A News Letter from the National Corrosion Council of India April – June, 2008

CORROSION NEWS

Multi Mapping in Forensic Engineering

Wawrusiewicz, Aleksander et al.,
(Struct. Engg. Intern., 17(2), 2007 , p. 172)

Forensic Engineering needs an especially detailed approach to

investigation, collection and analysis of evidence materials. Extremely
high precision and accuracy of the deductions are required.

The Multi Mapping procedure includes mapping the deteriorations and

the failures resulting from their occurrence. Precise information on the
cause and effect of the observed phenomenon can be obtained by a
comparison of the relationships.

Initially this technique was used for the investigation of concrete

structures. This technique incorporates a unified graphic presentation
and analysis of the test results of reinforced concrete structures
obtained from implementing various diagnostic methods. In this case,
the Multi Mapping procedure comprises maps depicting the investigated
surfaces, incorporating the corrosion level of the reinforcement,
concrete strength, the degree of carbonisation, the thickness of concrete
cover, the chloride content, the permeability of the concrete cover, etc.
Maps shall be created on these bases.

Analysis of the matched maps enables specifying of the areas that

require special diagnostic control, identification of the deterioration
factors and estimation of the complex hazards of structural durability.

For a forensic investigation, all possible threats to the target should be

taken into consideration: natural hazards, failures due to human errors
in the design, manufacture and operation. A comparison of maps
collected in a given time period should precisely document the
deterioration processes. The matching of maps with possible threats
and the occurrence of damages should show the right cause of failure,
clearly identifying the culprit.

Different threats are to be analysed, utilizing the same units in

comparing the investigation results. It will be the hazard d of
destruction or of the deterioration factor over a critical value expressed
as a percentage.

To coat or not to coat? The maintenance of Cor-Ten® sculptures

P. Decker et al.,
(Mater. and Corros., 59 (3), p. 239)

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A News Letter from the National Corrosion Council of India April – June, 2008

Since the mid sixties Cor-Ten® steel became one of the most famous
materials for outdoor sculptures until today. This material was used by
many artists because of its good weather resistance. Due to not always
suitable ranges of application many significant problems in the field of
conservation appeared.

These were surveyed in a project of the study programme Object

Conservation at the State Academy of Art and Design Stuttgart with
special focus on the material and its protective rust layers, the premises
for its protection, different cases of significant damage and their causes,
the potential of preventive conservation and practised interventive
methods.

Although it seems to be in some way a contradiction in itself to coat a

weathering steel, this has often been done in hands-on conservation to
overcome corrosion problems. Therefore different coating materials
already in use for outdoor metal sculptures were tested on Cor-Ten
coupons in the framework of the CONSIST project in the Deutsches
Bergbau-Museum Bochum (DBM). Cor-Ten B samples were covered
with different coating materials such as: microcrystalline waxes, waxes
used in technical corrosion protection, an acrylic resin and a
polyurethane resin. The sheets were then weathered for 2 months in a
climate chamber with a relative high humidity (but also drying cycles)
and a climate chamber with a periodic changing relative high rate of
SO2 gas and humidity using standard protocols developed at DBM in
earlier projects. The effectiveness of the protective function of each
coating materials is compared, consequences for practical applications
discussed.

INDUSTRIAL CORROSION PROBLEMS

AIRCRAFT CORROSION

Geopolymer matrices with improved hydrothermal corrosion

resistance for high-temperature applications
Nair, B. et al.,
(J. Mater. Sci., 42(9), 2007 , p. 3083)

Ceramic matrix composites have to overcome two major barriers for

applications in aircraft and stationary turbines/engines. One is the
unacceptably high processing cost to obtain sufficient mechanical
properties and the other is their poor corrosion resistance under

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A News Letter from the National Corrosion Council of India April – June, 2008

hydrothermal oxidizing conditions typical of engines and turbines.

Functional geopolymer composites provide possible solutions to the
above two problems since they can be formed by technologically simple
processing routes and the hydrothermal corrosion resistance can be
improved by tailoring material compositions. In this paper geopolymer
matrix materials with superior hydrothermal corrosion resistance were
processed from the selected geomimetic compositions. The effects of
processing parameters, such as particle size, extent of dissolution, and
firing temperature on the compressive strength and microstructures
were examined and specimens with a compression strength as high as
99 MPa were fabricated. Hydrothermal test experiments on KOH-
derived geopolymer specimens showed that all of potassium-bonded
geopolymer specimens have minimal mass change or dimensional
change during hydrothermal exposure in spite of the phase change.

Active health monitoring of an aircraft wing with embedded

piezoelectric sensor/actuator network: I. Defect detection,
localization and growth monitoring
Zhao, Xiaoliang, et al
(Smart Mater. and Structures, 16(4), 2007 , p. 1208)

This work focuses on an ultrasonic guided wave structural health

monitoring (SHM) system development for aircraft wing inspection. In
part I of the study, a detailed description of a real aluminum wing
specimen and some preliminary wave propagation tests on the wing
panel are presented. Unfortunately, strong attenuation and scattering
impede guided waves for large-area inspection. Nevertheless, small, low-
cost and light-weight piezoelectric (PZT) discs were bonded to various
parts of the aircraft wing, in a form of relatively sparse arrays, for
simulated cracks and corrosion monitoring. The PZT discs take turns
generating and receiving ultrasonic guided waves. Pair-wise through-
transmission waveforms collected at normal conditions served as
baselines, and subsequent signals collected at defected conditions such
as rivet cracks or corrosion detected the presence of a defect and its
location with a novel correlation analysis based technique called RAPID
(reconstruction algorithm for probabilistic inspection of defects). The
effectiveness of the algorithm was tested with several case studies in a
laboratory environment. It showed good performance for defect
detection, size estimation and localization in complex aircraft wing
structures.

BOILER CORROSION

Corrosion fatigue: Recent developments and future needs

O'Donnell, William J. et al.,

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A News Letter from the National Corrosion Council of India April – June, 2008

(Proc. of IMarEST - Part B – J. of Marine Design and Operations,

2007(10), 2007 , p. 27)

Exposure to water has recently been found to have a much greater

deleterious effect on the fatigue strength of the most commonly used
carbon and low alloy and stainless steels than previously believed. The
ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code and other Codes and Standards
for evaluating the fatigue design life of engineered components
including power plants have commonly assumed that such exposure
would not reduce the fatigue life by more than a factor of 2 below that
measured in air. Accordingly, a factor of 2 on fatigue cycles has been
used to account for corrosion effects when developing the current
fatigue design life curves using the data obtained in air.

