Biology review by: Aya Ahmed

1-Egypt Grand challenges:

i. Improve use of alternative energy.
ii. ii. Deal with urban congestion and its consequences.
iii. iii. Work to eradicate public health issues/disease.
iv. iv. Increase the industrial and agricultural bases of Egypt.
v. v. Address and reduce the pollution fouling our air, water and soil.
vi. vi. Improve use of arid areas.
vii. vii. Manage and increase the sources of clean water
viii. . viii. Deal the population growth and its consequences.
ix. ix. Improve the scientific and technological environment for all.
x. x. Reduce and adapt the effect of climatic change.
xi. xi. Recycle garbage and waste for economic and environmental purposes.

2-Genetically modified organism (GMO):

Organism whose genome has been engineered in the laboratory in order to favor
the expression of desired physiological traits or the generation of desired biological
products. In conventional livestock production, crop farming, and even pet
breeding, it has long been the practice to breed select individuals of a species in
order to produce offspring that have desirable traits. In genetic modification,
however, recombinant genetic technologies are employed to produce organisms
whose genomes have been precisely altered at the molecular level, usually by the
inclusion of genes from unrelated species of organisms that code for traits that
would not be obtained easily through conventional selective breeding.

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are produced using scientific methods that
include recombinant DNA technology and reproductive cloning. In reproductive
cloning, a nucleus is extracted from a cell of the individual to be cloned and is
inserted into the enucleated cytoplasm of a host egg (an enucleated egg is an egg
cell that has had its own nucleus removed). The process results in the generation of
an offspring that is genetically identical to the donor individual. Recombinant DNA
technology, on the other hand, involves the insertion of one or more individual
genes from an organism of one species into the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) of
another. Whole-genome replacement, involving the transplantation of one bacterial
genome into the “cell body,” or cytoplasm, of another microorganism, has been
reported, although this technology is still limited to basic scientific applications.
3- Beneficial characteristics:
disease resistance, drought
tolerance, higher nutritional
value:
1-Engineered crops can dramatically increase
per area crop yields and, in some cases,
reduce the use of chemical insecticides.
For example, the application of wide-
spectrum insecticides declined in many areas
growing plants, such as potatoes, cotton, and
corn, that were endowed with a gene from
the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis, which
produces a natural insecticide called Bt toxin.

2-Other GM plants were engineered for

resistance to a specific chemical herbicide,
rather than resistance to a natural predator
or pest. Herbicide-resistant crops (HRC) have
been available since the mid-1980s; these
crops enable effective chemical control of
weeds, since only the HRC plants can survive in fields treated with the
corresponding herbicide.

With the advent of introduction of multiple traits stacked together in GM crops for
combined herbicide tolerance, insect resistance, drought tolerance or disease
resistance, the requirement of reliable and sensitive detection methods for tracing
and labeling genetically modified organisms in the food/feed chain has become
increasingly important. In addition, several countries have established threshold
levels for GM content which trigger legally binding labeling schemes.

3-Bacteria have been genetically modified to produce medicines that can cure
diseases or vaccines that prevent them. A commonly used medicine that comes
from a genetically modified source is insulin, which is used to treat diabetes, but
there are many others.

4-Another example of a GM crop is “golden” rice, which originally was intended for
Asia and was genetically modified to produce almost 20 times the beta-carotene of
previous varieties. Golden rice was created by modifying the rice genome to include
a gene from the daffodil Narcissus pseudonarcissus that produces an enzyme known
as phyotene synthase and a gene from the bacterium Erwinia uredovora that
produces an enzyme called phyotene desaturase. The introduction of these genes
 enabled beta-carotene, which is converted to vitamin A in the human liver, to
accumulate in the rice endosperm—the edible part of the rice plant—thereby
increasing the amount of beta-carotene available for vitamin A synthesis in the
body. In 2004 the same researchers who developed the original golden rice plant
improved upon the model, generating golden rice 2, which showed a 23-fold
increase in carotenoid production.

5-The use of GMOs in medicine and research has produced a debate that is more
philosophical in nature. For example, while genetic researchers believe they are
working to cure disease and ameliorate suffering, many people worry that current
gene therapy approaches may one day be applied to produce “designer” children or
to lengthen the natural human life span. Similar to many other technologies, gene
therapy and the production and application of GMOs can be used to address and
resolve complicated scientific, medical, and environmental issues, but they must be
used wisely.

