Chapter 1: Introduction to Comm.

Eng’g

Undergraduate Program
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Outlines
 Introduction to communications
 Key Evolutions in the world of communications
 Basics of communication technologies
 Wireless and Wired technologies
 Elements of communication system
 Channel characteristics
 Mathematical models of a channel
 Signals and systems – Review
 The Hilbert Transform & Bandpass Signals
 Fundamentals of Analog Transmission

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Introduction to Communication Systems
 Any means for transmission of information from one point
to another using electrical systems.
 This should be done
 as efficiently as possible
 with as much fidelity/reliability as possible
 as securely as possible
 Types of communication systems
 Wireline and wireless
 Digital and analog
 Point-to-point and broadcast
 Low frequency and high frequency
 ….
 Examples
 Telephone, cell phone, TV, Internet, …

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Key Evolutions in the world of communications
 Telegraph
 1844, Samuel Morse,
 “What hath God wrought” transmitted by Morse’s
electric telegraph
 Washington D.C ~ Baltimore, Maryland
 Morse code : variable-length code (a dot, a dash, a
letter space, a word space)

 Telephone
 1875, Alexander Graham Bell
 Invented the telephone
 1897, A. B. Strowger
 Devised the autiomatic step-by-step switch
 28 January 1878:
 The first commercial US telephone exchange opened
in New Haven, Connecticut.

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Key Evolutions in the world of communications…
 Radio
 1864, James Clerk Maxwell
 Formulated the electromagnetic theory of light
 Predicted the existence of radio waves
 1887, Heinrich Hertz
 The existence of radio waves was confirmed experimentally
 1894, Oliver Lodge
 Demo : wireless communication over a relatively short distance (150
yards)
 1901, Guglielmo Marconi
 Demo : wireless communication over a long distance (1700 miles)
 1906, Reginald Fessenden
 Conducting the first radio broascast
 1918, Edwin H. Armstrong
 Invented the superheterodyne radio receiver
 1933, Edwin H. Armstrong
 Demonstrated another modulation scheme ( Frequency nodulation)

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Key Evolutions in the world of communications ….
 Electronics
 1904, John Abbrose Eleming
 Invented the vacuum-tube diode
 1906, Lee de Forest
 Invented the vacuum-tube triode
 1948, Walter H. Brattain, William Shockley (Bell Lab.)
 Invented the transistor
 1958, Robert Noyce
 The first silicon integrated circuit (IC) produce

 Television
 1928, Philo T. Farnsworth
 First all-electronic television system
 1929, Vladimir K. Zworykin
 all-electronic television system
 1939, BBC
 Broadcasting television service on a commercial basis

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Key Evolutions in the world of communications ….
 Digital Communications
 1928, Harry Nyquist
 The theory of signal transmission in telegraphy
 1937, Alex Reeves
 Invent pulse-code modulation
 1958, (Bell Lab.)
 First call through a stored-program system
 1960, (Morris, Illinois)
 The first commercial telephone service with digital switching begin.
 1962, (Bell Lab.)
 The first T-1 carrier system transmission was installed
 1943, D. O. North
 Matched filter for the optimum detection of a unknown signal in a
additive white noise
 1948, Claude Shannon
 The theoretical foundation of digital communications were laid

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Key Evolutions in the world of communications ….
 Computer Networks
 1943~1946, (Moore School of Electrical Engineering of the Univ. of
Pennsylvania)
 ENIAC : first electronic digital computer
 1950s
 Computers and terminals started communicating with each other
 1965, Robert Lucky
 Idea of adaptive equalization
 1982, G. Ungerboeck
 Efficient modulation techniques
 1950~1970
 Various studies were made on computer networks
 1971
 Advanced Research Project Agency Network(APRANET) first put into service
 1985,
 APRANET was renamed the Internet
 1990, Tim Berners-Lee
 Proposed a hypermedia software interface to internet (World Wide Web)

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Key Evolutions in the world of communications ….
 Satellite Communications
 1945, C. Clark
 Studied the use of satellite for communications
 1955, John R. Pierce
 Proposed the use of satellite for communications
 1957, (Soviet Union)
 Launched Sputnik I
 1958, (United States)
 Launched Explorer I
 1962, (Bell Lab.)
 Launched Telstar I

