11 UNIVERSITY OF BASRA

2020

Structural and
stratigraphic traps

Hussein, A, & Zainab,H, & Abdulkareem, A, & Zahraa,M

 UNIVERSITY OF BASRA 1

Introduction │ Abstract │
Petroleum traps underground rock formation that Hydrocarbon traps from where lakes obtain a
impedes the movement of petroleum and causes it charge from migrating hydrocarbons from a source
to accumulate in a reservoir that can be used for rock at a time where there are successful seals and
exploitation (Curley, 1768). The trap is the part that geometries of the trap. Conventional research is
keep oil and gas in place in the pond. Geologists called exploration that concentrates on traps along
believe that traps are in the form of reservoirs that a migration path. Conventional exploration
allow an oil pool to accumulate underground. The struggles with secondary migration
trap generally consists of an impermeable cover of
comprehension. In the last 20 years, experimental
surface rock that rises over a permeable and closed
research, which focuses on unconventional
porous rock that contains oil and gas. It also appears
as the upper border is generally curved and the exploration, has become increasingly centered. On
lower border concave, but it may form an angle or a the remaining hydrocarbons in the source. Here,
crest. Scientifically, the term "trap" means a we will concentrate on the traps, their forms, and
combination of a rocky structure and impermeable the triggers that have produced these traps.
rocks that would prevent oil and gas from escaping,
either vertically or laterally, due to the difference in In 1844, William Logan developed the earliest
pressure or gravity. Some petroleum tanks are filled conception of a trap when he observed the
with traps so that if any additional oil or gas is appearance of oil on anticlines. I.C., uh, White took
added, it will spill out around the bottom rim. the idea of Logan's anticlinal trap and used it in
Hydrocarbons are captured in a number of ways, 1855 to look for oil and gas. Since then, as new
and many tables have been established to attempt to trap forms have been discovered, models and
classify traps. It has been agreed on two main implementations of trap principles have
groups, which are the structural These are the traps developed. In 1844, William Logan developed the
that are formed through tectonic processes after earliest conception of a trap when he observed the
deposition of the concerned beds (Levorsen, 1966).
appearance of oil on anticlines. I.C., uh, White took
Folds, fissures, or both. The second group of traps
the idea of Logan's anticlinal trap and used it in
is a product of diapers, in which salt or mud moves
up and climbing up the layers above, leading to the 1855 to look for oil and gas. Since then, trap design
rise of many individual types of traps. Diaper traps models and implementations have developed as
are a group of structural traps, but because they are new forms of traps have been found.
caused by local rock movement and not regional
tectonic forces, they may be distinguished between Traps are usually classified according to the
them and stratigraphic are those traps that are hydrocarbon accumulation. There are two main
formed through changes in petrography. Rock groups of traps, the first is called (Structural traps),
differences may be sedimentation, for example which are formed from structural deformations of
(channels and Coral reefs) or may be after rocks, and the second group is called (Stratigraphic
sedimentation for example (truncation and point traps), which are related to sedimentary or genetic
changes). Hydrodynamic traps occur as they features in the sedimentary sequence. From these
prevent the subsidence of water that raises the oil two factors, many traps (stratigraphy, structural or
without a natural structure or layer closure, and compound traps) are produced, and the
these traps are rare. stratigraphic pressure is a common example of it,
for example (rolling a sandstone lens into
mudstone). It is combined with tectonic tilt, which
in turn allows hydrocarbons to accumulate in the
regenerated portion of the sandstone wedge.
Other traps are mainly caused by cracking that
leads to the porosity of the reservoir or
hydrodynamic processes.
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Structural trap │
The sedimentary layers are deposited in a
horizontal parallel over the geographical area,
where these sediments are of the same thickness
over the trap and this trap may be a simple small Structural traps are formed due to deformation of
fold or a curved dome. If geological activity the rock layer containing hydrocarbons; domes,
occurred that leads to the folding of these anticlines and folds are common structures.
sediments, the result may be the emergence of a Features related to faults can be classified as
hydrocarbon basin in the anticline traps. There structural traps if a shutdown is present. Skeletal
are two main potential characteristics of a traps are the traps that are easy to locate through
skewed trap tank are the simplicity of geology surface and subsurface geological and geophysical
and the potential size of the trap, and thus the studies. It is the most numerous that has had much
accumulation of hydrocarbons. The upper part of interest in searching for oil more than all other
the fold is sloping, and the lower part is concave. types of fisheries. An example of this type of trap is
Because hydrocarbons are less dense than the when salt is deposited by shallow water. Seas, at a
liquid beneath the surface of the earth, they tend later date, the sinking sea floor precipitates a rock