Other possible benefits of genetic engineering include:

(1) More nutritious food

(2) Tastier food
(3) Disease- and drought-resistant plants that require fewer environmental
resources (such as water and fertilizer)
(4) Less use of pesticides
(5) Increased supply of food with reduced cost and longer shelf life
(6) Faster growing plants and animals
(7) Food with more desirable traits, such as potatoes that produce less of a cancer-
causing substance when fried
-Medicinal foods that could be used as vaccines or other medicines
Some people have expressed concerns about GE foods, such as:
 Creating foods that can cause an allergic reaction or that are toxic
 Unexpected or harmful genetic changes
 Genes moving from one GM plant or animal to another plant or animal that
is not genetically engineered.
 Foods that are less nutritious.

4-Unintended consequences for humans and ecosystems.

Consequences of GMOs for biodiversity:

Genetic modification produces genetically modified animals, plants and organisms. If they are
introduced into the environment they can affect biodiversity. For example, existing species can
be overrun by more dominant new species.
 These and other potential effects are considered during the licensing procedure. (Such effects
can of course also occur following the introduction of non-genetically modified animals plants
and organisms.)

Environmental Impacts:
Although the consequences of gene flow and risks to biodiversity are debatable.
Risks to the environment and ecosystems can exist, such as the evolution of
weed herbicide resistance during GM cultivation. A matter of high importance is to
provide precise knowledge and adequate current information to regulatory
agencies, governments, policy makers, researchers, and commercial GMO-
releasing companies to enable them to thoroughly investigate the possible risks

The early warnings of environmentalists about the negative impacts of genetically

modified (GM) plants are being proven correct. We are now observing the
following serious problems:

 Increased Herbicide Use: The widespread cultivation of GM herbicide-tolerant

crops has pushed up the use of herbicides such as glyphosate. Herbicide sales in
Canada rose by 199% between 1994 and 2016.
 “Superweeds”: The use of specific herbicides with GM herbicide-tolerant crops has led
to the evolution and spread of “superweeds,” or weeds that can no longer be killed by
those herbicides. In the past 20 years, 37 weed species have developed resistance to
the herbicide glyphosate.
 “Superpests”: Some insects have developed resistance to the toxins in GM insect-
resistant crops. The first case in Canada was reported in May 2019.
 Contamination: Contamination from GM plants is has serious ecological, economic and
social impacts. Gene flow from GM crops poses a threat to wild and weedy crop
relatives, non-GM crops and foods, and organic farming. There have been escape
events in Canada with GM canola, flax, wheat and pigs.
 Biodiversity Loss: The use of some GM crops can have negative impacts on non-
target organisms and on soil and water ecosystems. For example, the expansion of GM
herbicide-tolerant corn and soy, which are twinned with herbicides, has destroyed much
of the habitat of the monarch butterfly in North America.

Additional information in the form of questions:

Q1. What are genetically modified (GM) organisms and GM foods?

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) can be defined as organisms in which

the genetic material (DNA) has been altered in a way that does not occur
naturally. The technology is often called "modern biotechnology" or "gene
technology", sometimes also "recombinant DNA technology" or "genetic
engineering". It allows selected individual genes to be transferred from one
organism into another, also between non-related species.

Such methods are used to create GM plants -- which are then used to grow GM
food crops.

Q2. Why are GM foods produced?

GM foods are developed -- and marketed -- because there is some perceived

advantage either to the producer or consumer of these foods. This is meant to
translate into a product with a lower price, greater benefit (in terms of durability or
nutritional value) or both. Initially GM seed developers wanted their products to
be accepted by producers so have concentrated on innovations that farmers (and
the food industry more generally) would appreciate.

The initial objective for developing plants based on GM organisms was to

improve crop protection. The GM crops currently on the market are mainly aimed
at an increased level of crop protection through the introduction of resistance
against plant diseases caused by insects or viruses or through increased
tolerance towards herbicides.

