BIOLOGY NOTES

Topic 1A
Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates are organic molecules that have some important uses: Source and
storage of energy, Structural function. Carbohydrates only contain carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen. The general formula for a carbohydrate is: (CH2O)x

MONOSACCHARIDES
 The monomer building blocks for more complex carbohydrates. Many
monosaccharaides join together to create a polysaccharide - a carbohydrate
polymer. They are soluble, sweet, hexose sugars and simple sugar units.eg fructose
and galactose.

GLUCOSE

Glucose is a hexose sugar with the molecular formula C6H12O6. It is the main source of
energy in respiration; it is used as building blocks for larger carbohydrates. The
properties of glucose make it well-adapted for its role: Small so easily transported in and
out of cells through carrier proteins, Soluble so easily transported around an organism,
less reactive than other monosaccharaides so breakdown must be catalyzed and
therefore controlled by enzymes. Glucose has two isomers which are called α-glucose
and β-glucose and they differ by the position of the hydroxyl (-OH) group

RIBOSE

It has five carbon atoms and so therefore it is a pentose sugar with a molecular formula
C5H10O5. Ribose sugars are found in many important biological molecules such as
ribonucleic acid (RNA), and ATP.

DISACCHARIDES

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 Disaccharides are formed by joining two monosaccharaides together in a
condensation reaction.α-glucose and α-glucose combine to form maltose, Maltose is
found in germinating seeds as more complex carbohydrates are broken down for
energy; α-glucose and fructose combine to form sucrose. Sucrose is transported in
the phloem to provide sugars to other parts of the plant. α-glucose and galactose
combine to form lactose. Lactose is found in mammalian milk to provide energy for
infant mammals.

FORMING AND BREAKING GLYCOSIDIC BONDS

 A condensation reaction forms water as one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms are
removed from the monosaccharaides. This bonds the monosaccharaides together,
forming a disaccharide. This bond is known as a glycosidic bond and its covalent
bond. Disaccharides are broken down through a hydrolysis reaction to form two
monosaccharides. A hydrolysis reaction requires water as one oxygen and two
hydrogen atoms are added to the disaccharide. This breaks the glycosidic bond.

POLYSACCHARIDES
 Polysaccharides are formed by joining together monosaccharides in a series of
condensation reactions. Polysaccharides are broken down in a series of hydrolysis
reactions to form monosaccharides - this can happen in two ways: Unlike
monosaccharides and disaccharides, polysaccharides are not sweet-tasting nor easily
soluble - they are not sugars. A huge variety of polysaccharides can be formed by:
Changing the type of monosaccharide.

Polysaccharides as Energy Stores

 α-glucose is the main source of energy in respiration. α-glucose polysaccharides are

well-suited to energy storage for a number of reasons: They are compact so a lot of
energy can be stored in a small space, They are insoluble in water so do not impact
the water potential of a cell, They are large so they do not diffuse out of the cell,
They can be easily hydrolyses to α-glucose when energy is needed.

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Starch
 Starch is most commonly found in photosynthesizing cells in leaves and storage cells
in seeds and storage organs. It is compacted into dense, insoluble grains stored in
special organelles called amyloplasts. Storage organs contain cells with numerous
amyloplasts to ensure the plant always has a sufficient supply of energy.

Structure of Starch - Amylose

 Starch consists of two different polysaccharides - amylose and amylopectin. Amylose

is a long chain of α-glucose molecules joined together by 1, 4 glycosidic bonds.
Amylose coils into a helix shape that makes it more compact. Each amylose molecule
only has two accessible ends where the enzyme amylase can bind. This means that
amylose can only be broken down slowly.

Structure of Starch - Amylopectin

 Amylopectin is also a long chain of α-glucose molecules joined together with 1,4
glycosidic bonds. However, amylopectin also has occasional 1, 6 glycosidic bonds.
The additional 1, 6 glycosidic bonds causes amylopectin to have side branches with
more accessible ends. This makes amylopectin more easily broken down by enzymes
when glucose is needed.

GLYCOGEN
 In animals, the polysaccharide energy store is called glycogen. Glycogen is found in
cells with a high metabolic rate - e.g. liver cells and muscle cells. Glycogen has a
similar structure to amylopectin, with many α-glucose molecules joined together by
1, 4 and 1, 6 glycosidic bonds. However, in glycogen, the 1, 6 glycosidic bonds are
very frequent resulting in a highly branched structure. Glycogen therefore has a very
high number of accessible ends. This allows glycogen to be rapidly hydrolyzed to α-
glucose by enzymes. This is important as animals have higher metabolic
requirements than plants.

