WATER-RETAINING STRUCTURES AND RETAINING WALLS

Knowledge needed

• Design of concrete structures

• Analysis of concrete sections.
Literature needed
1. BS 8007: Design of Concrete structures for retaining aqueous liquid
2. BS 8110- Structural Use of Concrete

The design of these type of structures is based on the fundamental principles and analysis techniques based
on previous unit, structural design II (Design of reinforced concrete structures).
Because of their specialized nature, design is often governed by the factors which may be regarded as
secondary in normal reinforced works.
1. WATER-RETAINING STRUCTURES.
Includes water towers and reservoirs, storage tanks including sewage disposal and treatment systems, and
floors and walls of basements and other underground constructions where it is necessary to prevent ingress
of ground water.
As it important to restrain cracking so that leakages do not take place, the design is generally governed by
requirements of the serviceability limit state, but stability consideration are particularly important and
design must take careful account of construction methods to be used.
British Standard Code of Practice BS 5337, BS 8007 offers guidance on design and construction o f this
category. The following should not be noted:
a. Use of load factor, 𝛾𝑓 = 1.4 f for liquid loads
b. Use of higher grade of concrete for durability (grade 40 for reinforced concrete-Lowest grade C35A
se BS 8007, clause 6.3 on mix proportions)
Use of 0.2mm maximum crack width unless the aesthetic appearance is critical
1.1. Design and construction problems
• To ensure a watertight structure the concrete must be adequately reinforced in section where
tension may occur. Tensile stresses due to any direct tensile forces as well as those due to bending
must be included in the design calculations.
• Continuity reinforcement to prevent cracking must be provided at corners and at members
junctions.
• The design should consider the cases where the structure is full of liquid and also when it is
empty.
• Cracking due to subsidence and earthquake by considering the geological aspects of the proposed
site and in particular to the possibilities of differential settlements.
• For thermal and shrinkage cracks, provision of movement joints, expansion and contraction joints
to allow for thermal and shrinkage movements.
• Shrinkage and thermal effect can be reduced by:
• Using a mix design with a low cement content
 • Avoid rapid hardening and finely ground cement if possible
• Keep aggregates and mixing water cool
• Use steel shuttering and cool with a water spray
• Strike the shuttering early to allow the heat of hydration to dissipate.
• Flexural cracking can be control by careful design and detailing.
• With the thick section, the heat generated by hydration cannot readily be dissipated, and the
resulting temperature rise in the body of the concrete may be considerable. Use low-heat cement
and restrict the size of pours. Slab greater than 500mm in thickness, the outer 250mm on each
face may be regarded as the surface zone and the remainder as the core. Minimum reinforcement
quantities to control thermal and shrinkage cracking should thus be based on a member thickness
of 500mm. The bottom surface zone for ground slab should be 100mm.
• Curing and compaction is of importance for producing impermeable concrete. Thus, the concrete
should be workable for easy handling during construction
• Formwork should not allow grout leakage at joints.
• Floatation, during construction is a major problem. To overcome this, dewater the site, increase
the dead weight of the structure and provide for temporary flooding of the structure
• When filling the tank or reservoir for the first time, this should be done slowly. This permits
stress distribution to occur, and this, coupled with creep effects will greatly reduce the extent of
cracking.

1.2 Joints in water-retaining structures

All joints in must be watertight. Waterbars are must be incorporated either as the surface type or as the
centre bulb. They must be held in position during concreting and compaction. The waterbars must
sustained anticipated movement without tearing and withstand considerable water pressures.
1.2.1 Construction joints
Laitance must be removed to expose the coarse aggregate and sound irregular concrete surface before
pouring the new concrete. If well-constructed such joints should be completely watertight. Water-stops
are sometimes preferred to seal the joint on the retaining surface as an additional precaution.

• Constructions joints should be arranged so that the joints are either all horizontal or all vertical.
• Long lengths of walls or slab are constructed in alternate lengths so that when the intermediate
pours are made later, the older concrete in the earlier pours will have already taken up some of
shrinkage movement.
 • Successive lengths construction ensures that only one edge is restrained while the other edge is
free to contract without cracking.

1.2.2 Movement joints

Movement joints are provided to reduce the likelihood of unwanted thermal shrinkage stress
concentrations. They ensure there is only a partially restrained condition during contraction of the
immature concrete.
1.2.2.1 Partial contraction joint

• No initial gap
• Reinforcement is continuous

1.2.2.2. Complete construction joint

• Steel and concrete are discontinuous

• Shear is transferred by shear key
1.2.2.3. Expansion joint

• Complete discontinuous
• Must have initial gap to accommodate the movement.
• The joint is filled with compressible filler.

1.2.2.4. Sliding joints

• One part is free to move relative to another.