Insect resistance is achieved by incorporating into the food plant the gene for
toxin production from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (BT). This toxin is
currently used as a conventional insecticide in agriculture and is safe for human
consumption. GM crops that permanently produce this toxin have been shown to
require lower quantities of insecticides in specific situations, e.g. where pest
pressure is high.

Virus resistance is achieved through the introduction of a gene from certain

viruses which cause disease in plants. Virus resistance makes plants less
susceptible to diseases caused by such viruses, resulting in higher crop yields.

Herbicide tolerance is achieved through the introduction of a gene from a

bacterium conveying resistance to some herbicides. In situations where weed
pressure is high, the use of such crops has resulted in a reduction in the quantity
of the herbicides used.

Q3. Are GM foods assessed differently from traditional foods?

Generally consumers consider that traditional foods (that have often been eaten
for thousands of years) are safe. When new foods are developed by natural
methods, some of the existing characteristics of foods can be altered, either in a
positive or a negative way National food authorities may be called upon to
examine traditional foods, but this is not always the case. Indeed, new plants
developed through traditional breeding techniques may not be evaluated
rigorously using risk assessment techniques.
With GM foods most national authorities consider that specific assessments are
necessary. Specific systems have been set up for the rigorous evaluation of GM
organisms and GM foods relative to both human health and the environment.
Similar evaluations are generally not performed for traditional foods. Hence there
is a significant difference in the evaluation process prior to marketing for these
two groups of food.

One of the objectives of the WHO Food Safety Programme is to assist national
authorities in the identification of foods that should be subject to risk assessment,
including GM foods, and to recommend the correct assessments.

Q4. How are the potential risks to human health determined?

The safety assessment of GM foods generally investigates: (a) direct health

effects (toxicity), (b) tendencies to provoke allergic reaction (allergenicity); (c)
specific components thought to have nutritional or toxic properties; (d) the
stability of the inserted gene; (e) nutritional effects associated with genetic
modification; and (f) any unintended effects which could result from the gene
insertion.

Q5. What are the main issues of concern for human health?

While theoretical discussions have covered a broad range of aspects, the three
main issues debated are tendencies to provoke allergic reaction (allergenicity),
gene transfer and outcrossing.

Allergenicity. As a matter of principle, the transfer of genes from commonly

allergenic foods is discouraged unless it can be demonstrated that the protein
product of the transferred gene is not allergenic. While traditionally developed
foods are not generally tested for allergenicity, protocols for tests for GM foods
have been evaluated by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO) and WHO. No allergic effects have been found relative to GM
foods currently on the market.

Gene transfer. Gene transfer from GM foods to cells of the body or to bacteria in
the gastrointestinal tract would cause concern if the transferred genetic material
adversely affects human health. This would be particularly relevant if antibiotic
resistance genes, used in creating GMOs, were to be transferred. Although the
probability of transfer is low, the use of technology without antibiotic resistance
genes has been encouraged by a recent FAO/WHO expert panel.

Outcrossing. The movement of genes from GM plants into conventional crops or

related species in the wild (referred to as "outcrossing"), as well as the mixing of
crops derived from conventional seeds with those grown using GM crops, may
have an indirect effect on food safety and food security. This risk is real, as was
shown when traces of a maize type which was only approved for feed use
appeared in maize products for human consumption in the United States of
America. Several countries have adopted strategies to reduce mixing, including a
clear separation of the fields within which GM crops and conventional crops are
grown.

Feasibility and methods for post-marketing monitoring of GM food products, for

the continued surveillance of the safety of GM food products, are under
discussion.

Q6. How is a risk assessment for the environment performed?

Environmental risk assessments cover both the GMO concerned and the
potential receiving environment. The assessment process includes evaluation of
the characteristics of the GMO and its effect and stability in the environment,
combined with ecological characteristics of the environment in which the
introduction will take place. The assessment also includes unintended effects
which could result from the insertion of the new gene.

Q7. What are the issues of concern for the environment?

Issues of concern include: the capability of the GMO to escape and potentially
introduce the engineered genes into wild populations; the persistence of the gene
after the GMO has been harvested; the susceptibility of non-target organisms
(e.g. insects which are not pests) to the gene product; the stability of the gene;
the reduction in the spectrum of other plants including loss of biodiversity; and
increased use of chemicals in agriculture. The environmental safety aspects of
GM crops vary considerably according to local conditions.

