module15-syn_seq_view.

htm; updated July 8, 2013; Some figures shown in these notes are from Oracle document
D11321GC11.  Ref: Oracle® Database Administrator's Guide 11g Release 2 (11.2) E25494-03
 

Module 15 – Synonyms, Sequences and Views

 
Objectives
 
Create and drop synonyms and public synonyms.
Create sequences.
Generate values from sequences and use them to store rows to data tables.
Create, alter, and drop views. 
Create JOIN views.
Learn the advantages associated with views.
 
Synonyms
 
Facts about Synonyms
 
Synonyms are a form of database shorthand.
 
Synonyms allow the specification of a short reference name for a long, complex
object name, e.g. sys.dba_tablespaces may be shortened to tabspaces by
creating a synonym named tabspaces.
 
Synonyms allow access to other databases on other nodes of a distributed
database network that is transparent to the system user.
 
Normally only private synonyms are created by system users – public
synonyms are created by database administrators.
 
CREATE SYNONYM Command
 
The syntax for the CREATE SYNONYM command is:
 
CREATE [PUBLIC] SYNONYM Tabspaces FOR sys.dba_tablespaces;
 
In order to create a private synonym you must have the CREATE
SYNONYM privilege.
 
Normally, only the owner of an object (such as a table) can create a synonym.
 
Individuals with the CREATE PUBLIC SYNONYM privilege can also create
synonyms for objects in other schemas.  Example:
 
CREATE SYNONYM Eq FOR dbock.equipment;
 
Synonym created.
 
Public synonyms must be unique names – for this reason DBAs tend to discourage
the creation of public synonyms.  The CREATE PUBLIC SYNONYM privilege will
usually not be granted to regular system users.
 
Using Synonyms
 
Private synonyms (your schema) and public synonyms can be used in DML
statements if you have the necessary privileges to access the underlying objects.
 
Example:
        A synonym named PROD is created for the table named PRODUCT.
        You have SELECT and INSERT privileges for the table PRODUCT.
        You can use the synonym PROD to both SELECT and INSERT rows from the
table.
 
CREATE SYNONYM prod FOR dbock.product;
 
Synonym created.
 
INSERT INTO prod VALUES ('4','Ornate
Desk',1000.99,599.99,459.55);
 
1 row created.
 
COLUMN retail_price FORMAT 99999.99;
COLUMN wholesale_price FORMAT 99999.99;
COLUMN sale_price FORMAT 99999.99;
SELECT * FROM prod;
 
PRODUCT_NU DESCRIPTION          RETAIL_PRICE WHOLESALE_PRICE
SALE_PRICE
---------- -------------------- ------------ ---------------
----------
1          Large
Desk                 599.95          240.52     276.60
2          Small
Desk                 429.95          120.00     138.00
3          Tiny
Desk                  100.50           14.75      16.96
4          Ornate
Desk               1000.99          599.99     459.55
 
Example:
        The user named Susan has SELECT but not INSERT privileges
on PRODUCT.
        Susan selects from DBOCK.PROD and the select executes.
        Susan attempts to insert a row into DBOCK.PROD by use of the synonym,
and the INSERT fails because of insufficient privileges.
 
GRANT SELECT ON product TO susan;
 
CONN SUSAN/pa$$w0rd;
 
SELECT * FROM dbock.prod;
 
PRODUCT_NU DESCRIPTION          RETAIL_PRICE WHOLESALE_PRICE
SALE_PRICE
---------- -------------------- ------------ ---------------
----------
1          Large
Desk                 599.95          240.52     276.60
2          Small
Desk                 429.95          120.00     138.00
3          Tiny
Desk                  100.50           14.75      16.96
4          Ornate
Desk               1000.99          599.99     459.55
 
INSERT INTO dbock.prod VALUES ('5','Cheap Desk',50.11, 25.01,
12.15);
 
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-01031: insufficient privileges
 
Altering and Dropping Synonyms
 
Synonyms cannot be altered
 
Use the DROP command to drop a synonym.  Example:
 
DROP [PUBLIC] SYNONYM Eq; 
 
 
 Sequences
 
Facts About Sequences
 
Sequences are special database objects used to generate numbers in sequential
order, typically to be stored as values in data rows for a data table.
 