• Example circular tank on a flat base
• The bond is broken between the surfaces by painting or the use of building paper or suitable
flexible rubber pad is used
1.3.3 Provision of movement joints

• Floor slab can be cast on a separating layer of polythene or some similar material laid on the
blinding concrete. Alternatively, the slab may be cast directly on the blinding and reinforced to
limit cracking on the basis of full restraint
• Walls should be fully restrained, or alternatively contraction joints provided at centers not
exceeding about 7.5m in reinforced concrete.
• If the design of a member is based on the fully restrained condition, it is assumed that cracking will
be controlled by the reinforcement; therefore, the critical steel ratio 𝜌𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 . taking note of
temperature change and concrete properties recommended in the code of practice. Great benefit is
obtained from closely spaced small diameter bars.
• If proper movement joints are provided so that cracks are concentrated at joints, reinforcement may
be designed on the basis of only partial restrained indicated above, but bar spacing should not
exceed 300mm
1.3. Design methods
• The design of water-retaining structures may be carried out using either:
1. A limit state design
2. An elastic design
• In limit state design, cracking is of prime importance. The simplified rules for minimum steel areas
and maximum spacing would no longer be adequate. It would be necessary to check the concrete
strain and crack widths. The calculations tend to be lengthy and depend on factors such as the
degree of restraint, shrinkage and creep which are difficult to assess accurately.
• The elastic design is the traditional method which will probably continue to be used for many
structures. It is relatively simple and easy to apply.
1.3.1 Limit state design
Special information

• Partial load factor of safety on imposed loading due to contained fluid could be taken as 1.4 for
strength calculations.
• Reinforcement characteristics should not be taken to exceed 425 N/mm2
• Serviceability design will involve the classification of each member according to its exposure
category as shown in the table below.
 Table 3.1 Allowable stresses in direct or flexural tension for serviceability limit states(BS 8007)

• A wall or slab exposed to Class A or B conditions on one face only should be treated as subject to
class A or B on both faces if less than or equal to 225mm thick, or class C on the remote face if
thicker than 225mm. External members not in contact with the liquid will lie in class C and can
be design using the criteria for normal reinforced concrete.
The maximum allowable crack widths may be calculated using methods used in normal reinforced
concrete then checked for compliance.
Flexural crack width
3𝛼𝑐𝑟𝜖 𝑚
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 𝛼𝑐𝑟−𝑐𝑚𝑖𝑛 (BS 8007, Appendix B.2)
1+2( )
ℎ−𝑥

Where
𝜖𝑚 = 𝜖1 − 𝜖2
 0.7𝑏 𝑡ℎ(𝑎′−𝑥)
𝜖𝑚 = 𝜖1 − × 10−3
𝐴𝑠 (ℎ−𝑥)𝑓𝑠

From ( BS 8007, Appendix B.3 and B.4)

𝑏𝑡 (ℎ − 𝑥)(𝑎 ′ − 𝑥)
𝜖2 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 0.2𝑚𝑚
3𝐸𝑠 𝐴𝑠 (𝑑 − 𝑥)
1.5𝑏 𝑡( ℎ−𝑥) (𝑎′−𝑥)
• 𝜖2 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 0.1𝑚𝑚
3𝐸𝑠 𝐴𝑠 ( 𝑑−𝑥)
• Values of 𝜖2 can be extrapolated
• 𝜖1 = 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (From structural design II)
• 𝑓𝑠 is the service stress in the reinforcement, and the negative value of 𝜖𝑚 indicates that the section
is uncracked.
Thermal Cracking
Thermal cracking is taken to have a maximum spacing 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑓𝑐𝑡 ∅
𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 = × (BS 8007, Appendix A.3)
𝑓𝑏 2𝜌

• 𝑓𝑐𝑡=direct tensile strength of the immature concrete usually taken at age 3 days 1.6N/mm for
grade C35A of concrete.
• 𝑓𝑏 is the average bond strength between concrete and steel (refer Structural design II-reinforced
concrete design), for plain bars(BS 8110. clause 3.12.8.3)
𝑓
• With values of 𝑐𝑡 for immature concrete suggested as 1.0 for plain round bars and 0.8 for
𝑓𝑏
deformed type I bars, 0.67 deformed type 2 bars (BS 8007, Appendix A.3)
The width of fully developed crack may be taken generally as (BS 8007, Appendix A.3)
𝛼
𝑤𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 [𝜖𝑐𝑠 + 𝑇 − (100 × 10−6 )] = 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜖𝑡ℎ
2
𝑤𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜖

𝜖 = [𝜖𝑐𝑠 + 𝜖𝑡𝑒 − (100 × 10−6 )]

𝜖𝑐𝑠=shrinkage strain, 𝜖𝑡𝑒= total thermal contraction after peak temperature, 𝛼=coefficient of thermal
expansion , 𝑇=fall of temperature.