Current investigations focus on: the potentially detrimental effect on beneficial

insects or a faster induction of resistant insects; the potential generation of new
plant pathogens; the potential detrimental consequences for plant biodiversity
and wildlife, and a decreased use of the important practice of crop rotation in
certain local situations; and the movement of herbicide resistance genes to other
plants.

Q8. Are GM foods safe?

Different GM organisms include different genes inserted in different ways. This

means that individual GM foods and their safety should be assessed on a case-
by-case basis and that it is not possible to make general statements on the
safety of all GM foods.

GM foods currently available on the international market have passed risk

assessments and are not likely to present risks for human health. In addition, no
effects on human health have been shown as a result of the consumption of such
foods by the general population in the countries where they have been approved.
Continuous use of risk assessments based on the Codex principles and, where
appropriate, including post market monitoring, should form the basis for
evaluating the safety of GM foods.

‫ الجاي ممكن ميكونش علينا بس دا اللي لقيته‬5 ‫حبيبي لو وصلت لحد هنا اهنيك وعايزه اقولك ان الكونسبت رقم‬

5- evidence-based research ‫لحداما االقي ال‬debate

Learning how to incorporate evidence based-research into everyday practice is
one of the most important skills you can learn in an RN to Bachelor of Science in
nursing program. In today's healthcare arena, and within the nursing profession,
it is expected that new information on research findings be constantly
incorporated into nursing practice. The goal is to improve your clinical decision-
making and to provide the best possible patient care.
The definition of evidence-based research:

Evidence-based research means that the information you use to make decisions
about patient care is based on sound research, not opinion. This means you
must search several sources (published articles in medical journals or in
electronic form) for data, results and conclusions of valid, reputable studies.

The definition of evidence-based nursing:

The definition of evidence-based nursing, as accepted
by the National Council of State Boards of Nursing, is a
rigorous methodology in which all the research data for
a particular problem or issue are analyzed together,
then combined with patients' values and preferences,
as well as professional expertise – your accumulated
experience, education and skills.

How to bridge the gap between evidence-based

research and clinical practice
Diligent research on a particular issue is good, but it
holds no value until you put your findings into practice.
Bridging the gap from research to clinical practice can
be accomplished in many ways. One model for guiding
nurses through this process includes these steps:

 Assess the patient and the need for change.

 Construct a clinical question derived from the
patient's problem.
 Acquire the best evidence through a thorough
search.
 Appraise the evidence for validity and usefulness.
 Return to the patient and integrate that evidence
with clinical expertise and patient preferences.
 Apply what you have learned.
 Evaluate what you have learned.

 6-plasmid / plasmids

 A plasmid is a small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule
that is distinct from a cell's chromosomal DNA. Plasmids
naturally exist in bacterial cells, and they also occur in some
eukaryotes. Often, the genes carried in plasmids provide
bacteria with genetic advantages, such as antibiotic
resistance. Plasmids have a wide range of lengths, from
roughly one thousand DNA base pairs to hundreds of
thousands of base pairs. When a bacterium divides, all of the
plasmids contained within the cell are copied such that each
daughter cell receives a copy of each plasmid. Bacteria can
also transfer plasmids to one another through a process
called conjugation.

 Scientists have taken advantage of plasmids to use them as tools to clone,
transfer, and manipulate genes. Plasmids that are used experimentally for
these purposes are called vectors. Researchers can insert DNA fragments
or genes into a plasmid vector, creating a so-called recombinant plasmid.
This plasmid can be introduced into a bacterium by way of the process
 called transformation. Then, because bacteria divide rapidly, they can be
used as factories to copy DNA fragments in large quantities.

 The term plasmid was first introduced by the American molecular biologist
Joshua Lederberg in 1952. A plasmid is a DNA molecule that is separate
from, and can replicate independently of the chromosomal DNA. They are
double-stranded and, in many cases, circular. Plasmids usually occur
naturally in bacteria, but are sometimes found in archaea, and even in
eukaryotic .Plasmid sizes vary from 1 to over 1,000 kbp. The number of
identical plasmids in a single cell can range anywhere from one to
thousands under some circumstances. Plasmids can be considered part of
the mobilome because they are often associated with conjugation, a
mechanism of horizontal gene transfer.