Recent environmental data independently developed in several major

laboratories worldwide have shown that exposure to water temperatures
above about 150°C (303°F) for carbon and low alloy steels and about
180°C (360°F) for stainless steels can reduce the cycles to failure (thru-
wall cracking) or fatigue life by no more than a factor of 10 in the low
and intermediate cyclic life regimes. Cyclic crack growth rates have
been found to be 10 to 50 times faster in elevated temperature water
than in air, a phenomenon referred to as Environmentally Assisted
Cracking (EAC). The impact of these corrosion fatigue effects in both
conventional and nuclear components is enormous, accounting for
what were presumed to be premature failures due to material or
fabrication defects. Efforts are continuing to quantify strain rate, hold
time, temperature, corrosion potential, mean stress, strain amplitude,
cyclic history, and flow velocity effects on the S-N fatigue life and da/dN
cyclic crack growth rate behaviour of a whole range of materials now
believed to be susceptible to this phenomenon. This paper presents
compilations and analyses of the currently available world-wide
database. Methods of accounting for such environmental effects on the
fatigue design lives of components are presented. ASME Code Technical
Committees, including the Subgroup on Fatigue Strength, have made a
comprehensive study of the phenomena and the available data. They
have made a series of technical determinations which are being used to
guide the development of new corrosion fatigue design criteria for codes
and standards such as the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. The
interdisciplinary nature and complexity of corrosion fatigue phenomena
will continue to challenge engineers and materials scientists for
decades.

Corrosion behaviour of several thermal spray coatings used on

boiler tubes at elevated temperatures
Rezakhani, D. et al.,
(Anti-Corro. Methods and Mater., 54(4), 2007 , p. 237)

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A News Letter from the National Corrosion Council of India April – June, 2008

Four thermal spray coatings were subjected to high temperature

corrosive environments of oil-fired boiler conditions to compare their
corrosion protection under simulated conditions. The coatings included
FeCrAl, Tafaloy 45CT, which were arc-sprayed, 50Ni-50Cr and Cr3C2-
NiCr, which were coated by high velocity oxy fuel spray (HVOF) method.
The coating substrates used were SA213TP 347H, SA213 T11 and
SA213 T22 alloys that are widely used as boiler tube materials.
Specimens were covered with a synthetic ash mixture of 70 per cent
V2O5 -20 per cent Na2SO4-10 per cent NaCl and exposed to 550°C and
650o C°for 192h (6cycles). After high temperature corrosion tests, weight
change curves were obtained; specimens were examined by
metallographical techniques, scanning electron microscopy and EDX
analyses. Salt deposits attacked steels and coatings during the
exposure. The corrosion rates were strongly affected by the composition
of the scale formed adjacent to the steels and coatings surfaces.
Austenitic steel was only bare material that experienced uniform
corrosion in the tests. Ferritic steels were primarily attacked by grain
boundary corrosion. Thermally sprayed coatings were mainly attached
through oxides and voids at splat boundaries. FeCrAl and 50Ni-50Cr
were prone to spalling. Tafaloy 45CT is also a promising method for
producing homogenous coatings. Cr3C2 -NiCr 80/20 coating remained
mostly intact. This paper provides useful information about corrosion
behaviours of four coatings used for common boiler tubes. It shows with
a practical explanation how the bare material and coatings react in
corrosion simulated environments.

HEAT EXCHANGER

Hydrogen induced cracking and pitting of brass heat exchanger

tube
El-Amoush, Amjad Saleh et al.,
(Mater. Sci. and Tech., 24(6), 2008 , p. 711)

Tin brass heat exchanger tube specimens were precharged with

hydrogen at different cathodic charging conditions. Cathodic hydrogen
charging was found to induce severe cracking and blistering on the
surface of brass heat exchanger tube without externally applied stress.
Microscopic observations revealed that the hydrogen cracks were
intergranular (IG) or transgranular (TG) or mixed mode of cracking, i.e.
IG and TG, while the blisters were observed to be spherically shaped.
The severity of hydrogen induced cracking and blistering increased with
the cathodic current density. Free corrosion immersion experiments
were conducted on the hydrogen precharged tin brass heat exchanger
tube specimens in 0—5M NaCl solution to investigate the role of

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A News Letter from the National Corrosion Council of India April – June, 2008

hydrogen in pitting corrosion. It was found that hydrogen significantly

promoted pit initiation and pit growth. Moreover, the pit formation and
growth increased with charging time. The corrosion potential
measurements revealed that the hydrogen precharged tin brass heat
exchanger tube specimens exhibited lower corrosion resistance as
compared with the non-precharged specimen. The corrosion potential of
hydrogen precharged specimens reached a steady state after a longer
immersion time. Furthermore, with increasing precharging time, the
immersion time required to reach a steady state potential increased.

OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY

Nanomaterials hold promise in natural gas industry

Mokhatab, Saeid et al.,
(International J. of Nanotech., 4(6), 2007 , p. 680)

The gas industry represents a major prospect for substantial, near-term

adoption of nanoscale technologies with sustained benefits.
Importantly, the gas industry employs materials and processes
particularly suited to improvement through application of nanoscale
technologies. Designing and creating materials at the nanoscale often
leads to products that achieve exceptional performance possibly
enabling more efficient and less expensive manufacturing processes.
The commercialisation of new nanomaterials promises to have a
profound effect on multiple industries in the coming decades.
Depending on the application, nanomaterials are incorporated into a
wide variety of hydrocarbon extraction, gas separations, solid-state gas
sensors for air pollution monitoring, nanoadsorbent materials for
environmental separations, and corrosion inhibitors that are used in a
broad range of gas industry markets. In this paper, recent advances in
nanomaterial-derived technologies are presented as examples of how
nanomaterials might be used to create new developments in the natural
gas industry.

PIPELINE CORROSION

Evaluation of pipeline corrosion in sour-gas environment

Olorunniwo, Olusegun E. et al.,
(Anti-Corros. Methods and Mater., 54(6), 2007 , p. 346)

This paper seeks to describe the adoption and implementation of a cost-

effective gas pipeline corrosion monitoring and control procedure for
use in natural gas infrastructural facilities in sub-Saharan Africa. The
incidence and severity of pipeline corrosion in a major gas production
facility were monitored using a combination of instrumented field
survey (potential measurements, line currents and soil resistivity

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A News Letter from the National Corrosion Council of India April – June, 2008

measurements) and microscopic evaluation (OM and SEM) techniques.