to move to the top of the fold. The sedimentary rich in organic matter over the salt. It also covers
layers are deposited in an aquatic environment, layers of sandstone and shale stone. Deep buried
salt tends to rise unevenly. Whatever oil is
as evidenced by the presence of limestone and
generated inside the sediments is a trap where
shale during or after the process of depletion. The
sandstones are pushed either upward or alongside
geological activity causes the sediments to bend.
the salt.
After the sediments are folded, the sandstone will
be 100% water saturated after millions of years.
1.1. Anticlinal Traps │
Hydrocarbons generated in the source rocks are
forced down the fold, and because hydrocarbons
Anticlines are The most popular structural traps.
are less dense than water, they start to move
Can be termed "Simple fold traps" with axial
upwards, which causes the heavier water to move
culmination (Pattanan Thamrujikul).
down. When it migrates to the top, the pressure
Anticline is an area of the subsurface where the
drops at some point in the migration. The
strata have been pushed into creating a domed
pressure of the reservoir fluid may be equal to
figure. Hydrocarbons can collect at the peak until
the pressure of the original hydrocarbon
the anticline is filled to the spill point - the top
compositional bubble point. From this point the
point where hydrocarbons can escape the
gas is released from the hydrocarbons. Since the
anticline when there is a stratum of impermeable
gas is much less dense than oil and liquid, it will
rock existent in dome figure. For the
migrate more quickly than towards the top of the
hydrocarbon industry This sort of trap is by far
anticlinal trap.
the most important. Anticline traps are mostly
long oval domes of land that can often be seen by
observing at a geological map or by flying above
the land and Can be discovered by seismic.
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About the climate. The shale provides the requisite 1.2. Fault Traps │
seal, resulting in the presence of the hydrocarbon
reservoir, since faulting occurred. In this case, if The next type of structural trap is the fault trap.
slippage had existed to a greater degree, the fault These are formed by the movement of permeable
would have flowed through the permeable and impermeable layers of rock along a fault line.
sandstone. The hydrocarbon was lost to the The permeable reservoir rock faults such that it is
surface and no reservoir was created. This situation now adjacent to an impermeable rock, preventing
represent the consequence of geologic probability. hydrocarbons from further migration. In some
What is the likelihood that the relative motion cases, there can be an impermeable material
through the fault would have resulted in a smeared along the fault line (for example clay) that
reservoir seal being formed? Geologic events must also acts to avoid migration. This is known as clay
happen in the correct sequence, resulting in the smear. Fault traps are popular in the North Sea
proper geologic circumstances for a reservoir to Basin between Norway and Britain.
exist.
A perfect example of the importance of this natural
opportunity is the hydrocarbon environment in the
North Sea.
Less than 10 percent of the hydrocarbons
produced in the North Sea's source rock are
estimated to have been trapped. Over 90% of the
hydrocarbon was lost to the surface in geologic
time and dissipated into the environment since
traps were not present. Owing to the complexities
of geology, fault traps that contribute to the
creation of hydrocarbon reservoirs are also difficult Fault implies cracking of rock and relative motion
to describe. through the fracture surface. Consider a possible
succession of geologic events that, in geologic
time, . Sedimentary beds are accumulate in a
1.3. Salt dome trap │ water environment, as shown by the presence of
shale’s and limestone’s. During or after
A hotspot of active fluid exchange. Salt dome traps lithification, geologic events result in raise of these
are formed as a result of the movement of masses original horizontal sediments, and fracturing and
of salt or mud upward, and clay domes are rare, tilting above sea level, so that the surface rocks are
but salt domes are a widespread geological exposed to erosion. During raise, the rocks are
phenomenon, and they are formed as a result of fractured and slippage happens along the fault
the difference in the densities of salt and the .plane
sediment layer above it, so salt is less dense, and This brings the shale across the fault so that it
then it is pushed upward, and causes The .closures the tilted sandstone below the fault
sedimentary layers above it dominate, and if Years ago, hydrocarbon created in its source rock
petroleum is found in them, it moves towards the down elevation from the fault is forced into the
outer sides of the salt layer, and is confined .connate water-saturated sandstone
between the sedimentary layers on one side and Since the hydrocarbon is fewer dense than the
the salt dome on the other side. The irregular water, it will migrate up elevation, displacing the
growth of salt domes leads to the formation of .heavier water down elevation
several successive and varied traps, as in the This upward migration will endure until it reaches
Dammam field. The most important reasons for the the fault and is surrounded by the impermeable
formation of salt domes traps are the outpouring shale. If the faulting had not happened, the
of gases associated with volcanic activity, which hydrocarbon would have sustained to migrate
rising until it was degenerate at the surface into.
 UNIVERSITY OF BASRA 4