Plasmids are considered replicons. They can be found in all three
major domains: Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya. Similar to viruses,
plasmids are not considered by some to be a form of life. Unlike
viruses, they are naked DNA and do not encode genes necessary to
encase the genetic material for transfer to a new host, though some
classes of plasmids encode the sex pilus necessary for their own
transfer. Plasmid host-to-host transfer requires direct mechanical
transfer by conjugation, or changes in incipient host gene expression
allowing the intentional uptake of the genetic element by
transformation.

Microbial transformation with plasmid DNA is neither parasitic nor

symbiotic in nature, because each implies the presence of an
independent species living in a commensal or detrimental state with
the host organism. Rather, plasmids provide a mechanism for
horizontal gene transfer within a population of microbes and typically
provide a selective advantage under a given environmental state.

Plasmids may carry genes that provide resistance to naturally

occurring antibiotics in a competitive environmental niche, or the
proteins produced may act as toxins under similar circumstances.
Plasmids can also provide bacteria with the ability to fix elemental
nitrogen or to degrade recalcitrant organic compounds that provide an
advantage when nutrients are scarce.
Key Points:

 Plasmids can be found in all three major domains: Archaea,

Bacteria, and Eukarya. Similar to viruses, plasmids are not
considered by some to be a form of life.
  Plasmids provide a mechanism for horizontal gene transfer
within a population of microbes and typically provide a selective
advantage under a given environmental state.

 Plasmids may carry genes that provide resistance to naturally occurring

antibiotics in a competitive environmental niche, or the proteins produced
may act as toxins under similar circumstances.

Key Terms:

 Plasmid: A circle of double-stranded DNA that is separate from

the chromosomes, which is found in bacteria and protozoa.

 mobilome: The entirety of the mobile (transposable) elements of

a genome.

 Replicons: a region of DNA or RNA, that replicates from a single

origin of replication.

What is a plasmid?
At their most basic level, plasmids are small circular pieces of DNA that replicate
independently from the host's chromosomal DNA. They are mainly found in bacteria, but
also exist naturally in archaea and eukaryotes such
as yeast and plants. In nature, plasmids provide one
or more functional benefits to the host such
as resistance to antibiotics, degradative functions,
and/or virulence. All natural plasmids contain
an origin of replication (which controls the host range
and copy number of the plasmid) and typically
include a gene that is advantageous for survival,
such as an antibiotic resistance gene. In contrast,
plasmids utilized in the lab are usually artificial and
designed to introduce foreign DNA into another cell.
Minimally, lab-created plasmids have an origin of
replication, selection marker, and cloning site. The
ease of modifying plasmids and the ability of
plasmids to self-replicate within a cell make them
attractive tools for the life scientist or bioengineer.

Vector Element Description

Origin of DNA sequence which allows initiation of replication within a plasmid by recruiting
Replication (ORI) transcriptional machinery proteins
 Antibiotic
Allows for selection of plasmid-containing bacteria.
Resistance Gene

Short segment of DNA which contains several restriction sites allowing for the easy
Multiple Cloning
insertion of DNA. In expression plasmids, the MCS is often downstream from a
Site (MCS)
promoter.

Insert Gene, promoter or other DNA fragment cloned into the MCS for further study.

Drives transcription of the target gene. Vital component for expression vectors:
Promoter Region determines which cell types the gene is expressed in and amount of recombinant
protein obtained.

The antibiotic resistance gene allows for selection in bacteria. However, many
Selectable Marker
plasmids also have selectable markers for use in other cell types.

A short single-stranded DNA sequence used as an initiation point for PCR

Primer Binding
amplification or sequencing. Primers can be exploited for sequence verification of
Site
plasmids.

The above plasmid map and table outline the common engineerable features of plasmids.
For more detail on the history, importance, and types of plasmids, check out Addgene’s
Molecular Biology Plasmid Reference.

How is a plasmid constructed in the lab?