Primary use:  To generate unique key values for tables that can be used to link to
other tables or that will serve as primary keys (sequence generated primary keys
are termed surrogate keys). 
 
Example:  Use a Order_Number_Sequence for a TestOrders table where the
value of the Order_Number_Sequence must be unique and in numerical
sequence.
 
CREATE SEQUENCE Command
 
This example shows the syntax for the CREATE SEQUENCE command.  

CREATE SEQUENCE Order_Number_Sequence 

    INCREMENT BY 1 
    START WITH 1 
    MAXVALUE 99999999 (or NOMAXVALUE) 
    MINVALUE 1 (or NOMINVALUE) 
    CYCLE (or NOCYCLE - the default) 
    CACHE n (or NOCACHE) 
    ORDER (or NOORDER);
 
INCREMENT BY defaults to a value of 1. 
        Specifying a positive number increment will generate ascending sequence
numbers with an interval equal to the value you select. 
        Specifying a negative number will generate descending sequence numbers.
 
START WITH is the starting number for the sequence. 
        The default for START WITH is MAXVALUE for a descending sequence
and MINVALUE for an ascending sequence. 
        START WITH overrides the default value.
 
MINVALUE is the lowest sequence number generated.  MIN VALUE and START
WITH default to 1 for ascending sequences.
 
MAXVALUE is the largest sequence number generated. 
         For descending sequences, it defaults to -1.
        To allow unlimited sequence number generation only use MINVALUE for
ascending and MAXVALUE for descending sequences.
        Specifying a limit with MINVALUE or MAXVALUE will force an error when an
attempt is made to generate a number exceeding the limit and when you have
specified NOCYCLE.
 
CYCLE causes automatic cycling to start a sequence over once the MAXVALUE for
an ascending sequence or MINVALUE for a descending sequence is reached. The
default MAXVALUE is 10e27 - 1 (a very large number).
 
CACHE is an option to cache (preallocate) the specified number of sequence
values into buffers in the SGA.
        This speeds access, but loses the cached numbers if the database is shut
down.
        The default value for cached numbers is 20 if you do not specify NOCACHE.
        When the last cached number is used, a new set is created into cache.
 
ORDER forces sequence numbers to be output in order, and is usually used where
the sequence number is used for time stamping.
 
Example Create Sequence:
 
CREATE SEQUENCE Order_Number_Sequence 
    INCREMENT BY 1 
    START WITH 1 
    MAXVALUE 999 
    MINVALUE 1 
    CYCLE 
    CACHE 5 
    ORDER;
 
Sequence created.
 
 
Using Sequences
 
In order to use a sequence, you must first generate the initial sequence number by
using the NEXTVAL option. 
 
An example using NEXTVAL:
        Insert one row into TestOrders.
 
INSERT INTO TestOrders (OrderID, OrderDate, Order_Amount) 
    VALUES (Order_Number_Sequence.NEXTVAL, SYSDATE, 100.42 );
 
1 row created.
 
        Display the data rows from TestOrders – note the first data row was added
during an earlier lab assignment.  The second data row added today by using
the sequence.
 
SELECT * FROM TestOrders;
 
   ORDERID ORDERDATE ORDER_AMOUNT
---------- --------- ------------
       111 23-JUN-13        75.95
         1 08-JUL-13       100.42
 
The CURRVAL option returns the current sequence number, but will not
execute unless the sequence has been called at least one time using
the NEXTVALoption.
 