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Key Evolutions in the world of communications ….
 Optical Communications
 1966, K.C. Kao, G. A. Hockham
 Proposed the use of a clad glass fiber as a dielectric waveguide
 1959~1960
 The laser had been invented and developed

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Outlines
 Introduction to communications
 Key Evolutions in the world of communications
 Basics of communication technologies
 Wireless and Wired technologies
 Elements of communication system
 Channel characteristics
 Mathematical models of a channel
 Signals and systems – Review
 The Hilbert Transform & Bandpass Signals
 Fundamentals of Analog Transmission

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World of telecommunication

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Wired Communication
 Transmission of data over a wire-based communication
technology
 No mobility
 Reliable and secure data transmission
 speed : Higher upload and download rate

• Telephone Networks:
• Public Switched
Wired Telecommunications Network
Technologies • Digital Subscriber line
• Local Area Network (LAN),
Ethernet
• Cable Television

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Telephone Networks
 Public Switched  Later came Dial-up access over
Telecommunications Network: telephone lines
Telephone Networks designed  Modem converts digital data from
for the transmission of voice-band computer into analog signal to be
Communication sent over telephone line (instead
 Real-time ; Low latency; High of analog voice)
reliability  Telephone system limits
 The service delivered to the end bandwidth to 4kHz (although
copper cable can carry more)
user is called the Plain Old
 Maximum data rate 56kb/s
Telephone Service (POTS) Users
Local

 Features are : Telephone

Exchanges
City Telephone

 Subscribers can be connected by Exchange

entering telephone numbers

 Multiple users connect to a local
Traffic from 1
exchange via copper wires and user

connected in a hierarchy Traffic from all

Traffic from all local exchanges
users connect
to exchange

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 Telephone Networks…
• The need to communicate digital data resulted in the invention of the Digital
Subscriber line (DSL)
• Copper line can actually transmit about 1MHz spectrum and DSL technologies
make use of most of this (except the 4kHz for voice) to provide higher-speed access
to the Internet.
• Digital signals are sent from home (modem) to exchange (multiplexer)

Exchange/Central Office
Customer Premises (e.g. house) Internet

ISP Network

ADSL Modem ADSL Filter

ADSL Multiplexer
(e.g. DSLAM)

Public Switched
Telephone Network

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 Telephone Networks…
• Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL)
• Larger bandwidth (and hence data rate) for downstream (exchange to you)
than upstream (you to exchange) traffic
• ADSL Multiplexers (in exchange) can support larger bandwidths on
transmission
• Well suited to many Internet applications, e.g. web browsing, email
• ADSL can adapt data rate depending on amount of noise on line
• Lower speeds for longer distances and poor quality copper cables
• Key Features:
• Makes use of widely installed telephone network
• Supports basic voice and video applications ADSL Example use of
copper line spectrum
Technology Speed Use
Alternative of
HDSL 1.5Mb/s
T1/E1
Home/
SHDSL 5.6Mb/s
business

VDSL 100Mb/s FTTC

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Wired LAN: thernet
• Operate in a limited geographical area
• Allow multiple access to high-bandwidth media
• Control the network privately under local administrative control
• Provide full time connectivity to local services
• Connect physically adjacent devices
• Provide up to Gbps connectivity
• WLAN, Internet

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Wireless and Mobile Networks

• Wireless means transmitting signals using open space (atmosphere)

• Mobility ; Reachability; Roaming Services

• Advances in wireless technology

• Radio & television broadcasting , Satellite communications, wireless
networking (WiFi, Zegbi, IRFD), cellular technology

• No. wireless (mobile) phone subscribers now exceeds No. wired

phone subscribers

• No. wireless Internet-connected devices equals No. wireline

Internet-connected devices
• laptops, Internet-enabled phones promise anytime untethered Internet
access

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Advantages and Disadvantages of wireless communication

 Advantages:  Disadvantages:
• Mobility • Has security vulnerabilities

• A wireless comm. network • High costs for setting the

is a solution in areas where infrastructure

cables are impossible to • Unlike wired comm.,

install (e.g. hazardous areas, wireless comm. is

long distances etc.) influenced by physical

obstructions, climatic
• Easier to maintain
conditions, interference
from other wireless devices

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Satellite Communication
 The devices using satellite technology to communicate directly with
the orbiting satellite through radio signals.
 Covers a very large area.
 consists of a space segment and a ground segment.

