayson, 2000; Lunney et al., 2000), enables a effected by future management activities (Robertson,
higher level of historical resolution to be obtained. 2003).
The value of oral history to floodplain wetland The inclusion of oral history has clearly contributed to
rehabilitation, however, must be measured by its overall the future management and rehabilitation of Kanyapella
contribution to management. Egan and Howell (2001, pg. Basin. The oral history was instrumental in management
1) stated ‘a fundamental aspect of ecosystem restoration is decisions to consider alternative water management strat-
learning how to rediscover the past and bring it forward egies, and in identifying knowledge gaps where research is
into the present—to determine what needs to be restored, required. If the oral history had not been conducted, it is
why it was lost, and how best to make it live again’. Oral unlikely that the community would have provided any
history allowed much of this fundamental information to historical information during the planning process. Specific
be collected, which enabled alternative management information, such as descriptions of the impacts of past
options to be considered and helped to direct future management, reports of threatened fauna and observations
research. Most significantly, details of changes to the water of the effects of grazing in the wetland would not have
regime over the last 60 years were critical in determining otherwise been recorded.
the water regime for the rehabilitation of Kanyapella Basin. As well as providing information that directly contributes
Local knowledge of the frequency and extent of flood to management, oral history can be used to provide local
events were especially important, as they contributed to the details about the ecological requirements of flora and fauna
management committee’s decision to focus on reestablish- communities. Where specific records of the flora and fauna
ing the frequency intermediate-sized floods (Robertson, of a wetland are unavailable, determination of the require-
2003). In addition, observations that major flood events ments of flora and fauna communities is typically drawn
still occur as frequently as they have in the past, helped to from scientific literature and experience at other floodplain
reinforce the management decision not to flood the wetland wetlands (Davis et al., 2001b). Combining local knowledge
to capacity. In fact it is logistically impossible to artificially of plant and animal communities with documented
flood the wetland to capacity given the impossibility of evidence, aims to reduce the uncertainty involved in
obtaining and delivering a sufficient quantity of water, and determining management outcomes. For example, knowl-
due to the risk of flooding private land. Notably, the edge of the water requirements for the regeneration of Black
frequency of major flood events reported in the oral history Box in floodplain wetlands of southeast Australia is well
coincides with findings of other documentation, which established (Roberts and Marston, 2000). Yet, by linking
indicate that flood mitigation structures have little effect on local observations of the effects of grazing and past wetland
controlling the impact of large floods in the region (e.g. rehabilitation attempts on Black Box at Kanyapella Basin
Cameron McNamara Pty Ltd, 1987a; Gippel and Finlay- with the existing documented knowledge, the ecological
son, 1993). Besides information relating to the water requirements of the Black Box can be established with more
regime, local knowledge on many other topics contributed certainty.
to the planning of the wetland rehabilitation project. For
example, during the interviews a new method to deliver
water to the wetland was identified, which has since been 6.2. Oral history and public participation
evaluated and incorporated into the draft management plan
for Kanyapella Basin (Robertson, 2003). An alternative Many participants, especially local landholders, openly
source of water for flooding the wetland was also stated that through participation in the oral history they felt
identified. Following further investigation, the availability more included in the current rehabilitation project, and
of this water was confirmed and has since been formally commented that during the past management efforts, no
incorporated into future management arrangements consultation with the public occurred. During the oral
(Robertson, 2003). From an ecological perspective, history interviews, various participants, especially local
descriptions of the effects of past wetland rehabilitation landholders, were grateful for the opportunity to contribute
attempts on flora and fauna played an important role in their experience to the planning of a wetland rehabilitation
determining the water requirements of different wetland project. This is likely to have positive outcomes for the
habitats. For instance, reports of the death of a number of management committee, as other research has shown that by
Black Box due to overflooding highlighted the need for involving public participation, the community is more likely
future rehabilitation efforts to monitor the duration of to accept policy change in the future (Calheiros et al., 2000;
flooding in different vegetation communities. Participants’ Kapoor, 2001). By collating local knowledge, managers
observations of the threatened woodland bird, Bush – Stone gain important information, while it also provides a medium
Curlew also had a significant impact, with the Kanyapella to inform local community about proposed management
 H.A. Robertson, T.K. McGee / Journal of Environmental Management 69 (2003) 275–287 285

activities, thus increasing transparency of future environ- The perceived inferiority of oral history compared to
mental management decision-making. other historical ecology techniques may be due, in part, to
The oral history interviews also enabled concerns the relatively short life span of participants relative to the
regarding the rehabilitation of Kanyapella Basin to be raised phenomenon in question (e.g. Roberts and Sainty, 2000).