CELLULOSE

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 Cellulose is a polysaccharide that is used to strengthen cell walls Cellulose is
composed of long, straight chains of β-glucose with 1,4 glycosidic bonds between
each β-glucose molecule Thousands of hydrogen bonds cross-link between the
chains, holding them together The cellulose chains bundle into stronger micro fibrils,
which then bundle into even stronger macro fibrils (fibers)The 1,4 glycosidic bonds
are hard to break so cellulose cannot easily be digested

LIPIDS
Lipids are organic molecules with two
Structure of Triglycerides main types - Triglycerides and
phospholipids have different but
 A triglyceride molecule is formed from one molecule of important roles: Triglycerides are a
glycerol and three fatty acids. Glycerol is an organic alcohol good source of energy; Phospholipids
have a structural role in cell
which has three hydroxyl (-OH) groups. Fatty acids are
membranes. Lipids are large, complex
organic acids that have a carboxyl (-COOH) group joined to a molecules (macromolecules) but they
hydrocarbon tail - they are a type of carboxylic acid. The are not polymers. Lipids are also non-
polar molecules and therefore they will
letter R is often used to represent the hydrocarbon chain. not dissolve in water.

Ester Bonding – Condensation

 A condensation reaction forms water as one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms
are removed from the glycerol and fatty acid. The bond formed between the glycerol
and the fatty acid is called an ester bond. An ester bond is the covalent bond formed
by a condensation reaction between the -OH group of a carboxylic acid and the -OH
group of an alcohol. Three condensation reactions are needed to make a triglyceride,
forming three molecules of water. Triglycerides therefore contain three ester bonds.

Ester Bonding – Hydrolysis

 Triglycerides can be broken down into glycerol and three fatty acids in three
hydrolysis reactions. This requires three molecules of water as three oxygen atoms
and six hydrogen atoms are added to the triglyceride. This breaks the three ester
bonds, forming glycerol and three fatty acids.

Saturated and Unsaturated Triglycerides

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This difference in state is due to the presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in
the fatty acid tail. Fatty acids with hydrocarbon chains that have no double bonds
between carbon atoms are saturated. Fatty acids with hydrocarbon chains that have
one double bond between carbon atoms are monounsaturated. Fatty acids with
hydrocarbon chains that have many double bonds between carbon atoms are
polyunsaturated. The carbon double bonds in unsaturated hydrocarbon chains cause
the fatty acid tails to bend. This bending pushes the unsaturated triglyceride molecules
further apart than the saturated molecules. This weakens the intermolecular forces
between the unsaturated triglyceride molecules so they form a liquid at room
temperature.

Triglycerides in Respiration

In respiration, biological molecules like glucose are broken down to provide energy.
Triglycerides can be broken down into glycerol and fatty acids which are also used in
respiration. Triglycerides release lots of energy in respiration due to the large number of
carbon hydrogen bonds which are broken down. Triglycerides also provide a good
source of water for metabolic reactions. This is because water is released when the
components of triglycerides are broken down in respiration.

Triglycerides as an Energy Store

Triglycerides are also excellent molecules for energy storage for alot of reasons. They
provide the most energy per unit of mass of any storage molecule. This is useful for
animals as it reduces the mass that must be carried around. 2. They are also large and
non-polar so are insoluble in water. Therefore they do not affect the osmotic balance of
cells in the body.

Other Roles of Triglycerides

other useful properties: Oils repel water so aquatic animals produce oil to waterproof
their fur, Fats are used by animals as thermal insulation, Fats are also used by animals to
protect internal organs, Fats are less dense than water so they aid in buoyancy for
aquatic animals.