 Types:
 Fixed Services Satellites (FSS)
 Used for point to point communication
 Broadcast Service Satellites (BSS)
 Radio/Tv broadcasting
 Mobile Service Satellites (MSS)
 Satellite Phones

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IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN:WIFI
 The last link with the users is wireless, to give a
network connection to all users in a building or
campus.
 There is a need of an access point that bridges
wireless LAN traffic into the wired LAN.
 The access point (AP) can also act as a repeater
for wireless nodes, effectively doubling the
maximum possible distance between nodes.
 Most wireless LAN products operate in
unlicensed radio bands
o 2.4 GHz is most popular
o Available in most parts of the world
o No need for user licensing

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Applications
 Building-to-building connections
 Video, audio conferencing/streaming video, and audio
 Large file transfers, such as engineering
CAD drawings
 Faster Web access and browsing
 High worker density or high throughput scenarios
 Numerous PCs running graphics-intensive applications

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Wireless Network Technologies…
 IEEE 802.15.1 Wireless Personal Area Network technology
: Bluetooth
 Coverage Area: less than 10 m diameter
 replacement for cables (mouse, keyboard, headphones)
 Ad hoc: No infrastructure
 2.4-2.5 GHz radio band
 Throughput: up to 3Mbps

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 Architecture

• Piconet • Scatternet
• A piconet can have up to eight • A secondary station in one
piconet can be the primary in
stations, one of which is called another piconet
the primary; the rest are called • receive messages from the
primary in the first piconet (as a
secondary's. secondary) and, acting as a
primary, deliver them to
secondary's in the second
piconet.

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Wireless Network Technologies…
 IEEE 802.15.4 for Low-Rate WPAN (LR-WPAN) :
Zigbee
 Low-to-medium bit rates
 Moderate delays without too strict requirements
 Low cost, low energy consumption

 Applications
 Home automation and security systems
 Smart metering
 Wireless data collection

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Cellular Network
 Base stations transmit to and receive from mobiles at the
assigned spectrum
 Multiple base stations use the same spectrum (spectral reuse)
 Each mobile terminal is typically served by the ‘closest’
base stations
 The service area of each base station is called a cell
 Handoff when terminals move

 Applications:
 mobile Internet access;
 voice/video over IP;
 data collection and monitoring

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Cellular Networks
 It is useful to think of cellular Network/telephony in terms of generations:
• 1G: First generation wireless cellular: Early 1980s
 Analog transmission, primarily speech: AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Systems
• 2G: Second generation wireless cellular: Late 1980s --- GSM
 Digital transmission
 Primarily speech and low bit-rate data (9.6 Kbps)
• 2.5G: 2G evolved to medium rate (< 100kbps) data
• 3G: High-speed digital cellular telephony (including video telephony)
 144 kbps - 384 kbps for high-mobility, high coverage
 2 Mbps for low-mobility and low coverage
 WCDMA, HSPA, HSPA+
• 4G : IP-based “anytime, anywhere” voice, data, and multimedia telephony at faster
data rates than 3G --- LTE
• Wireline capability evolution ; Need for additional wireless capacity
• Need for lower cost wireless data delivery
• Competition of other wireless technologies (WiMax)

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With 5G Era
 What we can expect in the 5G era
 Cisco….“By 2025, there will be an estimated 100 billion connected
devices in the industrialized world. Each person will have 10–12
connected devices. ”

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Outlines
 Introduction to communications
 Key Evolutions in the world of communications
 Basics of communication technologies
 Wireless and Wired technologies
 Elements of communication system
 Channel characteristics
 Mathematical models of a channel
 Signals and systems – Review
 The Hilbert Transform & Bandpass Signals
 Fundamentals of Analog Transmission

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 Elements of Communication Systems

• How do you model communication systems ?