Portable field survey equipment with appropriate circuitry, contactors
and sensors for potential, line current and soil resistivity measurements
were used to make the field measurements. The equipment was
standardized and calibrated for use in the service environment. The
field survey data were superimposed on common plots in order to
obtain clearer and complementary information on possible corrosion
hotspots and damage locations along the submerged pipelines.
Metallographic examination of the samples collected from the field was
carried out to establish the type of corrosion attacks and mode of failure
of the pipeline material. It was established that a combination of
corrosion-related damage occurred as a result of localized attack over
time. The investigation procedure was cost-effective and can be used to
determine which pipeline structures are protected and to gauge with a
high degree of precision the integrity of the submerged pipeline. In the
future, the procedure could be fully automated for routine on-line/on-
site monitoring of gas pipelines in a sour-gas environment. The paper
presents a useful database for the selection and/or design of corrosion-
resistant materials for use in sour-gas environments and data for a
comprehensive corrosion monitoring and control program in the
peculiar service environment of sub-Saharan Africa, for improved
performance, productivity, personnel safety and reduced operating
costs. The information is useful to on-site engineers and operators of
gas-production facilities, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, for
designing and implementing cost-effective corrosion monitoring and
control programs.

BIOCORROSION

Influence of Actinomyces israelii biofilm on the corrosion

behaviour of copper IUD
Valdez, S.B. et al.,
(Anti-Corros. Methods and Mater., 55(2), 2008 , p. 55)

Colonies of Actynomyces israelii bacteria have been found in removed

copper intra-uterine devices (IUD) used as a long-term contraceptive
method. The purpose of this paper is to characterize the biofilm
developed under anaerobic conditions by Actynomyces israelii on IUD
surface, and its influence in the copper corrosion processes. The
dissolution of copper on the intra-uterine cavity prevents conception
because of the toxic effect of the ions released. Nevertheless,
microbiological growths have been detected on the IUD devices retired
after long periods of insertion. In order to know about the influence of
the biofilm on the corrosion of copper, electrochemical, spectroscopic

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A News Letter from the National Corrosion Council of India April – June, 2008

and surface analysis techniques were applied to study the phenomenon.

A porous Actynomyces israelii biofilm was formed on the copper IUD
surface. The bacteria colony had developed in an exopolimeric
substrate, which protects it from the toxic effect of copper ions. The
corrosion process was not inhibited by the biofilm, due to the pores
present which permit the transport of species through them. The
results of this study show that there is no decay in the contraceptive
function of the IUDs due to the presence of a bacterial biofilm on its
surface. The relationship between microbial colonization and the
corrosion process of copper IUD under anaerobic conditions was
characterized. These results will complement previous investigations
performed on the study of corrosion of copper IUDs under different
conditions.

Biofilms: strategies for metal corrosion inhibition employing

microorganisms
Zuo, Rongjun et al.,
(Appl. Microbiology and Biotech., 76(6), 2007, p. 1245)

Corrosion causes dramatic economic loss. Currently widely used

corrosion control strategies have disadvantages of being expensive,
subject to environmental restrictions, and sometimes inefficient.
Studies show that microbial corrosion inhibition is actually a common
phenomenon. The present review summarizes recent progress in this
novel strategy: corrosion control using beneficial bacteria biofilms. The
possible mechanisms may involve: (1) removal of corrosive agents (such
as oxygen) by bacterial physiological activities (e.g., aerobic respiration),
(2) growth inhibition of corrosion-causing bacteria by antimicrobials
generated within biofilms [e.g., sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB)
corrosion inhibition by gramicidin S-producing Bacillus brevis biofilm],
(3) generation of protective layer by biofilms (e.g., Bacillus licheniformis
biofilm produces on aluminum surface a sticky protective layer of γ-
polyglutamate). Successful utilization of this novel strategy relies on
advances in study at the interface of corrosion engineering and biofilm
biology.

A review of 'green' strategies to prevent or mitigate

microbiologically influenced corrosion
Little, Brenda et al.,
(Biofouling, 23(2), 2007 , p. 87)

Two approaches to control microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC)

have been developed that do not require the use of biocides. These
strategies include the following: i) use of biofilms to inhibit or prevent
corrosion, and ii) manipulation (removal or addition) of an electron
acceptor, (e.g. oxygen, sulphate or nitrate) to influence the microbial

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A News Letter from the National Corrosion Council of India April – June, 2008

population. In both approaches the composition of the microbial

community is affected by small perturbations in the environment (e.g.
temperature, nutrient concentration and flow) and the response of
microorganisms cannot be predicted with certainty. The following
sections will review the literature on the effectiveness of these
environmentally friendly, "green," strategies for controlling MIC.

Photocatalytic inhibition of microbial fouling by anodized Ti6Al4V

alloy
Gopal, Judy et al.,
(J. of Mater. Sci., 42(13), 2007 , p. 5152)

Biofouling is one of the major concerns in the use of titanium, an

excellent material with respect to corrosion resistance and mechanical
properties, for seawater-cooled condensers of power plants. Earlier
studies conducted in our laboratory have shown that anodized titanium
with a thin film of anatase (TiO2) inhibits attachment of Pseudomonas
sp. of bacteria when illuminated with near-UV light (350-380 nm) from
black light blue (BLB) florescent lamps. The following work compares
the photocatalytic efficiencies of anodized commercially pure titanium
(grade 2) and Ti6Al4V alloy, in order to understand the role of the
alloying elements such as Al and V on the photocatalytic activity in
relation to inhibition of microbial attachment. The study was carried
out by employing both methylene blue (MB) dye degradation as well as
microbial adhesion experiments under near-UV light illumination. The
results have shown that the anodized Ti6Al4V surfaces showed an order
of magnitude increase in photocatalytic activity, as shown by the
decrease in microbial attachment compared to titanium grade-2. The
oxide film on both the surfaces has been characterized using Glancing
Incidence X-ray Diffraction (GIXRD) and Atomic Force Microscopy
(AFM). The GIXRD and AFM results showed that the oxide formed on
anodized Ti6Al4V surface has higher crystallinity and is composed of
particles, which are smaller in size; both these attributes are reported to
enhance the photocatalytic activity. Since, vanadium is reported to shift
the photo-response of the photoactive anatase thin film into visible
range, the photocatalytic activity of anodized Ti6Al4V was also studied
under visible light and it was observed that the surfaces showed
significant photocatalytic activity even under visible light.

