Vector Fields, Curl, and Divergence

Institute of Mathematics
University of the Philippines-Diliman

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Scalar Fields

Denition
A scalar eld on Rn is any real-valued function whose domain is a
subset of Rn .

Example
Scalar elds on R2 :
f (x, y) = x2 − 3xy + 3
2 cos(xy) − x
φ(x, y) =
ex−y + 1
Scalar elds on R3 :
f (x, y, z) = x2 − y 3 + z 4
√
φ(x, y, z) = sin(xy − z) + 1 + x2

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Vector Fields

Denition
A vector eld on Rn is a function whose output is an n-dimensional
vector where each of the n components is a scalar eld on Rn .
A vector eld F~ on R2 has the form
F~ (x, y) = hP (x, y), Q(x, y)i = P (x, y) ı̂ + Q(x, y)̂,

where P and Q are scalar elds on R2 .

A vector eld G
~ on R3 has the form

~
G(x, y, z) = hP (x, y, z), Q(x, y, z), R(x, y, z)i
= P (x, y, z)ı̂ + Q(x, y, z)̂ + R(x, y, z)k̂

where P , Q, and R are scalar elds on R3 .

The domain of a vector eld is the intersection of the domains of its
component functions.

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Vector Fields

Example
Vector elds on R2 :
1 F~ (x, y) = hx + y, xyi
2 ~
G(x, y) = cos xı̂ + sin y̂
Vector elds on R3 :
1 F~ (x, y, z) = hxy, xz, yzi
2 ~
G(x, y, z) = z 2 ı̂ + (x − y)̂ + exyz k̂

Remark
The function H(x,
~ y) = x2 , y − x, cos x is not a vector eld. Why?



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Vector Fields Illustration

Example
Sketch the vector eld F~ (x, y) = h−y, xi

Sketch of the vector eld F~ (x, y) = h−y, xi.

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Flowlines

Denition
Flowlines are curves that are parametrized by R(t)
~ = hx(t), y(t)i such
that their tangent vector is equal to the vector eld F~ at the point
(x(t), y(t)), i.e.,
hx0 (t), y 0 (t)i = F~ (x(t), y(t)).

Example

The owlines of F~ (x, y) = h−y, xi are circles centered at the origin.

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Velocity Field

Velocity eld of the air surrounding a seadan with rear wing 1

1 Edited version of the original image courtesy of Symscape.com "CFD Study of a Car With and
Without Wing" licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.
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Gravitational Force Field

1
Let φ1 (x, y) = p then
x2 + y2
* +
~ 1 (x, y) = −x −y
∇φ p ,p .
(x2 + y 2 )3 (x2 + y 2 )3
~ 1 (x, y) can be interpreted as the gravitational force
Note that ∇φ
eld.

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Gradient Fields

Remark
~ is a (gradient)
If φ is a scalar eld on Rn , then its gradient ∇φ
vector eld on Rn .

Example
The gradient
of the scalar eld φ(x, y) = x2 y is the vector eld
~
∇φ(x, y) = 2xy, x2 .

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Electric Field

1 1
Let φ2 (x, y) = p −p .
x2 + (y + 0.5)2 x2 + (y − 0.5)2
The gradient eld ∇φ
~ 2 (x, y) can be interpreted as the scaled version
of the electric eld induced by a single negative point charge.

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Gradient Field and Local Extrema

Let f (x, y) = sin x sin y.

Then
~ (x, y) = hcos x sin y, sin x sin yi .
∇f

Remarks:
~ = ~0 at the local extrema
∇f
The arrows always point
towards the point where
local maximum occurs.
The gradient is perpendicular
to the contour curves. The contour map of f together
with the sketch of ∇f
~ .

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Divergence and Curl

Denition
Suppose F~ is a vector eld on R3 dened by F~ = hP, Q, Ri .
1 The divergence of F~ , denoted by div F~ , is the scalar eld given by

div F~ = Px + Qy + Rz .
2 The curl of F~ , denoted by curl F~ , is the vector eld given by
curl F~ = hRy − Qz , Pz − Rx , Qx − Py i .

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Divergence and Curl

Example
Dene F~ (x, y, z) = x2 y, y 2 z, xz 2 . Then



div F~ = Px + Qy + Rz
∂ 2 ∂ 2 ∂
= (x y) + (y z) + (xz 2 )
∂x ∂y ∂z
= 2xy + 2yz + 2xz,

and
curl F~ = hRy − Qz , Pz − Rx , Qx − Py i
= 0 − y 2 , 0 − z 2 , 0 − x2



= − y 2 , z 2 , x2 .



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The ~
∇ Operator

Denition
Dene the del operator ∇
~ by
 
~ = ∂ ∂ ∂
∇ , , ,
∂x ∂y ∂z

which we will now treat as a "vector".

If f is dierentiable scalar function on R3 , we have the familiar

notation
 
~ ∂ ∂ ∂
∇f = , , f
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂f ∂f ∂f
= , , (scalar multiplication).
∂x ∂y ∂z

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The ~
∇ Operator

If F~ is a vector eld on R3 dened by F~ = hP, Q, Ri , we have

 
~ · F~ ∂ ∂ ∂
∇ = , , · hP, Q, Ri
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂P ∂Q ∂R
= + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
= div F~ (dot product)

 
 ı̂ ̂ k̂ 
 
 ∂ ∂ ∂
~ × F~

∇ = 
 ∂x

 ∂y ∂z 

 P Q R 
= hRy − Qz , Pz − Rx , Qx − Py i
= curl F~ (cross product)

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Divergence and Curl

Example
Find the divergence and curl of F~ (x, y, z) = hex sin z, ye−x , z tan yi at
the origin.

div F~ = ∇
~ · F~
∂ x ∂ ∂
= (e sin z) + (ye−x ) + (z tan y)
∂x ∂y ∂z
= ex sin z + e−x + tan y
div F~ (0, 0, 0) = 0 + 1 + 0 = 1.

curl F~ = ∇
~ × F~
 

 ı̂ ̂ k̂ 

∂ ∂ ∂
= 

∂x ∂y ∂z


 ex sin z ye−x z tan y 

= z sec2 y, ex cos z, −ye−x .



curl F~ (0, 0, 0) = h0, 1, 0i

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Divergence and Curl of F~ in R2 .

Remark
Let F~ = hP, Qi be a vector eld in R2 . Write
F~ (x, y, z) = hP (x, y), Q(x, y), 0i .
Then the divergence and curl of F~ will be given by

~ · F~ = ∂P + ∂Q + ∂0 = Px + Qy
div F~ = ∇
∂x ∂y ∂z
curl F~ = ∇
~ × F~


 ı̂ ̂ k̂ 

 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
 = h0, 0, Qx − Py i
= 

 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

 P (x, y) Q(x, y) 0 

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Exercises

I. Draw a sketch of the following vector elds on R2 or R3 at least

at the points (x, y) or (x, y, z) where x, y, z ∈ {−1, 0, 1}.
Dx yE
1 ~ (x, y) =
F , 2 ~ (x, y) = hx − y , x + yi
F
2 2
II. Find the divergence and curl of the following vector elds.
~ (x, y) = − y , 1
D E
1 F
x x
2 ~ (x, y, z) = hxy , zey , zi
F
3 ~ (x, y, z) = he2x , 3x2 yz , 2y 2 z + xi
F

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