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Elements of Communication System
 High-level block diagrams

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Elements of Communication System
 Source
 Generates information (speech, video, text, data, etc. )
 Transducer
 Transforms source output into electrical signal (e.g., microphone)
and back (at Rx end)

 Three major parts

 Transmitter (Tx)
 Channel
 Receiver (Rx)

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Transmitter
 Converts electrical signal into a form suitable for
transmission through the channel (physical medium)
 The transducer output signal cannot, in most cases, be transmitted
directly (does not match the channel)
 Transmitter converts message to a suitable form

 Conversion is made through modulation

 Amplitude (AM), frequency (FM) and phase (PM)
 Examples: AM and FM radio broadcast

 Other functions: Filtering, amplification, radiation

 Intended recipient of the message signal

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Receiver
 Main function: to recover the message from the received
signal
 Somewhat inverse of the transmitter function

 Demodulation: Inverse of the modulation

 Operates in the presence of noise and interference
 Hence, some distortions are unavoidable
 Some other functions: filtering, suppression of noise and
interference

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Transmission Media (Channel)

 Physical medium over which the information will be transmitted

from the transmitter to the receiver
 Characterized by
 Physical properties Bandwidth
 Signaling method(s) Sensitivity to noise

 Wireline channels : a guided medium over which the information

will be transmitted from the transmitter to the receiver
 Wireless Channels: an unguided medium where information
transmission is via electromagnetic waves from antenna to
antenna.

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Selecting the Transmission Media/Channel
 What is amount of traffic to be distributed?
 What is the cost we can afford?
 What is the interference environment?
 Point-to-point or networking usage?
 Capability to transfer power (for instance for repeaters)?
 Often the first selection is done between
 Wired & Wireless
 Often one can consider if digital or analog message is to be transmitted
 analog PSTN takes 300-3400 kHz
 digital PCM takes 64 kbit/s
 digital, encoded GSM speech only 13 kbit/s
 what is the adequate compression level?

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 Wireline channels: Twisted pair
 Comes in two flavors:
 Shielded (STP) / Unshielded (UTP)

STP-cable UTP-cable
•larger attenuation •more sensitive to interference
•higher rates •easy to install and work with
•more expensive •example: 10BaseT Ethernet
structure
 Twisting reduces interference, and crosstalk (antenna-behavior)
 Applications
 Connects data and especially PSTN local loop analog links (Intra-
building telephone from wiring closet to desktop )
 In old installations, loading coils added to improve quality in 3
kHz band, resulting more attenuation at higher frequencies (ADSL
)
 STP used especially in high-speed transmission as in token ring-
networks.
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Twisted pair - UTP categories in LANs
 Category 1: mainly used to carry voice (telephone wiring prior to 1980).
Not certified to carry data of any type.
 Category 2: used to carry data at rates up to 4Mbps. Popular for older
Token-passing ring LANs using 4Mbps specs (IEEE 802.5). Rated
bandwidth 4MHz.
 Category 3: known as voice grade. Used primarily in older Ethernet
10base-T LANs (IEEE 802.3). Certified to carry 10Mbps data. 16Mhz. 3-4
twists/feet.
 Category 4: primarily used for token-based or 10Base-T. 20MHz.
 Category 5: most popular Ethernet cabling category. Capable of carrying
data at rates up to 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet, IEEE 802.3u) and used for 100
base-T and 10base-T networks. Rated to 100 MHz. 3-4 twists/inch.
 …….

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Wireline channels: Coaxial cables
 Mechanics
 Cylindrical braided outer practical structures
conductor surrounds insulated
inner wire conductor Center conductor (copper)
Dielectric material
 Properties Braided outer conductor (metal mesh)
Outer cover
 Well shielded structure ->
immunity to external noise
 High bandwidth, up to Ghz-
range (distance/model)
 Applications
 RG- 59 :CATV (Cable TV
networks)
 RG -58 :Ethernet LANs
 RG – 11 :Earlier a backbone of
PSTN

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Wired channels: Optical Fiber
Source :A. Leon-Garcia, I. Widjaja: Communication Networks (instructors slide set)
Optical Fiber
Electrical Modulator Optical fiber Electrical
Receiver
signal signal

Optical
source

l Light sources (lasers, LEDs) generate pulses of light that are

transmitted on optical fiber
l Very long distances (>1000 km)
l Very high speeds (>40 Gbps/wavelength)
l Nearly error-free (BER of 10-15)
l Profound influence on network architecture
l Dominates long distance transmission
l Distance less of a cost factor in communications
l Plentiful bandwidth for new services