Biofouling control of titanium by microroughness reduction

Gopal, J. et al.,
(Surf. Engg., 24(6), 2008 , p. 447)

The effects of repeated pickling and polishing on biofouling of titanium

surfaces were investigated using a confocal laser scanning microscope
(CLSM) and standard microbiological methods. Titanium surfaces (i)

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A News Letter from the National Corrosion Council of India April – June, 2008

once pickled (control), (ii) repeatedly pickled (five pickling cycles of 5

min duration) and (iii) polished (surface finish of 1000 grit silicon
carbide paper) were exposed to seawater. A decrease of one order of
magnitude in bacterial and algal attachment was recorded on the
repeatedly pickled and polished titanium surfaces compared to the
control surfaces. Statistical analysis of the data was carried out using
MYSTAT software involving Tukey-Kramer Multiple CLSM used as an
effective tool to measure the microroughness of the test surfaces as well
as to quantify the biofilm forming tendency on these surfaces. The
results indicated that microroughness reduction leads to significant
decrease in biofouling.

Electrochlorination system: a unique method of prevention of

biofouling in seawater desalination
Thangappan, R. et al.,
(Internat. J. of Nuclear Desalination, 3(2), 2008 , p. 135)

Desalination plants require huge volumes of seawater for the generation

of fresh water. Seawater contains large amounts of microbiological
fluids which, when passed through the piping system, form biofouling
in the inner surface of the pipeline, which results in the reduction of the
flow rate of water without proper chemical treatment. Chlorine is the
most commonly used disinfectant for water treatment applications for
the prevention of biofouling. The chlorine is available in many
conventional forms, but due to various limitations of the conventional
methods, the electrochlorinators that work on the principle of
electrolysis are preferred across the globe for seawater inlet system
treatment. The electrochlorinator is a simple machine, which produces
onsite sodium hypochlorite solution by using only seawater as the raw
material. The hypochlorite generated by this unique technology is very
safe, environmentally friendly and economical. The equipment is user
friendly and operates automatically depending on the need. The process
involved in the generation of sodium hypochlorite is a simple
electrolysis of seawater. The seawater is made to pass through the
electrolysers, which are fitted with dimensionally stable electrodes.
When DC power is passed through the electrolysers, the exothermic
chemical reaction takes place and sodium chloride in the seawater gets
converted into sodium hypochlorite solution (NaOCl).

IMPLANT CORROSION

Biodegradation mechanisms of polyurethane elastomers

Christenson, E.M. et al.,
(Corros. Engg., Sci. and Tech., 42(4), 2007 , p. 312)

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A News Letter from the National Corrosion Council of India April – June, 2008

After over 40 years of use in biomedical applications, polyurethanes

remain one of the most popular biomaterials due to their exceptional
biocompatibility, mechanical properties and versatility. However, failure
of polyurethane based pacemaker leads and breast implant coatings in
the late 1980s brought the long term stability of these implants under
scrutiny. The biomedical device industry was faced with the need to find
replacement polyurethane compositions that were biostable and
maintained excellent biocompatibility and mechanical properties. The
design of replacement biomedical polyurethanes is dependent on the
mechanistic understanding of polyurethane biodegradation and the
biological processes that govern these mechanisms. This review
summarises the efforts of the authors' lab and others to elucidate the
biological mechanisms of polyurethane biodegradation and evaluate
promising new elastomers based on poly(carbonate urethane) and
silicone copolymer chemistries. Several of the new classes of
polyurethanes reviewed here show great promise; however, attenuated
total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis of
explanted samples provided evidence of chain scission and cross-linking
in all of the polyurethane specimens. Therefore, it was concluded that
the chosen soft segment modifications were insufficient to fully inhibit
biodegradation. Potential biodegradation mechanisms were explored
using oxidative and hydrolytic enzyme systems. Although cholesterol
esterase initiated polyurethane degradation, the effect was minimal
compared to the oxidation of these polyurethane elastomers. The in vivo
and accelerated degradation studies supported oxidation as the
dominant mechanism of biodegradation of PEU and PCU. The
H2O2/CoCl2 system remains an excellent choice to accelerate oxidative
biodegradation for the prediction of long term biostability in quantitative
comparison with current clinical poly(ether urethanes). The biostability
ranking of these four materials based on statistical comparisons of
chain scission and surface pitting is as follows: PEU<PEU-S≤(
PCU<PCU-S. The more biostable PCU elastomer was concluded to be a
suitable choice to replace PEU in medical applications. Furthermore,
the silicone modification was shown to increase the biostability of the
PEU and PCU elastomers while maintaining the thermoplastic
elastomeric properties.

CONCRETE CORROSION

Aerobic and Anaerobic Transformations of Sulfide in a Sewer

System—Field Study and Model Simulations
Nielsen, Asbjørn Haaning et al.,
(Water Environment Res., 80(1), 2008 , p. 16)

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A News Letter from the National Corrosion Council of India April – June, 2008

The formation and fate of sulfide in a force main and a downstream-

located gravity sewer were investigated in an extensive field study.
Sulfide formation in the force main was significant. However, during 14
minutes of transport in the gravity sewer, the sulfide concentration
decreased 30%, on average. An application of a conceptual sewer
process model for simulating the formation and fate of sulfide was
demonstrated. Overall, the model predicted that approximately 90% of
the decrease of the sulfide concentration in the gravity sewer was the
result of sulfide oxidation and that only a small fraction entered the
sewer atmosphere, causing odor and corrosion. Even so, the model
predicted concrete corrosion rates of up to 1.2 mm/y in the gravity
sewer section.

Steel corrosion and service life of reinforced concrete structures

Bertolini, Luca et al.,
(Structure & Infrastructure Engg.: Maintenance, Management, Life-
Cycl, 4(2), 2007, p. 123)

This paper illustrates the mechanisms of corrosion of steel in concrete,

and analyses its influence on the service life of reinforced concrete
structures. Even though other types of corrosion are mentioned,
attention is focused on the effects of carbonation and chloride
penetration. Factors affecting the time to corrosion initiation are
described with regards to both concrete properties and environmental
exposure conditions. Propagation of corrosion and its consequences on
the serviceability and performance of the structures are illustrated.
Approaches for the design of durable reinforced concrete structures, as
well as options available to increase the service life of structures
exposed to aggressive environments, are described.