by both community members and natural resource managers. The wealth of knowledge held by landholders and managers
Groundwater salinity, a serious environmental problem in who participated in the interviews provided valuable
the some areas in the region (MDBC, 1999), was of special information for this project. Importantly, many of the
concern to participants. Participants’ raising of this issue landholders were farmers with a close association with the
during interviews identified a significant gap in scientific land, including a few (four) multi-generational farmers, who
understanding at Kanyapella Basin. Specifically, the effect of recalled information from 40 – 60 years before present as
establishing a more frequent flooding regime on soil and well as observations passed on from their parents. In
water salinity at the wetland was not adequately known. addition, a couple of the managers had a long standing
Subsequently, the management committee commissioned an association with the management of Kanyapella Basin,
investigation into the hydrogeology of the wetland (Goul- being actively involved in the previous rehabilitation efforts
burn-Murray Water, 2002). Participants also raised a number that were initiated during the 1970s.
of concerns that were founded on incorrect information, such Oral history information has also been criticized for not
as the perception that reestablishing a flood regime would being scientifically credible (e.g. Finlayson and Brizga,
increase the risk of flooding on private property. Due to the 1995). Cross-referencing of information, therefore, is
interactive nature of the oral history, it was possible to desirable wherever possible. By verifying oral history
address these concerns during the interviews. The interviews responses with other sources of information, inaccurate
also provided an opportunity for the irrigation water reports can be identified. Perhaps more importantly, by
requirements of local farmers to be discussed. This has lead using a number of information sources in conjunction with
to a greater appreciation by managers of the possible impact the oral history information, a more complete understanding
of future management actions on the irrigators’ water supply. of the system is obtained. Data collection and interpretation
As a result, arrangements are now in place for downstream methods can also reduce the credibility of oral history.
diverters to utilise surplus water draining from the wetland Fogerty (2001) noted that during interviews, while direc-
(Robertson, 2003). These results clearly emphasise the tionless conversation is not effective, it is important not alter
benefits of public participation when collating historical the perceptions and memories of the participant, as this may
ecological information. lead to false reports. Over-interpretation of oral history
information may also have stemmed criticisms in the past.
6.3. Reflection on methods Care was taken at Kanyapella Basin to accurately represent
information during analysis. Due to the combination of
Oral history seems to be well suited to the study of these steps taken, managers involved in the Kanyapella
wetland environments, since hydrological changes are the Basin rehabilitation project received the oral history
driving factor behind ecosystem dynamics in wetlands information in a positive manner. Subsequently, the oral
(Mitsch and Gosselink, 2000), and as hydrology changes history was, at least in part, responsible for consideration of
such as flooding are likely to be well recollected by human a number of alternative management options.
observers, due to their more conspicuous nature compared
to other natural processes. Application of oral history to
other environmental disturbances such as fire or landslides 7. Conclusion
is likely to offer similar results. In addition to such unusual
or extreme events, community knowledge of less dynamic To be utilized more widely in natural resource manage-
ecosystem types has also been shown to be valuable. For ment, oral history is required to provide historical ecological
example, a study of the vertebrate fauna of Iluka Peninsula, information at the accuracy needed to make sound,
Australia, used local knowledge to provide information for scientifically informed management decisions. The results
planning biodiversity conservation (Lunney et al., 2000). In of this study clearly indicate that when oral history was used
our study, community knowledge about water quality, in conjunction with documented sources of historical data, a
vegetation and fauna provided information that has been great deal of valid and useful information regarding the
incorporated into planning of the rehabilitation project. The history of Kanyapella Basin was obtained. This information
second role of oral history advocated during this study, to contributed significantly to determining the water regime
gauge the values and concerns of local community and requirements for the wetland’s rehabilitation. Failure to
stakeholders, is applicable across almost all disciplines incorporate local knowledge would have substantially
including non-ecological fields. The benefits obtained, reduced the knowledge base available for planning the
especially in resolving areas of conflict, suggest that this rehabilitation of the wetland. In addition, increased public
is an important role for oral history in natural resource participation through the oral history process itself enabled
management and other fields. community values and concerns to be recorded, and
286 H.A. Robertson, T.K. McGee / Journal of Environmental Management 69 (2003) 275–287

increased managers understanding of the social context of Davis, J.A., Finlayson, B.L., Hart, B.T., 2001a. Barriers to science
the particular locality, which is fundamental to sound informing community-based land and water management. Australian
Journal of Environmental Management 8, 99–104.
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Davis, J.A., Froend, R.H., Hamilton, D.P., Horwitz, P., McComb, A.J.,
Oldham, C.E., 2001b. Environmental Water Requirements to Maintain
Wetlands of National and International Importance. Environmental
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