CURRVAL is used instead of NEXTVAL to use the same sequence number more
than once, for example, when you are inserting rows into a related table where
referential integrity must be enforced.  You can use CURRVAL as often as desired
within a statement and the same number is returned.
 
An example using CURRVAL:
        Insert one row into TestOrders.
 
INSERT INTO TestOrderDetails (ProductID, OrderID,
Quantity_Ordered, ItemPrice)
    VALUES(14985, Order_Number_Sequence.CURRVAL, 2, 50.21);
 
1 row created.
 
        Display the data rows from TestOrderDetails – note the first two data rows
were added during an earlier lab assignment.  The third data row was added
today by using the sequence.
 
SELECT * FROM TestOrderDetails;
 
PRODUCTID    ORDERID QUANTITY_ORDERED  ITEMPRICE
---------- ---------- ---------------- ----------
     55555        111                1         50
     66666        111                1      25.95
     14985          1                2      50.21
 
 
If you use NEXTVAL and CURRVAL in the same SQL statement, both of these
values will be the value retrieved by NEXTVAL.
 
You cannot use NEXTVAL or CURRVAL in subqueries as columns in a SELECT
clause where you use DISTINCT, UNION, INTERSECT, or MINUS or in ORDER
BY, GROUP BY, or HAVING clauses.
 
How does the DBMS keep sequence numbers under control?:
        A sequence number generated is only available to the session that generated
the number.
        Other users referencing the Order_Number_Sequence.NEXTVAL will obtain
unique values.
        Concurrent access to a sequence will result in each user receiving different
sequence numbers.
        Gaps may occur in sequence numbers received for use since other users
may access the same sequence.
 
Within a single statement, a reference to NEXTVAL will first generate the next
number from the sequence, and then all other references within the statement
return the same sequence number.
 
Restrictions on using CURRVAL and NEXTVAL
 
CURRVAL and NEXTVAL can be used in the following places:
        VALUES clause of INSERT statements
        The SELECT list of a SELECT statement
        The SET clause of an UPDATE statement
 
CURRVAL and NEXTVAL cannot be used in these places:
        A subquery
        A view query or materialized view query
        A SELECT statement with the DISTINCT operator
        A SELECT statement with a GROUP BY or ORDER BY clause
        A SELECT statement that is combined with another SELECT statement with
the UNION, INTERSECT, or MINUS set operator
        The WHERE clause of a SELECT statement
        DEFAULT value of a column in a CREATE TABLE or ALTER TABLE
statement
        The condition of a CHECK constraint
 
Caching Sequence Numbers
 
When sequence values are "read" they are stored to the sequence cache in the
SGA.  You want these values to be accessible quickly.
 
Example:  This example creates a sequence with a cache of 40 values.
 
CREATE SEQUENCE Product_Number_Seq
    CACHE 40;
 
After these values are used, value #41 through #80 are next generated and stored.
 
Choose a high value for CACHE to result in fewer reads from disk to the sequence
cache, recognizing that in an instance failure some sequence values are likely to be
lost.
 
Example:  This example creates a sequence with no cached values.
 
CREATE SEQUENCE Product_Number_Seq2
    NOCACHE;
 
 
Altering and Dropping Sequences
 
Use the ALTER SEQUENCE command to alter a sequence. 
        The syntax is like that shown for the CREATE SEQUENCE command.
        Most parameters may be altered, but only future sequence numbers are
affected.
        You cannot alter the START WITH clause without dropping and recreating the
sequence.
 
Use the DROP SEQUENCE Sequence_Name command to drop a
sequence.  Example: 
 
DROP SEQUENCE Product_Number_Seq2;
 
Sequence dropped.
 
Caution:  If you have created a trigger or procedure that references a sequence,
the trigger/procedure will fail if the sequence is dropped.
 
 Views
 
Facts about Views
 
Views are virtual tables – that is, they are a logical representation of a collection of
columns from one or more (related) base tables, materialized views, or
other views.  Views are defined in a way such that they make it easier for a user to
access needed information from a database.
 