A simplified methodology for the evaluation of the residual life of

corroded elements
Rinaldi, Zila et al.,
(Structure & Infrastructure Eng.g: Maintenance, Management, Life-
Cycl, 4(2), 2007, p. 139)

Steel corrosion is one of the most common causes of deterioration of

reinforced concrete structures. In fact, the chemical attack causes
cracking in the concrete and a number of related effects that weaken
the capacity of the composite, as well as reducing the cross-section of
the rebars. It is therefore extremely valuable to have methods targeted
to the evaluation of the structural damage induced by corrosion for
estimating the residual load bearing capacity of a structure, and then
for planning the maintenance interventions. The aim of this paper is the
development of a simplified methodology capable of providing

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A News Letter from the National Corrosion Council of India April – June, 2008

conservative estimates of the residual life of corroded structures.

Because of the great amount of results obtained by the authors, general
relationships between the corrosion level and the residual strength and
ductility of beams are derived, and their evolution is predicted using
conventional deterioration models. The methodology proposed is
validated using experimental results from literature.

Finite element reliability analysis of chloride ingress into

reinforced concrete structures
Frier, C. et al.,
(Structure & Infrastructure Engg.: Maintenance, Management, Life-
Cycl, 3(4), 2007 , p. 355)

For many reinforced concrete structures corrosion of the reinforcement

is an important problem since it can result in maintenance and repair
actions. Further, a reduction of the load-bearing capacity can occur. In
the present paper the Finite Element Reliability Method (FERM) is
employed for obtaining the probability of exceeding a critical chloride
concentration level at the reinforcement bars, both using Monte Carlo
Simulation (MCS) and the First Order Reliability Method (FORM). The
chloride ingress is modelled by the Finite Element Method (FEM) and
the diffusion coefficient, surface chloride concentration and
reinforcement cover depth are modelled by stochastic fields, which are
discretized using the Expansion Optimum Linear Estimation (EOLE)
approach. The response gradients needed for FORM analysis are
derived analytically using the Direct Differentiation Method (DDM). As
an example, a bridge pier in a marine environment is considered and
the results are given in terms of distributions of time for initiation of
corrosion.

Assessment and repair of the bearing structure of a multi-storey

parking garage
Radonjanin, Vlastimir et al.,
(J. of Building Appraisal, 2(4), 2007 , p. 335)

The construction of a multi-storey parking garage in Kikinda, Serbia

started 20 years ago. The bearing structure was made of precast
concrete columns, beams and ribbed floor slabs. After building of the
bearing precast structure, the works were stopped and the unprotected
structure was exposed to atmospheric influences (snow, rain, low
temperatures). Many of the structure's elements were subsequently
damaged due to insufficient concrete cover, badly performed
reinforcement and incorrect manipulation of elements during erection.
The initial defects and damage worsened to the extent that they not only
severely affected the durability of the structure, but also jeopardised the
stability and bearing capacity of some structural elements. Fissures and

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A News Letter from the National Corrosion Council of India April – June, 2008

cracks, concrete spalling and reinforcement corrosion were registered

on most of the structural elements. This paper presents the damage
recorded, and the characteristic instances are illustrated by
photographs. The results of subsequent testing of quality of built-in
materials (concrete and reinforcement) are presented separately. To
establish the actual condition of the bearing structure of the garage, an
examination was done under load testing. The analysis of the results of
in-situ and laboratory testing and the data gathered through detailed
visual examination provided the basis for real assessment of the
structure. Some specific repair solutions for durability improvement
and insuring of load bearing capacity and stability of the existing
structure are also presented.

CATHODIC PROTECTION

RuO2-TiO2 mixed oxide composite coating for improvement of Al-

alloy sacrificial anodes
Shibli, S. et al.,
(J. of Solid State Electrochem., 11( 2), 2007 , p. 201)

It has been recently proved that RuO2 can act as an effective surface
activator of aluminum alloy sacrificial anodes. TiO2 has the property of
stabilizing RuO2 coating and resisting biofouling on metal surfaces.
Hence, a mixed oxide catalytic coating of TiO2 and RuO2 can enhance
the galvanic performance of aluminum alloy sacrificial anodes and
resists biofouling on the anode surface. In the present work RuO2-TiO2
mixed oxide was coated on aluminum alloy sacrificial anodes. The large
and uniform porous nature of the coating was found to facilitate
efficient ion diffusion. The coating was found to persist on the anode
even after 3 months of galvanic exposure. The anode having an
optimum combination of the mixed oxide had 70% TiO2 as the major
component in the coating. The catalytic coating significantly improved
the performance of the anodes to a large extent.

Influence of resistivity on current and potential distribution of

cathodic protection systems for steel framed masonry structures
Lambert, P. et al.,
(Corros. Engg., Sci. and Tech., 43(1), 2008 , p. 16)

The present paper presents the influence of resistivity on the current

and potential distribution of cathodic protection (CP) systems for steel
framed masonry structures. The work involves both experimental
measurements and boundary element analysis and follows on from

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A News Letter from the National Corrosion Council of India April – June, 2008

earlier experiments employing sand as a simple model for masonry

encasement that has been reported elsewhere. Factors such as the size
and type of masonry, moisture content and width of mortar joints will
affect the resistance of the path through which the CP currents pass
and thereby influence the distribution onto the steel surface. To
represent such variations in resistance, it has been necessary to
construct a small scale specimen replicating, as far as possible, actual
applications on steel framed structures. The results from the laboratory
specimen and numerical modelling are in sufficient agreement to
confirm the validity of the modelling approach and allow the results to
be employed for the purposes of design and development.

COATINGS

Effects of coating roughness and biofouling on ship resistance and

powering
Schultz, Michael P. et al.,
(Biofouling, 23(5), 2007 , p. 331)

Predictions of full-scale ship resistance and powering are made for

antifouling coating systems with a range of roughness and fouling
conditions. The estimates are based on results from laboratory-scale
drag measurements and boundary layer similarity law analysis. In the
present work, predictions are made for a mid-sized naval surface
combatant at cruising speed and near maximum speed. The results
indicate that slime films can lead to significant increases in resistance
and powering, and heavy calcareous fouling results in powering
penalties up to 86% at cruising speed. The present estimates show good
agreement with results from full-scale ship power trials.