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Optical Fiber Properties

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Channel parameters
 Characterized by
 Attenuation [dB/Km], transfer function
 impedance [Ω], matching
 bandwidth [Hz], data rate
 Noise is the unwanted and beyond our control waves that
attenuates the transmission of signals.
 Shot noise: the electrons are discrete and are not moving in a
continuous steady flow, so the current is randomly fluctuating.
 Thermal noise: caused by the rapid and random motion of electrons
within a conductor due to thermal agitation.
(𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐾𝐵. 𝑇. 𝐵𝑊)
 Interference: cross-talk - leakage power from other users
 Channel parameters are a function of frequency,
transmission length, temperature ...

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Radio (Wireless) Communication Channels

 Unguided electromagnetic wave, radiated by the Tx antenna,

is a carrier of the signal

 Strong signal attenuation

 Up to 200 dB

 Hence, high Tx power is required

 Antennas are required

 Size of antenna: Comparable with wavelength

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What is Radio Spectrum?
 One portion of the entire electromagnetic spectrum whose frequency is
low compared to others such as optical waves, X-rays or Gamma rays
(9Khz -300GHz)
 carry information wirelessly for a vast number of services ranging from television
and radio broadcasting, mobile phones and Wi-Fi to communications systems for
the emergency services, baby monitors, GPS and radar.

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Quiz. 1
 Explain the basic blocks communication system.
 Briefly explain the three advantages of wireless media.

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Electromagnetic Spectrum

 Government regulations make specific ranges of the

electromagnetic spectrum available for communication

 A license is required to operate transmission equipment in

some parts of the spectrum
 Some parts are unlicensed
 Industrial, Scientific, and Medical frequency bands

 Tx output power 1 watt

915 MHz* 2.45 GHz 5.8 GHz

26
100 MHz 150 MHz
MHz
902 928 2.40 2.50 5.725 5.875
MHz MHz GHz GHz GHz GHz
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Radio Wave Propagation Modes
1. Ground Wave Propagation
 Follows contour of the earth Can
Propagate considerable distances
 Frequencies up to 2 MHz
 Example : AM radio
2. Sky Wave Propagation
 Signal reflected from ionized layer of
atmosphere. Signal can travel a
number of hops, back and forth
 Examples SW radio
3. Line-of-Sight Propagation
 Transmitting and receiving antennas
must be within line of sight
 Example: Satellite communication;
Ground communication

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Wireless Link Characteristics …. propagation
 Key characteristic for spectrum is its propagation through a
media.

 Radio signal propagation is

impacted by
 Spreading and attenuation,
absorption, reflection, diffraction,
refraction and interference
 All are frequency dependent
 Different frequencies are best for
different applications

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Wireless Link Characteristics …. propagation
 Lower Frequencies.  Higher Frequencies.
 Generally the “pros” of lower  Generally the “pros” of higher
frequencies are that : frequencies are that they:
 Better propagation, i.e., the
radio waves travel farther.  Allow for greater capacity by
 Better in-building penetration providing more contiguous
(easier to pass through objects bandwidth and have fewer
such as walls with less incumbency issues.
attenuation).  Support frequency reuse
 The main “con” is that the because the radio waves do
ability of the radio waves to not travel as far as lower
travel farther and through frequencies.
objects can be a negative when  The “con” is that to provide the
capacity is the goal (i.e. these same amount of coverage as for
characteristics inhibit spectrum low band spectrum more
reuse) infrastructure must be
. deployed, increasing
infrastructure costs.

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Wireless Link Characteristics …. (Cont.…)

 These factors restrict the

 Range

 Data rate

 Reliability of the wireless transmission.

 The extent to which these factors affect the transmission

depends upon
 The environmental conditions and

 The mobility of the transmitter and receiver

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Goal of Communications Engineer
Transmitted power
Primary Communication Resources
Channel bandwidth
 To design transmitters and receivers that are
 Cost efficient
 Bandwidth efficient
 Maximum information transfer (message at sink is a faithful
representation of the source message)
 Power efficient (uses as little power as necessary)

 Many of the above goals are contrary to one another

 For example, one way to improve message fidelity at the receiver
is to increase transmit power
 Therefore, tradeoffs are required

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