Example:  A salesperson is accustomed to viewing sales orders according to the
traditional sales order form that the firm uses.
        In most firms, the data required to produce a complete sales order requires
data from the CUSTOMERS, ORDERS, ORDER_DETAILS,
and PRODUCTStables.
        Creating a view of the data from these tables provides the customer a single
"object" with which to process information about a sales order.
        Views are selected (queried) just like a table.
 
As another example, consider the "tables" you access that comprise the data
dictionary.  Most of these are actually views of the data.
 
 
Advantages of Views
 
        Views don't exist until they are queried except as specification statements
stored in the database's data dictionary. 
        Views do NOT actually store any data (exception: a materialized view stores
data that is not updated routinely).
        Views are efficient unless views are stacked, i.e. one view references
another view - then performance problems can occur.
        Views allow the designer to restrict access to specific columns within a table
or tables.
        Views can provide derived column values (calculated fields) that are not
normally stored as part of tables, and display the derived column data along
with actual data.
        Views can filter data.
        Depending on how views are constructed, inserts and deletions can be
accomplished by using views, or data manipulation for views may be restricted
to simply selecting data.
 
CREATE VIEW Command
 
The general CREATE VIEW syntax is shown here
 
CREATE VIEW View_Name 
        (Column#1-Alias, Column#2-Alias, . . . ) 
    AS 
    SELECT Table1.Column1, Table1.Column2, 
           Table2.Column1, Table2.Column2, . . . 
      FROM Table1, Table2, . . .  
     WHERE Condition1, Condition2, . . . ;
 
The specification of Column Alias Names is optional.  This is usually done in order
to provide the system user with column names that are meaningful to them
according to the terminology they use when performing their jobs.
 
View privileges:
        To create a view in your schema you need the CREATE VIEW system
privilege.
        To create a view in another schema you need the CREATE ANY
VIEW system privilege.
        Both of these privileges may be acquired through roles or can be granted to
you explicitly.
        A view owner must have been granted explicit privileges to access all objects
referenced in a view definition – these privileges cannot be obtained through
roles.
        For a view owner to grant view access to others the owner must have
received object privileges on the base objects with the GRANT OPTION or the
system privileges with the ADMIN OPTION.
 
Example:
        User1 has the SELECT and INSERT privileges for the Employee table
owned by User2. 
        Any view on the Employee table created by User1 can only
support SELECT and INSERT operations. 
        DELETE and UPDATE operations are not supported.
 
 
Example Create View:
 
This example uses the Product table in the DBOCK schema.  Here is a description
of the table.
 
DESC Product;
 
 Name                 Null?    Type
 -------------------- -------- --------------
 PRODUCT_NUMBER       NOT NULL CHAR(10)
 DESCRIPTION          NOT NULL VARCHAR2(20)
 RETAIL_PRICE                  NUMBER(8,2)
 WHOLESALE_PRICE               NUMBER(8,2)
 SALE_PRICE                    NUMBER(8,2)
 
A SELECT statement displays three of the columns from the table.
 
COLUMN Product_Number FORMAT A14;
COLUMN Description FORMAT A25;
COLUMN Sale_Price FORMAT 99,999.99;
SELECT Product_Number, Description, Sale_Price
FROM Product;
 
PRODUCT_NUMBER DESCRIPTION               SALE_PRICE
-------------- ------------------------- ----------
1              Large Desk                    276.60
2              Small Desk                    138.00
3              Tiny Desk                      16.96
4              Ornate Desk                   459.55
 
A CREATE VIEW statement creates a view named Products_Over100_VW to
display only data for products where the Sale_Price is greater than $100.00.  The
suffix VW clearly identifies this object as a view, although not all IS shops use this
naming convention.
 