Deposition and properties of novel microcrystalline Mg alloy

coatings
Bohne, Y. et al.,
(Surf. Engg., 23(5), 2007 , p. 339)

The present work gives and overview of the deposition, microstructure

and corrosion properties of magnesium based supersaturated coatings
for the corrosion protection of standard magnesium alloy components.
Such protective surface layers with high corrosion resistance were
produced using physical vapour deposition techniques at different
particle energies, such as magnetron sputtering, ion beam sputtering
and cathodic arc deposition. For all these films, a homogeneous
microcrystalline morphology with a highly oriented basal texture was
observed. The solubility limit of all alloying elements studied was largely

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A News Letter from the National Corrosion Council of India April – June, 2008

extended beyond the thermodynamic equilibrium. Thus highly

supersaturated single phase coatings free of localised corrosion and/or
microgalvanic corrosion effects between different phases were observed,
showing low corrosion rates. Furthermore, the less noble corrosion
potentials of some alloying systems compared to standard cast or
wrought magnesium alloy substrates allow a cathodic protection of the
substrate material by the coating.

Electropolymerization of 2-Methoxyaniline: Kinetic Studies,

Mechanism, Characterization of the Polymer and Applications as
Corrosion Protection for Mild Steel in Acid Medium
Sayyah, S. M. et al.,
(Internat. J. of Polymeric Mater., 56(6), 2007 , p. 605)

Electropolymerization of 2-methoxyaniline on platinum electrode in acid

medium was carried out under different reaction conditions as
temperature, current density, hydrochloric acid, and monomer
concentrations with reaction duration time. The initial rate of the
electropolymerization reaction is small and the orders are found to be
1.18, 1.25, and 0.88 with respect to current density, HCl, and monomer
concentrations, respectively. The apparent activation energy (Ea) is
found to be 56.87 kJ/mol. The obtained polymer films are characterized
by 1H-NMR, elemental analysis, and IR spectroscopic studies. The
mechanism of the electropolymerization reaction has also been
discussed. The thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was used to confirm
the proposed structure and determination of the number of water
molecules associated with each polymeric chain unit. X-ray and
scanning electron microscopic analysis were used to investigate the
surface morphology. The corrosion behavior of uncoated and coated
mild steel electrode with poly (2-Methoxyaniline) in 1 M HCl at 25°C was
investigated potentiodynamically. The various electrochemical
parameters (Icorr, Ecorr, and P%) were calculated from Tafel plots for
uncoated and coated electrodes. The influence of some coating
conditions as duration time, current density of the
electropolymerization, and monomer concentrations were investigated.
The data reveal that the presence of coated polymer films on the
electrode surface increase the cathodic and anodic polarization
compared to the uncoated sample.

Examination of microstructural features of zinc protective coatings

on low carbon steel formed in fluidised bed reactor
Chaliampalias, D. et al.,
(Surf. Engg., 24(4), 2008 , p. 264)

Galvanising is the most widely used process for zinc coating. However
alternative methods exist with less environmental impact such as

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A News Letter from the National Corrosion Council of India April – June, 2008

fluidised bed process. In this work the structure of Zn coatings formed

with fluidised bed process technique at 400°C for 1 h holding time has
been studied. The coated samples were observed with scanning electron
microscopy and characterised with energy dispersive spectroscopy and
X-ray diffraction. The as formed phases correspond to gamma and delta
phases of the Fe-Zn system. Some of the as deposited coatings are likely
to provide sufficient anticorrosive protection while others are of low
quality, as many porous areas are present in their mass.

Nanoparticles-Based Phenol-Formaldehyde Hybrid Resins

Hernández-Padrón, Genoveva et al.,
(J. of Nanoscience and Nanotech., 8(6), 2008 , p. 3142)

The synthesis, characterization and corrosion properties of a novel

material, produced by the reaction of silica nanoparticles with a
functionalized Phenol-Formaldehyde Resin (PFR), are presented.
Carboxylic groups were attached in situ to the PFR skeleton to produce
a functionalized resin (PFR-SA), which is then reacted with sol-gel-
prepared silica nanoparticles, yielding a novel hybrid
(organic/inorganic) material (PFR-SA-nanoSiO2). This hybrid material
was characterized by FT-IR, FT-Raman, TGA, DSC, SEM and corrosion
tests, whose results showed significant improvement of the thermal
properties in comparison with the PFR coating. In addition, the new
material was efficient and durable against corrosion of metals, with the
anticorrosive performance of PFR-SA and PFR-SA/nanoSiO2 coating
films being superior to those of the original PFR coating.

CORROSION TESTING AND MONITORING

Control of cathodic protection in bridges without disconnecting

protection current: passivity verification technique (PVT)
Martínez, I. et al.,
(Corros. Engg., Sci. and Tech., 42(3), 2007 , p. 215)

Standards for monitoring the performance of cathodic protection

systems on reinforced concrete structures actually recognised are based
on the measurement of the polarized potential of the reinforcement
(polarization / depolarisation, E-log I tests). A new methodology to
measure this performance has been developed based on the passivation
of the rebar rather than on the level of potential polarisation. This new
technique is based on electrochemical impedance spectroscopy
measurements using a modulated confinement of the applied current.
The results are not quantitative, but properly inform on the passivity of

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A News Letter from the National Corrosion Council of India April – June, 2008

the rebar under protection and its resistance to corrosion. The new
technique has been evaluated in the laboratory using sacrificial and
impressed current systems. In the present paper results obtained with
this technique were compared to results achieved by standard
polarisation methods and were found to be in agreement. The new
technique is faster than standard methods and does not require
interruption of the cathodic protection current.

Influence of environmental parameters on application of standard

ASTM C876-91: half cell potential measurements
Assouli, B. et al.,
(Corros. Engg., Sci. and Tech., 43(1), 2008 , p. 93)

Since the potential of corrosion of any metal in contact with concrete is

a function of a large number of variables related to the composition of
pore solution, degree of polarisation, temperature and cover depth, no
quantitative (corrosion rate) conclusion can be drawn from it. Potentials
do not provide relevant information on the amount of corrosion. The
validity of these interpretations has been questioned in some situations
such as saturated structures, or when carbonation is the cause of the
corrosion or cathodic processes are modified. Half cell potential
technique (ASTM C 876) is however a useful tool widely used for in situ
assessment of the corrosion state of rebars. Some applications of the
ASTM C 876 standard are presented and it has been shown that this
standard cannot be used under all conditions. Finally, some
recommendations are provided in an attempt to optimise the application
of the ASTM C 876 standard.