Due to their artificial nature, lab plasmids are commonly referred to as “vectors” or
“constructs.” To insert a gene of interest into a vector, scientists may utilize one of a variety
of cloning methods (restriction enzyme, ligation independent, Gateway, Gibson, etc).
The cloning method is ultimately chosen based on the plasmid you want to clone into.
Regardless, once the cloning steps are complete, the vector containing the newly inserted
gene is transformed into bacterial cells and selectively grown on antibiotic plates.

How do scientists use plasmids?

Generally, scientists use plasmids to manipulate gene expression in target
cells. Characteristics such as flexibility, versatility, safety, and cost-effectiveness enable
molecular biologists to broadly utilize plasmids across a wide range of applications. Some
common plasmid types include cloning plasmids, expression plasmids, gene knock-down
plasmids, reporter plasmids, viral plasmids, and genome engineering plasmids.

To date, scientists around the world are extensively using these vectors for experiments
encompassing fluorescent imaging, recombinant DNA technology, mass protein production,
disease modeling, drug discovery, and genome editing

Plasmids carrying resistance genes are known as R plasmids. Increased use of

antibiotics globally has caused bacterial strains carrying R plasmids to multiply in
size; this means resistant pathogens are becoming more common, making
treatment of certain bacterial infections much more difficult. Another complication
is that certain R plasmids can carry up to 10 resistance genes to different
antibiotics, and these plasmids often contain genes which allow bacterial
conjugation to occur.

7-What is selective breeding?

Selective breeding involves selecting parents that have characteristics
of interest in the hope that their offspring inherit those desirable
characteristics.
What is selective breeding?

Selective breeding involves choosing parents with particular

characteristics to breed together and produce offspring with more
desirable characteristics.
 Humans have selectively bred plants and animals for thousands
of years including:
 crop plants with better yields.
 ornamental plants with particular flower shapes and colours
farm animals that produce more, better quality meat or wool.
 Dogs with particular physiques and temperaments, suited to do
jobs like herd sheep or collect pheasants.
 Selective breeding aims to adapt an organism’s characteristics
in a way that is desirable to the humans that breed them.

Humans have selectively bred apples to create

lots of different varieties.

How does selective breeding work?

An organism’s characteristics are partly determined by the

combination of gene variants? that are passed on from one
generation to the next. For example, the children of tall parents may themselves
be tall if they inherit a combination of ‘tall’ gene variants.

 We can take advantage of this to selectively breed animals or plants,

choosing parents with particular characteristics to produce offspring that have
those characteristics.
o For example, if we breed tall parents together and exclude
shorter parents, the offspring should inherit “tall” gene variants that
make them tall.
o Some of the offspring may even be taller than both of their
parents, because they may inherit a combination of different “tall”
gene variants from each parent and together these make the offspring
taller.
o With repeated selective breeding over multiple
generations this population will get taller and taller.

A diagram showing the effect of selectively breeding for height in

plants.

Problems with selective breeding:

 Selective breeding often results in a population of animals or plants with

very similar genetics?.
 Similar genetics means that the population will have the same strengths
but also the same weaknesses.
 Infectious diseases? Are more likely to spread through genetically similar
populations because they are vulnerable to the same diseases.
 Selective breeding often involves breeding individuals that are closely
related, known as inbreeding?.
 Inbred populations are more likely to suffer from genetic
conditions? Caused by recessive? Gene variants because they are more likely to
inherit two copies of the recessive variants, one from each parent.

Types of selective breeding

 Inbreeding
If we want to establish a population of organisms with predictable
characteristics we tend to “inbreed”.
Inbreeding is when the animals bred are very close relatives, such as
siblings.
 Continued inbreeding results in offspring that are very genetically alike.
After many generations of inbreeding, the offspring will be almost
genetically identical, and will produce identical offspring.

When this happens, an organism is described as inbred or purebred.

Examples of purebred animals are Labrador Retriever dogs and
Siamese cats.

Purebred dogs like the Labrador Retriever were originally established

through many generations of inbreeding. Image credit: PetsNerd.com
 Line breeding
1. Line breeding is a type of inbreeding.
2. It involves breeding together more distant relatives, such as
cousins.
3. This reduces the rate at which the breed becomes ‘purebred’,
reducing the risk of ill-health that can sometimes be seen with
purebred individuals.
 Self-pollination

 Most plants have both male and female reproductive parts.