results in the precipitation of salts from aqueous

solutions, then the eruption of salt masses to the
top, or the rise of hot salt solutions to the top
through weak gaps in the layers, then their
temperature gradually decreases causing the
precipitation of salt And its quantity and size
gradually increased, as a result of the continuous
processes of cooling and crystallization, which
leads to the penetration of the salt domes of the
sedimentary layers above and penetration into
them.

The process by which local domes are formed is

not fully understood, as geologists believe that
they are composed of gravitational forces, tectonic
forces, or a combination of these two forces. In the
first case, the light rocks are superimposed by
more reliable rocks, and the light rocks rise up to
the surface. Tectonic forces may replace moving
materials as they are compressed by a less moving
material. Salt domes are found in areas under
which salt deposits form. When the layers become
unstable, the salt flows upward (1,2), forming a salt
plug. A layer of limestone and anhydrite may form
over the salt plug (3). The layers displaced by the Salt dome use
rock cover are subject to cracking Salt domes remained anonymous until they were
discovered in the early 20th century in Beaumont,
Texas. Oil exploration began on the top of a hill
that was actually a bulge in a salt dome. A large
pocket of oil was penetrated at a depth of 1000
feet and the oil flooded the ground surrounding
the oil due to the high internal pressure. This was a
drive to engage geologists in the search for oil
through plotting and the use of seismic equipment.
Later it was discovered that the Salt Dome served
as a trap for oil and natural gas, in addition to
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Models of
structural traps │
1. Crests of titled blocks :-

They are more common in the Gulf, and they

contain large and known accumulations of oil.
Reservoirs are found either in the Pre-Rift Range
3. Hanging wall of synthetic faults:- (Cretaceous, Eocene) or in the Lower Miocene. For
this type of structural trap related to the top of the
This is a possible example of a structural trap in the titled block, it is necessary to add horst-like
Gulf, but no hydrocarbon accumulations have been features that correspond to the tops of the finite
discovered so far. This type of catcher forms in a block on its named side (homogeneous flank) due
cracked chamber along the homogeneous line side to artificial faults.
of the titrated blocks. The blocking mechanism is
the function of throwing an artificial fault. It should
be sufficient to completely replace the reservoirs
through the fault that is in a position favorable to
the transport of hydrocarbons. These traps contain
very large accumulations and should be a target on
future exploration rides.

2. Down -faulted wedges:-

These are down —faulted compartments bounding

major longitudinal faults. Trapping possibilities in
the pre-rift or lower Miocene series are controlled
by the dip of the strata; should the dips be
4. Draping over- fault boundaries:- opposite to the fault, the down –faulted block may
be a good trap. Conversely, if the dip of the strata
These features which are formed by differential and the fault are in the same direction, the pit
compression of sediments over the tops of the would be determined by the sealing properties of
blocks, are common in synchronous formations. the fault. Overall, this sealing quality is low because
The wings are steeper inward, and the structure of the clysmic fault's almost constant operation
usually dies off in younger sediments. Symmetric from the beginning of the Miocene to the present
counter lines are less common than asymmetric day. These traps' technical complexity is attributed
lines above faulted height to dip-slip gliding down the fault scarp. While no oil
with hinge- line or associated flexure. Several pools have been documented producing from
examples of such traps can be documented. them in the Gulf, these subtle trapping processes
are exemplified in surface geology. However, their
exploration is difficult due to the quality of seismic
at depth.
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5. Twist zones:-