CORROSION INHIBITOR

An investigation of the inhibitive capability of synthesized

thiosemicarbazides on the corrosion of carbon steel in acid
solutions
Quraishi, M.A. et al.,
(Anti-Corros. Methods and Mater., 55(2), 2008 , p. 60)

This paper mainly aims to study the influence of some

thiosemicarbazides, namely, 1-hydroxyphenyl-4-phenyl
thiosemicarbazide (HPT), 1,4-diphenyl thiosemicarbazide (DPT), 1-
aminophenyl-4-phenyl thiosemicarbazide (APT) and 1-cinnamyl-4-
phenyl thiosemicarbazide (CPT) on the corrosion inhibition of carbon
steel in hydrochloric and sulphuric acid. All inhibition experiments were
conducted on carbon steel in 1N HCl and 1N H2SO4 solution. Weight
loss experiments were carried out according to the ASTM standard

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A News Letter from the National Corrosion Council of India April – June, 2008

procedure. Polarization studies were carried out in a three-electrode cell

assembly connected to an EG&G Princeton applied research
potentiostat/galvanostat (model 173). For all the compounds a
consistent trend of increase in inhibition efficiency was observed as a
function of inhibitor concentration. The adsorption of all the
compounds on to the carbon steel surface in the acidic solution was
found to obey the Tempkin's adsorption isotherm. The values of
activation energy and free energy of adsorption for all the compounds
were also calculated. Polarization measurement revealed that the
studied thiosemicarbazides act predominantly as mixed inhibitors in
both the acid solutions, with the exception of DPT, which predominantly
behaved as a cathodic inhibitor in 1N HCl. These inhibitors could have
application in industries, where hydrochloric and sulphuric acid
solution are used to remove scale and salts from steel surfaces, such as
acid cleaning of tankage and pipeline, and may render dismantling
unnecessary. This paper reveals that thiosemicarbazides can be
successfully used for protection of carbon steel corrosion in acid
solutions.

Influence of benzotriazole on corrosion behaviour of CuAlNiSi alloy

in alkaline medium
Milić, S.M. et al.,
(Corros. Engg., Sci. and Tech., 43(1), 2008 , p. 30)

The investigation described in this paper was conducted with the aim of
determining electrochemical behaviour of CuAlNiSi alloy in a solution of
sodium tetraborate (borax) at pH 10—0. In addition, the influence of
benzotriazole (BTA) was investigated after various times of immersion of
the alloy in BTA solutions. The investigation of the inhibitor
concentration (8—4 × 10−4, 8—4 × 10−5, 8—4 × 10−6 and 8—4 × 10−7 mol
dm−3 BTA in a 0—1 mol dm−3 sodium tetraborate solution) has led to
the conclusion that BTA has an inhibiting effect up to a concentration
of 8—4 × 10−6 mol dm−3 whereas a BTA concentration of 8—4 × 10−7 mol
dm−3 has an activating effect. Based on a free energy of −38—7 kJ
mol−1, it has been concluded that chemisorption has an important role
in the interaction of benzotriazole and the surface of the investigated
alloy. The study also analyses the effect of chloride ions on the
corrosion of CuAlNiSi alloy in sodium tetraborate solutions in the
presence or absence of BTA.

Environmentally friendly ternary inhibitor formulation based on

N,N-bis(phosphonomethyl) glycine
Rao, B. V. et al.,
(Corros. Engg., Sci. and Tech., 43(1), 2008 , p. 46)

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A News Letter from the National Corrosion Council of India April – June, 2008

Studies on an environmentally friendly ternary inhibitor formulation

consisting of N,N-bis(phosphonomethyl) glycine (BPMG), with Zn2+ ions
as primary synergist and ascorbate ions as secondary synergist to
protect carbon steel from corrosion in low chloride environment are
presented in this paper. Although the binary system, BPMG-Zn2+, is an
effective inhibitor, it demands relatively higher concentrations of both
BPMG and Zn2+. In the present study, ascorbate was added to lower
the effective concentrations of BPMG and Zn2+. The effect of addition of
ascorbate is quite significant. While the binary system consisting of 20
ppm of BPMG and 30 ppm of Zn2+ accelerated corrosion of carbon
steel, addition of just 25 ppm of ascorbate to the above system afforded
an inhibition efficiency of 94%. The ternary inhibitor formulation is
found to be effective in the pH range 5-11. The uniqueness of this
system is that it has shown excellent inhibition efficiency even at pH 11,
at which all the other phosphonate based formulations fail. This
inhibitor system functions as a mixed inhibitor. The nature and
composition of the protective film have been investigated by X-ray
photoelectron spectra and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra.
The mechanistic aspects of corrosion inhibition are discussed.

Effect of hydrophilic group on inhibition behaviour of imidazoline

for CO2 corrosion of N80 in 3%NaCl solution
Liu, X. et al.,
(Corros. Engg., Sci. and Tech., 43(1), 2008 , p. 87)

Four kinds of imidazoline inhibitors with different hydrophilic group,

i.e. carboxymertyl imidazoline (CMI-11), hydroxyethyl imidazoline (HEI-
11), aminoethyl imidazoline (AEI-11) and imidazoline (IM-11) had been
synthesised and characterised by infrared and ultraviolet spectra. The
inhibition performance of these imidazoline inhibitors for CO2 corrosion
of N80 in 3%NaCl solution was investigated through linear polarisation
resistance, polarisation curve and electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy. In order to study the relationship between the molecular
structure and inhibition properties of these imidazoline inhibitors,
quantum chemical calculations have been also applied. The results
showed that the presence of a hydrophilic group was beneficial to the
corrosion inhibition properties of these imidazoline inhibitors, and the
inhibition efficiency follows the order: CMI-11>HEI-11>AEI-11>IM-11.
The calculated quantum chemical parameters supported that the lower
the lowest unoccupied and highest occupied molecular orbital energy
gap, the higher the inhibition efficiency. The theoretical calculation was
in good agreement with experimental results.