 Some species? are naturally able to transfer the
male gametes? (sperm) in the pollen? to the female parts of the flower
where the female gametes (eggs) are. This is called self-pollination.
 The offspring of plants that self-pollinate are not identical to the
parent plant, because their genes are shuffled during reproduction.
 Plant breeders can use self-pollination as a type of inbreeding,
creating plants that are genetically more identical and that produce
identical offspring after many generations.
 Crossbreeding

 Crossbreeding involves breeding two unrelated individuals.

 This is often used to produce offspring with desirable
characteristics from two different individuals.
 Crossbreeding two purebred organisms will produce offspring
that display the characteristics of interest.
 For example, Poodles are crossed with Labrador Retrievers to
combine a Poodle’s low-shedding coat with the Labrador’s calm,
trainable temperament. The resulting ‘Labradoodle’ is a guide dog
suitable for people with allergies.
 Crossbreeding non-purebred parents will have less predictable
outcomes.

Selective breeding versus natural selection

 Although they both result in genetic changes over generations,

selective breeding and natural selection? are different.
 Natural selection is driven by environmental factors that limit
survival and reproduction, such as harsh environments or
competition for mates.
 Selective breeding is also known as artificial selection. Artificial
selection is driven by human intervention.

Selective breeding versus genetic engineering

 Although both selective breeding and genetic engineering? change

an organism’s genetic characteristics, they are different processes.
 Selective breeding makes use of existing, naturally present gene
variants in a species? and the natural process of breeding.
 Genetic engineering involves a direct change to an organism’s
genome in the laboratory.
 Gene variants made through genetic engineering can be passed
from one generation to the next.

8-DNA - genetic information and function (protein

synthesis)
Key terms
Meaning
Term
Single-stranded nucleic acid that
RNA
carries out the instructions coded in
(ribonucleic
DNA
acid)
The process by which the information
in genes flows into proteins: DNA →
Central dogma
RNA → protein
of biology
A chain of amino acids
Polypeptide
A sequence of three nucleotides that
corresponds with a specific amino acid
or start/stop signal during translation
Codon
Process during which a DNA
sequence of a gene is copied to make
an RNA molecule
Transcription
Process during which an mRNA
molecule is used to assemble amino
acids into polypeptide chains
Translation
A change in a genetic sequence
Mutation
Structure of RNA:
DNA alone cannot account for the expression of genes. RNA is
needed to help carry out the instructions in DNA.

Like DNA, RNA is made up of nucleotide consisting of a 5-carbon

sugar ribose, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. However,
there are three main differences between DNA and RNA:

(1) RNA uses the sugar ribose instead of deoxyribose.

(2) RNA is generally single-stranded instead of double-stranded.
(3) RNA contains uracil in place of thymine.
These differences help enzymes in the cell to distinguish DNA from
RNA.

Image comparing the structure of single-stranded RNA with double-

stranded DNA.
Comparison of RNA and DNA molecules. Image modified
Types of RNA
Role
Type
Carries information from DNA in the
Messenger
nucleus to ribosomes in the cytoplasm
RNA (mRNA)
Ribosomal RNA
Structural component of ribosomes
(rRNA)
Carries amino acids to the ribosome
during translation to help build an
Transfer RNA
amino acid chain
(tRNA)
Central dogma of biology
A gene that encodes a polypeptide is expressed in two steps. In this
process, information flows from DNA → RNA → protein, a directional
relationship known as the central dogma of molecular biology.
The genetic code
The first step in decoding genetic messages is transcription, during
which a nucleotide sequence is copied from DNA to RNA. The next
step is to join amino acids together to form a protein.
The order in which amino acids are joined together determine the
shape, properties, and function of a protein.

The four bases of RNA form a language with just four nucleotide
bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and uracil (U). The
genetic code is read in three-base words called codons. Each codon
 corresponds to a single amino acid (or signals the starting and
stopping points of a sequence).