It can be defined as the flat lying areas between

two graben or two Horst. They are not properly
structured traps but can have favorable odds when
combined with stratigraphic faults or transverse
faults. These delicate traps should be explored
carefully in (South Ramadan Field)

6. Roll-over folds:-

These traps are configured by dip-slip suspended

wall for large fault faults along the fault scrap.
Many examples can be recognized in the Gulf of
Suez, but they are in deep horizons, and it is
unlikely that mucin reservoirs exist. This type of
structure must be distinguished from rolling folds
related to incompatibility of evaporators.
UNIVERSITY OF BASRA 7

stratigraphic trap │
environment. There are several well-defined
types of sand bodies that form traps in many
places. Canal sand forms traps surrounded by
shale rock in many locations in the middle of
Traps are formed when the tank layer is sealed by
the continent and mountain rocks. These
other layers or by changing the porosity or
sediments have a limited lateral range but may
permeability within the tank layer itself. There are
continue linearly for several miles of
many types of stratigraphic traps. In a type of type,
production. Delta reservoir traps consist of
a sloping rocky layer is cut from the rocks that
channels surrounded by floods and swamp
contain petroleum by means of a horizontal
sediments. Traps of this type have been
impermeable rock layer. Sometimes the oil
developed on the coasts of the Gulf. Delta
formation is reduced, meaning the formation is
deposits are found largely at the continental
gradually cut off by an upper layer. Another
margins where rapid sediment progression
stratified trap occurs when the reservoir layer is
occurs.
porous and the permeable layer is surrounded by
impermeable rocks. Still another type is formed
The shore trap is a slightly narrow linear
when there is a change in the porosity and
deposits that turns into traps when
permeability of the tank. The upper reaches of the
surrounding by shale. These occur in the
tank may be impermeable and non-porous while
geological column of the Gulf Coast where
the lower reaches are permeable and porous and
they are formed under ambient conditions.
contain hydrocarbons.
Changes in porosity and permeability can be
caused by a variety of sedimentary and
evolution factors. Sandstone loses its
permeability because it slides sideways to the
shale. The soft crystalline limestone becomes
significantly more permeable when
dolomized.. Often a trap develops where sand
completely loses its permeability through
either no sedimentation or erosion. Traps in
dolomite are often closed by contact with
impermeable limestone. Wherever the
permeability of reservoir rocks to any of the
stony stones decreases, the possibility of a
trap is clear. This can occur as a result of
There are two main groups of the
changes in facies, erosion, or non-deposition. stratigraphic traps :-

• primary stratigraphic traps result from

variation of the facies formed during
sedimentation. These include features such as
lenses, appropriate changes to facies
• Secondary stratigraphic traps result
from variations that occur after sedimentation,
due to diagenesis. These include differences
due to improved porosity by dissolution or loss
by cementation. Sand body traps are limited
due to the different types of traps. Some of
these traps are modifications of each other
due to changes in the sedimentation
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3. Traps formed by digenetic processes:- 1. The traps are formed by a sedimentary

Mineral precipitation tends to reduce reservoir pinchout:-
quality. In unusual conditions , porosity impairment from the trap to the bottom of the system path.
may be so severe that it is destroyed completely. Each depositional environment is capable of
Such tight rocks act as seals and trap petroleum. producing the juxtaposition of permeable and
Mineral cements are known to form top, lateral, impermeable sediments that may someday form a
and even bottom seals to reservoirs. Examples in stratified petroleum trap. In practice, reservoir
carbonate systems are more numerous than those engineering becomes trap engineering. Such as
in elastic systems. Aeolian dunes covered with mudstone, river
channels filled with sand cut into mud rich in
sediments, shallow marine sandstones surrounded
by marine shale rocks, carbon reefs isolated by

Models of confining marl, submerged fan sand confined

within the surface mud field.