CREATE VIEW Products_Over100_VW
    AS
SELECT Product_Number, Description, Sale_Price
FROM Product WHERE Sale_Price > 100
WITH CHECK OPTION CONSTRAINT Product_Sale_Price_CK;
 
View created.
 
You can retrieve data rows from a view using the
standard SELECT statement.  Note that only more expensive products are listed.
 
SELECT * FROM Products_Over100_VW;
 
PRODUCT_NUMBER DESCRIPTION               SALE_PRICE
-------------- ------------------------- ----------
1              Large Desk                    276.60
2              Small Desk                    138.00
4              Ornate Desk                   459.55
 
A check constraint limits INSERT and UPDATE operations against a view such that
only rows that the view can select can be inserted or
updated.  This INSERTcommand updates the underlying Product table.
 
INSERT INTO Products_Over100_VW VALUES ('6', 'Executive Desk',
495.95);
 
1 row created.
 
The rows from the underlying Product table include the new product.  Note that the
new row has no Retail_Price or Wholesale_Price values – they are NULL – values
for these columns were not inserted through the view and there is no default value
for those columns.
 
SELECT * FROM Product;
 
PRODUCT_NUMBER DESCRIPTION               RETAIL_PRICE
WHOLESALE_PRICE SALE_PRICE
-------------- ------------------------- ------------
--------------- ----------
1              Large
Desk                      599.95          240.52     276.60
2              Small
Desk                      429.95          120.00     138.00
3              Tiny
Desk                       100.50           14.75      16.96
4              Ornate
Desk                    1000.99          599.99     459.55
6              Executive
Desk                                             495.95
 
This INSERT command fails to update the underlying Product table because the
command tries to insert a product data row with a Sale_Price value that is less
than $100.  You can try to insert the data row directly into the Product table – the
row will insert.  This demonstrates that a view can be used as a means of enforcing
a very specific data integrity check option constraint.
 
INSERT INTO Products_Over100_VW VALUES ('5', 'Cheap Desk',
95.95);
 
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-01402: view WITH CHECK OPTION where-clause violation
 
 
JOIN Views
 
A JOIN VIEW includes column data from more than one base table.  This example
joins the Course and Section tables created during an earlier lab assignment. 
        The Course_Number and Description columns are in the Course table.
        The other columns are in the Section table.
        Since Course_Number is found in both tables, it is qualified in
the SELECT clause with an alias for the Course table. 
 
CREATE VIEW Course_Section_VW
    AS
SELECT C.Course_Number, Description, Section_Number,
    Section_Term, Section_Year
FROM Course C JOIN Section S
    ON C.Course_Number = S.Course_Number
WHERE Section_Year >= 2013;
 
View created.
 
This selects rows from both the Course, Section, and Course_Section_VW
tables/views.  Can you determine why the view only has two rows?
 
SELECT * FROM Course_Section_VW;
 
 
COURSE_ DESCRIPTION               SECTION_NUMBER SECTIO
SECTION_YEAR
------- ------------------------- -------------- ------
------------
CMIS565 Oracle DBA                        111111
Summer         2013
CMIS565 Oracle DBA                        222222
Fall           2013
CMIS460 Advanced VB Programming           111112
Fall           2013
CMIS460 Advanced VB Programming           111113
Summer         2013
 
SELECT * FROM Course;
 
COURSE_ DESCRIPTION                    HOURS
------- ------------------------- ----------
CMIS460 Advanced VB Programming            3
CMIS565 Oracle DBA                         3
 
SELECT * FROM Section;
 
SECTION_NUMBER SECTIO SECTION_YEAR COURSE_ LOCATION
-------------- ------ ------------ ------- ----------
        111111 Summer         2013 CMIS565 FH-3208
        222222 Fall           2013 CMIS565 FH-3103
        111112 Fall           2013 CMIS460 FH-3208
        111113 Summer         2013 CMIS460 FH-0301
 
Join views are updateable, but there are a number of restrictions regarding updating
this type of view.  For example, only one underlying table can be modified by an
INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE operation.  Rules governing an updateable join view
are covered in detail in the assigned readings and later in this note set.
 