Genetic code table. Each three-letter sequence of mRNA nucleotides

corresponds to a specific amino acid, or to a stop codon. UGA, UAA,
and UAG are stop codons. AUG is the codon for methionine, and is
also the start codon.
[How do you read the codon table?]
Transcription and translation

 in transcription, a DNA sequence is rewritten, or transcribed, into a similar

RNA "alphabet." In eukaryotes, the RNA molecule must undergo
processing to become a mature messenger RNA (mRNA).
 In translation, the sequence of the mRNA is decoded to specify the amino
acid sequence of a polypeptide. The name translation reflects that the
nucleotide sequence of the mRNA sequence must be translated into the
completely different "language" of amino acids.

Simplified schematic of central dogma, showing the sequences of the

molecules involved.
The two strands of DNA have the following sequences:
5'-ATGATCTCGTAA-3' 3'-TACTAGAGCATT-5'
Transcription of one of the strands of DNA produces an mRNA that
nearly matches the other strand of DNA in sequence. However, due to
a biochemical difference between DNA and RNA, the Ts of DNA are
replaced with Us in the mRNA. The mRNA sequence is:
5'-AUGAUCUCGUAA-5'
Translation involves reading the mRNA nucleotides in groups of three,
each of which specifies and amino acid (or provides a stop signal
indicating that translation is finished).
3'-AUG AUC UCG UAA-5'
AUG → Methionine AUC → Isoleucine UCG → Serine UAA →
"Stop"
Polypeptide sequence: (N-terminus) Methionine-Isoleucine-Serine (C-
terminus)
Mutations
Sometimes cells make mistakes in copying their genetic information,
causing mutations. Mutations can be irrelevant, or they affect the way
proteins are made and genes are expressed.
Substitutions:
A substitution changes a single base pair by replacing one base for
another.

There are three kinds of substitution mutations:

 Silent mutations do not affect the sequence of amino acids
during translation.

 Nonsense mutations result in a stop codon where an amino acid

should be, causing translation to stop prematurely.
 Missense mutations change the amino acid specified by a
codon.
Insertions and deletions
An insertion occurs when one or more bases are added to a DNA
sequence. A deletion occurs when one or more bases are removed
from a DNA sequence.

Because the genetic code is read in codons (three bases at a time),

inserting or deleting bases may change the "reading frame" of the
sequence. These types of mutations are called frame shift mutations.

A frame shift mutation “shifts” how a sequence of nucleotides is read

as triplets (codons) during translation. This may, in turn, alter which
amino acids are added to polypeptide. In this example, the original
reading frame of a gene encodes an mRNA with codons that specify
the amino acid sequence: methionine (Met), isoleucine (Ile), argenine
(Arg), and asparagine (Asn).

A deletion of the 4th nucleotide (T) shifts the reading frame at the point
of the deletion. This produces a new reading frame in the DNA
template after the 3rd nucleotide. The mRNA of the new frame bears
different codons past the point of the mutation (the first methionine-
specifying codon remains unchanged). These codons specify the
amino acid sequence: methionine (Met), tyrosine (Tyr), and glycine
(Gly).
As this example illustrates, a frameshift mutation changes how
nucleotides are interpreted as codons beyond the point of the
mutation, and this, in turn, may change the amino acid sequence.
Common mistakes and misconceptions:
 Amino acids are not made during protein synthesis. Some
students think that the purpose of protein synthesis is to create
amino acids. However, amino acids are not being made during
translation, they are being used as building blocks to make
proteins.
 Mutations do not always have drastic or negative
effects. Often people hear the term "mutation" in the media and
understand it to mean that a person will have a disease or
disfigurement. Mutations are the source of genetic variety, so
 although some mutations are harmful, most are unnoticeable,
and many are even good!
 Insertions and deletions that are multiples of three
nucleotides will not cause frame shift mutations. Rather,
one or more amino acids will just be added to or deleted from
the protein. Insertions and deletions that are not multiples of
three nucleotides, however, can dramatically alter the amino
acid sequence of the protein.
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-
molecular-genetics/hs-rna-and-protein-synthesis/a/hs-rna-and-protein-
synthesis-review

https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Anatomy_and_Physiology/Book
%3A_Anatomy_and_Physiology_(OpenStax)/Unit_1%3A_Levels_of_O
rganization/03%3A_The_Cellular_Level_of_Organization/3.04%3A_Pr
otein_Synthesis

With my best wishes