stratigraphic traps │
a) Truncation below unconformity
a lot of examples of shortness traps are
recognized in the Gulf, in pre- rift strata or
Miocene sediment (Rudeis sandstones cut by intra-
Miocene unconformities). Examples are shown in
the RasGhan'b and July Fields. Fig(c)

b) On-lap pinch-out
This mostly occurs where the Nukhul sandstones 2. Traps formed by unconformities:-
are overlain by the transgressive Globigerina
Attenuation of the up dip portions of potential
shales, on the sides of titled blocks. Fig(c)
reservoir interval by an unconformity can create
massive traps with huge petroleum .
catchments areas. Most of the unconformity traps
described above depends on a combination of
c) Up-dip pinch-out of sand lenses trapping mechanisms, which in large part on a
They are common in the sand bodies developed planar or gently folded unconformity.
generally in the lower Miocene Kareem and Rudies Unconformities in a variety of the shapes.
formation generally It is noteworthy that such sand
bodies are generally developed at their best on the
sides rather than the crests of blocks. Fig(c)
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Stratigraphic pit d) Reefal buildups over block crests

prospecting │ On the crests of some blocks that remained high
during Miocene deposition, carbonate reefs
formed. They generally have good petrophysical
Many stratigraphic traps are related directly to
properties
their respective environments of deposition. An
related to secondary diagenesis such as
understanding of the depositional environment is
dolomitization, and fracturing. Fig(c)
essential to successful prospecting for oil or gas in
this type of reservoir. Isopach studies of shale
sequences directly above, or both above and
e) Weathered and fractured
below, a lenticular reservoir sandstone are of basement
important value. The thickness variations of such
shale intervals, They are totally independent of Some block crests were exposed to erosion during
today's structural configuration, either directly the first phases of rifting make smooth weathering
above or embracing a reservoir sandstone. Such and fracturing of the basement. These rocks may
genetic sequences are mapped by Isopach as contain oil collection. Fig(c)
practical markers for the position of some
lenticular sands. From such studies, deposition
patterns of beach sands, strike valley sands, and
offshore bars are easily determined. Structure
charts, built over an arbitrarily chosen genetic
period on a valid time marker, serve as a means of
locating the concentration of oil or gas within each
of these types of reservoirs. Electrical log data is
important in all such studies, because such genetic
sequences are rarely called formation units. The
greater the need for correct collection of
correlation points on electrical records, the thinner
the genetic sequence .
Reservoirs in the Delta are poorly known and
scarcely Acknowledged by the geologist.
Nevertheless, this type of reservoir in the
sedimentary section is abundantly preserved. A
prerequisite for the creation of meaningful
Fig(c)
exploration maps of this type of reservoir is the
regional Isopach depositional environment studies.
It is also important to understand the patterns of
distribution fingers and the effect of differential
compaction in the development of drape
structures.
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Locating promising
Stratigraphic pinch-out style
Problems While stratigraphic traps in
Drilling │ Iraq, New Meaning │
You can find a generating reservoir very close to Pinch-out style stratigraphic traps can lead to
the surface when you drill. But several other things prolific petroleum locations in Iraq. The key task of
may happen: you may dig into a reservoir that has the paper was the identification of their predicted
been exhausted by another well (all the oil and gas positions, width, and geometry. To evaluate the
removed). There could be a new Between two well sequence of sedimentary cycles of the stratigraphic
infill reservoir that could be built with a third well. trap, a new proposed and established method is
Or an incompletely drained one. Maybe if you drill suggested. The gradient and absolute second
a little deeper, you might reach a deeper reservoir horizontal gradient methods have impressive
in the tub! You might can back up and create a parameters for distinguishing the pinch-out
Bypassed Share. When preparing a new well, the structure position even more accurately from that
petroleum geologist has to think about all these of the analytical signal. In detail, the mathematical
things! (qaradaxe, 2017). definition of the system used is introduced and
evaluated using a new programmed Excel Separate
Sheet template. The precise geometry of the pinch-
out structure is determined by a new concept for
constraint modeling. Several suggested profiles are
taken as anticipated positions for the stratigraphic
traps across the Mesopotamian flank and within
Mesopotamia. The method could also establish the
sequence positions for the pinch-out structure of
the sedimentary cycles. This study's recognition
findings will direct seismic exploration and affirm
its interpretations and give new significance to the
gravity data interpretation (Al-Rahim, 2011)
 UNIVERSITY OF BASRA 11

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Pattanan Thamrujikul PETROLEUM GEOLOGY - CHULALONGKORN UNIVERSITY

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