While in practice the drying shrinkage strain may be of the order of 100 × 10−6 𝜇𝑠 hence a simplified
expression
𝛼
𝑤𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑔𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑞𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒
2
Temperature, T, rise due to hydration of the concrete will be expected to in order of 30 o C but should
increase for high cement contents, rapid hardening cement, thick members or timber shutters in during
warm seasons.
Table 5.1-Design options for control of thermal contraction and restrained shrinkage (BS 8007)
Example
1.3.2 Elastic Design

• This method is based on working loads, and permissible stresses in the concrete and steel which
are considered to be acting within elastic range. Hence the design assumes a triangular stress block
from analysis of concrete section.
• Suitable permissible stresses are shown in the tables below. The ratio 𝛼𝑒 of the modulus of elasticity
of steel to that of concrete is taken as 15.
• Calculations are performed on the basis of two criteria: strength, and resistance to cracking.
• Strength calculations assume a cracked section. Low permissible steel stresses are specified in order
to limit the width of cracks and thus reduce the chance of leakage and corrosion of reinforcement.
• The analysis of resistance to cracking assumes a limiting tensile stress in the concrete and is based
on an uncracked concrete section. The governing factor in such an analysis is inevitably the
permissible tensile stress in the concrete, with the steel and concrete stresses being related by the
compatibility of strains across the section.
The calculations for cracking resistance must be carried out for:

• The face in contact with the liquid for sections thicker than 225mm
• Both faces for sections of 225mm or less in thickness.
Sections thicker than 225mm are designed for strength only at faces remote from the liquid.
Design by the elastic method consist of designing for strength, checking cracking resistance, and increasing
the member size or the area of reinforcement, if necessary. Using the expression derived from analysis of
section, for triangular stress block with a crack and uncracked section, the procedure for calculation the
area of reinforcement for a section is as follows.
Strength calculations
1. Determine the depth of the neutral axis from x
𝑑
𝑥=
𝑓𝑠𝑡
1+
𝛼𝑒 𝑓𝑐𝑐

The stresses are the permissible values and 𝛼𝑒 = 15

2. Check the moment of resistance of the concrete from
1 𝑥
𝑀 = 𝑏𝑥𝑓𝑐𝑐 (𝑑 − )
2 3
3. Calculate the area of tension steel from
𝑀
𝐴𝑠 = 𝑥
𝑓𝑠𝑡 (𝑑 − )
3
Table1: Elastic method-Strength calculations, permissible concretes stresses(BS 5337)

Table 2: Elastic Method-Strength Calculations, Permissible steel stresses

Table 3: Elastic Method- cracking calculations, permissible stresses

Cracking resistance
1. Determine a depth of neutral axis for the uncracked section from
ℎ + 2(𝛼𝑒 − 1)𝑟𝑑
𝑥=
2 (𝛼𝑒 − 1)𝑟 + 2
Where 𝜌 = 𝐴𝑠 /𝑏ℎ
 2. Check that the tensile stress, 𝑓𝑐𝑡 in the cocrete does not exceed the permissible value from table
11.5. The stess is calculated from
ℎ− 𝑥 (𝑑 − 𝑥) 𝑥
𝑀 = 𝑓𝑐𝑡 𝑏ℎ [( ) + ( 𝛼𝑒 − 1)𝜌 (𝑑 − )]
3 (ℎ − 𝑥) 3

The depth of the section or steel area must be increased if the permissible stress is exceeded.

When the section has to resist direct tension, as for example in a circular tank, the resistance of the
uncracked section given by.
𝑇 = 𝑓𝑐𝑡(𝐴𝑐 + 𝐴𝑠 𝛼𝑒 )

Where 𝐴𝑐 is the area of concrete in tension. Therefore, for a rectangular section and allowing for area of
concrete displace by the reinforcement.
𝑇 = 𝑓𝑐𝑡 𝑏ℎ + 𝑓𝑐𝑡𝐴𝑠 (𝛼𝑒 − 1)
When a direct tension is combined with bending, a rigorous analysis of the section may be carried out but
for many cases this is not justified.
For rectangular tanks, only small tensile forces are associated with the bending. Circular tank has to resist
large hoop tension usually the bending moments have only secondary effects.
If the shear stress in concrete exceed the permissible values given, then shear reinforcement must be
provided. Shear strength was not included in the formulae for calculating the stirrup reinforcement. The
area, 𝐴𝑠𝑣 and spacing, 𝑆𝑣 of the stirrup is given by
𝐴𝑠𝑣 𝑉
=
𝑆𝑣 𝑓𝑣 z

Where 𝑉 = the shear force due to the working loads, 𝑓𝑣 = the steel stress from table 11.4, z = the lever
arm of the resistance moment.

Example

1.4 Reinforcement details

Reinforcement should be placed near the surface of the concrete but minimum cover should not be less
than 40mm
For exposures A and B, the minimum steel areas in each of two directions at right angles are normally
2
taken as 𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 or 𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 according to the joint arrangement.
3

• In members up to 200 mm thick, the area of reinforcement should be in one layer.

• In members over 200mm thick, the reinforcement should be equally divided so that there is a
layer in each case.
• In members greater than 500mm thick h should be taken as 500mm
• Requirement (3) may be reduced for ground slabs. (BS 5337)