CO2 corrosion inhibition by hydroxyethyl, aminoethyl, and

amidoethyl imidazolines in water-oil mixtures
(Villamizar, W. et al.,

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A News Letter from the National Corrosion Council of India April – June, 2008

(J. of Solid State Electrochem., 11(5), 2007 , p. 619)

The corrosion behavior of hydroxyethyl, amino ethyl and amid ethyl

imidazolines corrosion inhibitors was evaluated by using
potenthiodynamic polarization curves, linear polarization resistance,
and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy techniques. Solutions
included deaerated 3% NaCl, 3% NaCl+diesel saturated with CO2 at 50
°C with and without inhibitors. Regardless of the presence of diesel, the
corrosion rate was decreased with the addition of the inhibitors, but the
time to reach a steady state was longer than when the oily part, i.e.,
diesel, was present. In the absence of the oily part, the impedance
results showed that the film formed was porous, allowing the electrolyte
to diffuse through it and corrode the metal. When the oily part was
present, the film formed was much more stable, not porous, and did not
allow the electrolyte to corrode the sample. The most efficient inhibitor
was the amid ethyl imidazoline, whereas the least efficient was the
hydroxyethyl imidazoline, because the film formed by the former was
much more stable from the beginning of the test.

BASIC ASPECTS OF CORROSION

Sulphidation resistance of composite boiler tube materials

Kish, Joseph R. et al.,
(Mater. at High Temp., 25(2), 2008 , p. 67)

A lab-based testing program was undertaken to generate data to better

define the sulphidation resistance of composite tubes installed in the
lower-furnace section of black liquor recovery boilers. All composite
tube cladding alloys tested were observed to have an acceptable
corrosion rate at normal operating temperatures (up to 400°C) in the
synthetic lower-furnace gaseous environment tested (1% H2S-99% N2).
This acceptable corrosion resistance is due to the expected formation of
a relatively protective chromium-rich inner sulphide scale. An increase
in temperature up to 560°C was found to significantly increase the
corrosion rate. Of the various alloys tested, Alloy HR11N exhibited the
lowest corrosion rate at each of the three temperatures tested.
Moreover, the corrosion rate was found not to be strongly dependent on
the fabrication route (weld overlay versus co-extruded). To minimize
corrosion, operating conditions that promote prolonged exposure to
elevated temperatures in the lower-furnace section of black liquor
recovery boilers should be avoided, regardless of the type of composite
tube installed.

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A News Letter from the National Corrosion Council of India April – June, 2008

Corrosion in viewpoint of metal microstructure for grey and ductile

cast iron in HCl solutions and presence of thiourea
Rehim, Sayed S. Abd El. et al.,
(Intern. J. of Microstructure and Mater. Prop., 2(3-4) 2007 , p. 388)

Two types of cast iron were employed in this work. Grey cast iron was
the first type, and ductile was the second one. Two specimens of the
grey cast iron sample were used; one was kept without heat treatment,
and the second was completely heat-treated by ferritisation regime. The
two specimens of ductile cast iron were used similarly; one was kept
without heat treatment grey and the second was ferritised by heat
treatment. Potentiodynamic technique was applied for collecting
corrosion data of the above four metal specimens in HCl solutions in
the absence and presence of thiourea as an inhibitor. The
measurements were performed in different concentrations of HCl (0.05,
0.2, 0.5, and 1 M) at 20ºC and in the absence of an inhibitor, on the
other hand, corrosion parameters were collected in 0.2 M HCl at
different temperature levels (20ºC, 30ºC, 40ºC, and 50ºC). Thiourea was
added in different concentrations to 0.2 M HCl at 25ºC, then corrosion
data was deduced. An optical microscope was used to investigate the
microstructure of grey and ductile cast iron before and after heat
treatment. Corrosion resistance and corrosion rates were collected
directly from potentiostat, where Tafel lines were applied to the
software. The above raw data was used to deduce activation
thermodynamic parameters (E<SUB align=right>a*, &#916Hº, and
&#916;Sº) of dissolution processes in the absence of thiourea by
applying Arhenius equation. Adsorption parameters, in the presence of
thiourea, were deduced using the kinetic model and the Flory-Huggins
isotherms were used as inhibition mechanisms for the investigation
before and after treatment.

The effect of phosphate on MAO of AZ91D magnesium using AC

power source
Q. Wen et al.,
(Mater. and Corros., 59(10), 2008, p.819)

A rapid and convenient anodization technology with AC power source to

obtain the MAO films formed on magnesium alloy AZ91D in phosphate
bath (base electrolyte + Na3PO4) with or without aluminate and silicate
was studied. The corrosion resistance of the anodic films was studied
by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and potentiodynamic
polarization techniques and the microstructure and composition of
films were examined by SEM and XRD. The results show that
Na3PO4can promote the occurrence of sparking during the MAO
process, while abundant heat generated by sparking might enhance the
formation of the glassy phase of the compound when the electrolyte

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A News Letter from the National Corrosion Council of India April – June, 2008

contains the additives of NaAlO2and Na2SiO3simultaneously. The

optimized MAO film is ivory-white smooth by naked eye, while presents
porous and microcracks in microscopic scale. The anodic film formed in
the alkaline solution with optimized parameters possesses superior
corrosion resistance by electrochemical test. The XRD pattern shows
that the components of the anodized film consist of MgO, MgAlO2, and
MgSiO3. No oxide crystal with P element can be found.

Uniform corrosion and intergranular corrosion behavior of nickel-

free and manganese alloyed high nitrogen stainless steels
X. Q. Wu et al.,
(Mater. and Corros., 59 (8), 2008, p. 676)

The uniform and intergranular corrosion behavior of two kinds of

nickel-free and manganese alloyed high nitrogen stainless steels
(HNSSs) were investigated. A type of 316L stainless steel (316L SS) was
also included for comparison purpose. Both solution annealed (SA) and
sensitization treated (ST) steels were examined. It was found that the SA
HNSSs had much weaker resistance to uniform corrosion compared to
the SA 316L SS. The addition of molybdenum, to some extent, improved
the uniform corrosion resistance of the HNSSs. The sensitization
treatment had little influence on the uniform corrosion resistance of all
the steels. The HNSSs showed an obvious susceptibility to intergranular
corrosion, in particular the ST HNSSs. The intergranular corrosion
rates of the sensitized HNSSs were much higher than that of the
sensitized 316L SS. The degree of interganular attack for the ST HNSSs
was much more serious than that for the 316L SS. The addition of
molybdenum obviously improved the resistance of the ST HNSSs to
intergranular corrosion. The double loop electrochemical potentiokinetic
reactivation tests also proved that the HNSSs were rather susceptible to
the sensitization treatment compared to the 316L SS. The relatively
weak resistance of the HNSSs to uniform and intergranular corrosion
may be due to high manganese promoted anodic dissolution. The
improvement of uniform and intergranular corrosion resistance caused
by the addition of molybdenum could be attributed to the synergistic
effects of molybdenum and nitrogen in the HNSSs on the formation and
stability of passive film.

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