Structure of Phospholipids

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The difference btw triglycerides and phospholipid is that one of the fatty acids is
replaced by a phosphate molecule. This occurs through a condensation reaction
between the hydroxyl (-OH) groups on phosphoric acid and glycerol. This creates a
phosphate ester bond and forms a molecule of water. The phosphate group and glycerol
molecule is called the “head” of the phospholipid and the
Proteins are organic molecules that have many
fatty acid chains are called the “tails”. important functions including: Structural roles,
metabolic roles, Transport roles. Like
PROTEINS carbohydrates and lipids, proteins are made up of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. However, they
also contain other elements such as nitrogen and
Amino acid chains sometimes sulphur and phosphorus. Enzymes are
examples of proteins, and are crucial in catalyzing
Amino acids have a basic amino group (NH2) and a carboxylic acid reactions within the cell and allowing cells to
group (COOH). Amino acids also possess a side chain called the ‘R’ carry out their jobs

group, which gives each amino acid its specificity. The R group is a
different molecule in each amino acid, giving them their unique
properties. This side chain can give the amino acid different 3D structures; charges or polarity. The
translated sequence of these amino acids creates a unique protein with specific structural and
functional properties.

Amino acids are linked together to form a chain – the carboxyl group of one amino acid is joined to the
amino group of another, forming a peptide bond, (also called an amine bond). When two amino acids
are joined, the reaction releases a molecule of water. This is type of reaction is called a condensation
reaction. Hydrolysis is the reverse of the condensation reaction, involving breaking the peptide bond
using a molecule of water.

Protein structure

Primary structure

 The most basic level of structure of a protein is the sequence of the polypeptide
chain. This chain will be made up of a particular order of amino acids with their
unique properties, forming the initial polypeptide chain. This chain is the first layer of
structure, and is dictated by the information contained within the DNA.

Secondary structure
 The next layer of structural organization is the local folding shapes that the
polypeptide chain adopts. The two most common structures are the α-helix and the

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 β-pleated sheet. Certain amino acid sequences tend to form particular secondary
structures due to the properties of the peptide backbone. These structures are held
together by hydrogen bonds.

Tertiary structure

 The protein tertiary structure refers to the overall 3D structure of the polypeptide
chain. This level of structure is principally due to the properties and interactions
between the side chains of the amino acids, and depends on the nature of the
chemical groups present on each amino acid. The properties of these side chains can
attract or repel interactions with other side chains. These interactions occur primarily
through non-covalent bonds such as hydrogen and ionic bonds. Disulphide bonds are
a unique example of a covalent bond that can form part of a tertiary structure, acting
as strong bridges that form when two amino acids contain sulphur groups in their
side chains. These stable bonds hold the tertiary structure in place.
Quaternary structure

 Some proteins are made up of several polypeptide chains that form one structure.
The final layer of structure is the way these polypeptides are arranged together, the
quaternary structure. The quaternary structure is held together by interactions
similar to those at the tertiary level. Proteins can also have additional non-protein
components that are incorporated into their structure and to help in the execution of
their functions. These components are called prosthetic groups, and examples
include vitamins, sugars and metal ions. A good example of a protein requiring a
prosthetic group is the iron component of hemoglobin, which is essential for oxygen
transport in the bloodstream

Globular Proteins

The overall 3-D structure of a protein determines which type of protein is formed -
fibrous and globular. Globular proteins have a few important properties: They are
roughly spherical in shape, with hydrophobic R groups on the inside and hydrophilic R
groups on the outside, they are therefore soluble in water, they have very specific
shapes which allow them to carry out very specific functions. These properties allow

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them to carry out many important roles in the body. A globular protein is a protein with
a spherical shape that is soluble in water. Globular proteins typically have metabolic role

Fibrous Proteins

Fibrous proteins have some similar properties to globular; They contain long
polypeptide chains with repeating sequences of amino acids, The amino acids have non-
polar R groups so the proteins are insoluble in water, The polypeptide chains are able to
form fibres which make the proteins stronger. A fibrous protein is a very long, strong
and insoluble protein which often has a structural role in organisms.

Collagen

Collagen forms very strong fibres and so is used to provide strength to many parts of the
body: Collagen is found in artery walls to prevent vessels from bursting from high
pressure, Collagen is used to make tendons which connect muscles to bone, allowing
the skeleton to move, Collagen is also used to make bone.

Structure of Collagen; Collagen has such enormous strength as the polypeptide chains
assemble into stronger fibres. A collagen molecule is composed of three polypeptide
chains - it has a quaternary structure. Each polypeptide chain is up to 1000 amino acids
long with a repeating primary structure. The three polypeptide chains wrap around each
other in a triple helix to form a collagen molecule. Many collagen molecules cross-link to
other collagen molecules to form a fibril. Many fibrils then assemble into a stronger
collagen fibre.

