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Active Filters Theory and Design Páginas 10 11 PDF

1. Filters are circuits designed to pass or attenuate specific frequency bands. Active filters contain operational amplifiers in addition to resistors and capacitors. Filters can be used to remove noise from signals by passing the desired signal band and attenuating noise outside that band. 2. The transfer function describes a filter's frequency response by relating the output and input signals in the frequency domain. It allows analysis and design of filters based on algebraic equations. The four basic filter types are low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, and band-stop. 3. Low-pass filters pass low frequencies and attenuate frequencies above the cutoff frequency. The ideal response is not physically possible, so approximations are used that still meet

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181 views2 pages

Active Filters Theory and Design Páginas 10 11 PDF

1. Filters are circuits designed to pass or attenuate specific frequency bands. Active filters contain operational amplifiers in addition to resistors and capacitors. Filters can be used to remove noise from signals by passing the desired signal band and attenuating noise outside that band. 2. The transfer function describes a filter's frequency response by relating the output and input signals in the frequency domain. It allows analysis and design of filters based on algebraic equations. The four basic filter types are low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, and band-stop. 3. Low-pass filters pass low frequencies and attenuate frequencies above the cutoff frequency. The ideal response is not physically possible, so approximations are used that still meet

Uploaded by

Laura Benita Alvarado Cruz
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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1 Introduction

1.1 FILTERS AND SIGNALS


A filter is a circuit that is designed to pass a specified band of frequencies while
attenuating all signals outside this band. Filter networks may be either active or
passive. Passive filter networks contain only resistors, inductors, and capacitors.
Active filters, which are the only type covered in this text, employ operational
amplifiers (op-amps) as well as resistors and capacitors.
The output from most biological measuring systems is generally separable into signal
and noise. The signal is that part of the data in which the observer is interested; the rest
may be considered noise. This noise includes unwanted biological data and nonbiological
interference picked up by or generated in the measuring equipment. Ideally, we would
like to remove it while retaining the signal, and often this is possible by suitable filtration.
If the spectra of signal and noise occupy completely separate frequency ranges,
then a filter may be used to suppress the noise (Figure 1.1).
As filters are defined by their frequency-domain effects on signals, it makes
sense that the most useful analytical and graphical descriptions of filters also fall
under the frequency domain. Thus, curves of gain versus frequency and phase versus
frequency are commonly used to illustrate filter characteristics, and most widely
used mathematical tools are based on the frequency domain.
The frequency-domain behavior of a filter is described mathematically in terms
of its transfer function or network function. This is the ratio of the Laplace
transforms of its output and input signals. The voltage transfer function of a filter
can therefore be written as

V0 (s)
H (s ) = (1.1)
Vi (s)

where s is the complex frequency variable.


The Laplace transform approach to the filter analysis allows the designer to work
with algebraic equations in the frequency domain. These are relatively easy to
interpret by observation. In contrast, a time-domain approach to filter mathematics
results in complex differential equations that are usually far more difficult to manip-
ulate and interpret.
The transfer function defines the filter’s response to any arbitrary input signals,
but we are most often concerned with its effect on continuous sine waves, especially
the magnitude of the transfer function to signals at various frequencies. Knowing
the transfer function magnitude (or gain) at each frequency allows us to determine
how well the filter can distinguish between signals at different frequencies. The

1
2 Active Filters: Theory and Design

A A

Filter
Vi Vo
dB

dB
f1 f2 f f1 f2 f

FIGURE 1.1 Using a filter to reduce the effect of an undesired signal.

transfer function magnitude versus frequency is called the amplitude response or


sometimes, especially in audio applications, the frequency response.
Similarly, the phase response of the filter gives the amount of phase shift
introduced in sinusoidal signals as a function of frequency. Because a change in
phase of a signal also represents a change in time, the phase characteristics of a
filter become especially important when dealing with complex signals in which the
time relationships between different frequencies are critical.
By replacing the variables s in equation (1.1) with jw, where j = −1 , and w is the
radian frequency (2p f ), we can find the filter’s effect on the magnitude and phase of
the input signal. The magnitude is found by making the absolute value of Equation (1.1):

V0 ( jω )
H ( jω ) = (1.2)
Vi ( jω )

or

A = 20 log H ( jω ) in dB (1.3)

and the phase is

V0 ( jω )
arg H ( jω ) = arg (1.4)
Vi ( jω )

1.2 BASIC FILTER TYPES


There are four basic filter types:

1. The first type is the low-pass filter (LPF). As might be expected, an LPF
passes low-frequency signals, and rejects signals at frequencies above the
filter’s cutoff frequency (Figure 1.2.). The ideal filter has a rectangular shape,
indicating that the boundary between the passband and the stopband is abrupt
and that the rolloff slope is infinitely steep. This type of response is ideal
because it allows us to completely separate signals at different frequencies
from one another. Unfortunately, such an amplitude response curve is not
physically realizable. We will have to settle for the approximation that will
still meet our requirements for a given application. Deciding on the best

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