 
Altering and Dropping Views
 
Views are not normally altered unless the underlying base tables or referenced
views change – then the view should be explicitly recompiled. 
        You can alter any view in your schema.
        To alter a view in another schema you need the ALTER ANY TABLE system
privilege to execute an ALTER VIEW command.  Example:
 
ALTER VIEW Course_Section_VW COMPILE;
 
View altered.
 
Use the DROP VIEW command to drop a view that is no longer needed. 
        You can drop any view in your schema.
        To drop a view from another schema you need the DROP ANY VIEW system
privilege.
 
DROP VIEW Course_Section_VW;
 
View dropped.
 
 
There are two ways to replace views:
        Drop and then create the view again.
         Use the CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW command.  Example: 
 
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW Course_Section_VW
    AS
SELECT C.Course_Number, Description, Section_Number,
    Section_Term, Section_Year
FROM Course C JOIN Section S
    ON C.Course_Number = S.Course_Number
WHERE Section_Year >= 2013;
 
 
DML Restrictions on Views
 
When can INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE operations be used for base tables
defined by a view?
 
        A view defined by a SELECT statement that contains
the SET or DISTINCT operators, a GROUP BY clause, or a group function
cannot be used forINSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE operations.
 
        If a view cannot select a row from a base table (due to a WITH CHECK
OPTION), INSERT and UPDATE operations cannot be used through the view
– see the earlier example for the view named Products_Over100_VW.
 
        If a view omits a NOT NULL column (that does not have a DEFAULT clause),
then INSERT operations cannot be used through the view.
 
Example:  Attempt to insert a NULL value for the DESCRIPTION column
fails.
 
INSERT INTO Products_Over100_VW VALUES ('7', NULL, 495.95);
                                          *
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-01400: cannot insert NULL into
("DBOCK"."PRODUCT"."DESCRIPTION")
 
        A view created by using an expression cannot be used
to INSERT or UPDATE rows in a base table.
 
        A join view can be updated, but is limited to updating only one base table
participating in the view.  There are numerous rules regarding updating a join
view.
 o   UPDATE – updatable columns must map to columns of a key-preserved
table – that is a table where the key can also be a key of the virtual table
resulting from the join.
o   DELETE – rows from a  join view can be deleted providing there is only
one key-preserved table in the join – a view created with the WITH
CHECK OPTION clause with a key preserved table that is repeated
cannot have the rows deleted through the view.
o   INSERT – rows inserted cannot reference columns of any non-key-
preserved table.  INSERT operations are not permitted if the join view is
defined with the WITH CHECK OPTION clause.
 
The DBA_UPDATABLE_COLUMNS shows all columns in all tables and views that
are modifiable with DML statements.
 
Example:  The first query shows which columns are updatable from
the Products_Over100_VW view.  Note the use of the Table_Name column name
from theDBA_Updatable_Columns view even though it is a view that is being
evaluated.  The second query evaluates the Course_Section_VW view – it has
columns that are not updatable.
 
SELECT Column_Name, Updatable
FROM DBA_Updatable_Columns
WHERE Table_Name = 'PRODUCTS_OVER100_VW';
 
COLUMN_NAME                    UPD
------------------------------ ---
PRODUCT_NUMBER                 YES
DESCRIPTION                    YES
SALE_PRICE                     YES
 
SELECT Column_Name, Updatable
FROM DBA_Updatable_Columns
WHERE Table_Name = 'COURSE_SECTION_VW';
 
COLUMN_NAME                    UPD
------------------------------ ---
COURSE_NUMBER                  NO
DESCRIPTION                    NO
SECTION_NUMBER                 YES
SECTION_TERM                   YES
SECTION_YEAR                   YES
 
 
END OF NOTES