Keratin

Keratin is an example of a fibrous protein that is very hard and strong. Keratin is
therefore used for hard body parts such as fingernails, horns and hooves. The primary
structure of keratin contains high amounts of cysteine - an amino acid containing
sulphur. This results in disulphide links forming between the two polypeptide chains
which make the molecule very hard and strong.

Proteins - Biuret Test

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 The Biuret test can be used to test for proteins by detecting the presence of peptide
bonds. The sample to be tested is placed in a clean test tube. Biuret A (sodium
hydroxide) is then added to the test tube. A few drops of Biuret B (copper (II) sulphate)
is then added and the solution is gently mixed. If protein is present, the color of the
reagent changes from blue to purple.

Lipids - Emulsion Test

The emulsion test can be used to detect the presence of lipids. The sample to be tested
is placed in a clean test tube. Ethanol is then added to the test tube and the solution is
mixed thoroughly to dissolve any lipid. Water is then added to the test tube and mixed
gently. A cloudy white substance indicates that lipids are present in the sample. This
cloudy white substance appears as lipids are not soluble in water so they come out of
solution and form an emulsion.
Water is an essential component of cells with major
roles in metabolism, including condensation and
WATER hydrolysis reactions Water is composed of an oxygen
atom joined to two hydrogen atoms with covalent
The hydrogen bonding in water gives water many unique thermal bonds. The negative electrons are more attracted to
properties that are essential for life. In order for a liquid to the oxygen atom than the hydrogen atoms. This
become a gas, the intermolecular forces between the particles results in an uneven distribution of charge across the
must be broken. The hydrogen bonds between water molecules molecule, making it polar Hydrogen bonds occur
between polar molecules like water as there is a
require more energy to break than most intermolecular forces.
weak attraction between slightly positive and slightly
Water therefore has a high boiling point and remains liquid at negative atoms. The polar nature of water and the
room temperature. This allows water to provide a habitat for formation of hydrogen bonds give water many
aquatic animals and act as a transport and reaction medium. unique properties that are essential for life.
When water is a liquid, the hydrogen bonds must be broken for
water molecule to move. More heat energy is needed to increase
the kinetic energy of water molecules and therefore the temperature. Water therefore has a high
specific heat capacity so it provides a stable environment. The energy needed to break the hydrogen
bonds at the point of vaporization is high - water has a high latent heat of evaporation. As water
molecules evaporate, this lowers the average kinetic energy of the remaining water, decreasing the
temperature. This can be used to help Cohesion is the attraction between molecules of the same type.

Like most liquids, water is incompressible. This allows it Water displays cohesive properties as water molecules are
to be used to support soft-bodied animals and plants. attracted to each other by hydrogen bonds. Cohesion
This property can also be used to aid movement in some allows plants to transport columns of water molecules up
animals such as spiders. The hydrogen bonds that form from the roots to the leaves against the force of gravity.
as water freezes result in the water molecules in ice Cohesion between water molecules at the surface of the
being more spaced out. This makes ice less dense than water results in surface tension. Surface tension makes the
water so it floats on top of water. This provides a habitat surface of water difficult to break through, allowing it 9to
for organisms that live in cold climate also creates an provide a habitat for small insects. Adhesion is the
insulating layer that prevents the whole body of water attraction between molecules that are not the same type.
 INORGANIC ION

INORGANIC IONS

Anions
 Nitrate Ions NO₃− Needed in plants for the formation of amino acids and therefore
proteins from the products of photosynthesis, and also for the formation of DNA.
 Phosphate Ions PO4^3- Needed in all living organisms including plants and animals
in the formation of ATP, ADP, DNA and RNA.
 Chloride Ions Cl- Needed in nerve impulses, sweating and many secretory systems.
 Hydrogen Carbonate ions HCO₃− needed for buffering the blood to prevent it from
becoming too acidic.

Cations
 Sodium Ions Na+ Needed in nerve impulses. Sweating and many secretory systems.
 Calcium Ions Ca^2+ needed for the formation of calcium pectate for the middle.
lamella between two cell walls in plants, and for bone formation and muscle
contraction in animals.
 Hydrogen Ions H^+ Needed in cellular respiration and photosynthesis, and in
numerous pumps and system in organisms as well as pH balance.
 Magnesium Ions Mg^2+ needed for production of chlorophyll in plants.

TOPIC 1A ENDS HERE

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