MODULE 6 OVERVIEW:

 
Welcome to Module 6 – QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
 
In this module, we will discuss quantitative research methods as compared to qualitative
research methods.  You are going to be equipped with the distinction between the
quantitative and qualitative methodologies.  At the end of this module, you are going to
outline the steps to undergo in the identified research methodology recommended for
the nature of research study you want to dwell with.
 
We are now getting ready to pursue this step of your research journey!  Enjoy while
learning and pursuing the research process!
 
MODULE 6 LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
 
By the end of this module, the students will be able to:
1. Describe the different quantitative and qualitative research methods.
2. Outline the major steps in conducting various types of research methods
3. Distinguish when to use the various research methods.
 
 
LECTURE DISCUSSIONS
 
6.1. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
 
Quantitative research is “Explaining phenomena by collecting numerical data that are
analyzed using mathematically based methods (in particular
statistics)” http://www.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/36869_muijs.pdf
 
Quantitative research finds precise measurement of something/factors/condition of
variables under investigation. Quantitative methodologies in business research usually
measure consumer behavior, knowledge, opinions, or attitudes. Such methodologies
answer questions related to how much, how often, how many, when and who. A survey
is considered as a dominant methodology among other methodologies in the conduct of
quantitative research.
 
 
SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS... READ THESE
 
Broader knowledge on Quantitative Research Methods through Readings on the link
provided as follows:
 
http://www.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/36869_muijs.pdf
 
https://education.nova.edu/Resources/uploads/app/35/files/arc_doc/quantitative_resear
ch_methods.pdf
 
https://hls.harvard.edu/content/uploads/2011/12/quantitative_methods.pdf
 
 
6.2 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
 
 
Qualitative research includes an variety of interpretive techniques which seek to
describe, decode, translate and otherwise comes to terms with the meaning, not the
frequency of certain more or less occurring phenomenon in a social world.  
 
Qualitative research methods are used in both data collection and data analysis stages
of the research process.
 
At the data collection stage, the techniques include focus groups discussion (FGD),
individual depth interview (IDIs), case studies, ethnography, grounded theory, action
research, and observation.
 
At the data analysis stage, the techniques used are content analysis of written or
recorded materials drawn from personal expressions by participants, behavioral
observations, debriefing of observers, the study of artifacts and trace of evidences from
the physical environment.
 
 
SUPPLEMENTAL VIDEO... WATCH THIS
 
Have a clearer distinction between quantitative and qualitative research methods thru
this link:    
 
 
Qualitative vs. quantitative research
Published on April 12, 2019 by Raimo Streefkerk. Revised on June 19, 2020.
When collecting and analyzing data, quantitative research deals with numbers and
statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings. Both are important
for gaining different kinds of knowledge.
Quantitative research Quantitative research is expressed in numbers and graphs. It
is used to test or confirm theories and assumptions. This type of research can be
used to establish generalizable facts about a topic.
Common quantitative methods include experiments, observations recorded as numbers,
and surveys with closed-ended questions.
Qualitative research Qualitative research is expressed in words. It is used to
understand concepts, thoughts or experiences. This type of research enables you to
gather in-depth insights on topics that are not well understood.
Common qualitative methods include interviews with open-ended questions,
observations described in words, and literature reviews that explore concepts and
theories.

The differences between quantitative and qualitative research

Quantitative and qualitative research use different research methods to collect and
analyze data, and they allow you to answer different kinds of research questions.

Qualitative vs. quantitative research

Quantitative research Qualitative Research
Focuses on testing theories and Focuses on exploring ideas and formulating a
hypotheses theory or hypothesis
Analyzed through math and statistical Analyzed by summarizing, categorizing and
analysis interpreting
Mainly expressed in numbers, graphs Mainly expressed in words
and tables
Requires many respondents Requires few respondents
Closed (multiple choice) questions Open-ended questions
Key terms: testing, measurement, Key terms: understanding, context, complexity,
objectivity, replicability subjectivity

Data collection methods

Quantitative and qualitative data can be collected using various methods. It is important
to use a data collection method that will help answer your research question(s).
Many data collection methods can be either qualitative or quantitative. For example, in
surveys, observations or case studies, your data can be represented as numbers (e.g.
using rating scales or counting frequencies) or as words (e.g. with open-ended
questions or descriptions of what you observe).
However, some methods are more commonly used in one type or the other.
Quantitative data collection methods
 Surveys: List of closed or multiple choice questions that is distributed to
a sample (online, in person, or over the phone).
 Experiments: Situation in which variables are controlled and manipulated to
establish cause-and-effect relationships.
 Observations: Observing subjects in a natural environment where variables
can’t be controlled.
Qualitative data collection methods
 Interviews: Asking open-ended questions verbally to respondents.
 Focus groups: Discussion among a group of people about a topic to gather
opinions that can be used for further research.
 Ethnography: Participating in a community or organization for an extended
period of time to closely observe culture and behavior.
 Literature review: Survey of published works by other authors.

When to use qualitative vs. quantitative research

A rule of thumb for deciding whether to use qualitative or quantitative data is:
  Use quantitative research if you want to confirm or test something (a theory or
hypothesis)
 Use qualitative research if you want to understand something (concepts,
thoughts, experiences)
For most research topics you can choose a qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods
approach. Which type you choose depends on, among other things, whether you’re
taking an inductive vs. deductive research approach; your research question(s);
whether you’re doing experimental, correlational, or descriptive research; and practical
considerations such as time, money, availability of data, and access to respondents.
Research questionHow satisfied are students with their studies?
Quantitative research approach
You survey 300 students at your university and ask them questions such as: “on a scale
from 1-5, how satisfied are your with your professors?”
You can perform statistical analysis on the data and draw conclusions such as: “on
average students rated their professors 4.4”.
Qualitative research approach
You conduct in-depth interviews with 15 students and ask them open-ended questions
such as: “How satisfied are you with your studies?”, “What is the most positive aspect of
your study program?” and “What can be done to improve the study program?”
Based on the answers you get you can ask follow-up questions to clarify things. You
transcribe all interviews using transcription software and try to find commonalities and
patterns.
Mixed methods approach
You conduct interviews to find out how satisfied students are with their studies. Through
open-ended questions you learn things you never thought about before and gain new
insights. Later, you use a survey to test these insights on a larger scale.
It’s also possible to start with a survey to find out the overall trends, followed by
interviews to better understand the reasons behind the trends.
How to analyze qualitative and quantitative data
Qualitative or quantitative data by itself can’t prove or demonstrate anything, but has to
be analyzed to show its meaning in relation to the research questions. The method of
analysis differs for each type of data.
Analyzing quantitative data
Quantitative data is based on numbers. Simple math or more advanced statistical
analysis is used to discover commonalities or patterns in the data. The results are often
reported in graphs and tables.
Applications such as Excel, SPSS, or R can be used to calculate things like:
 Average scores
 The number of times a particular answer was given
 The correlation or causation between two or more variables
 The reliability and validity of the results
Analyzing qualitative data
Qualitative data is more difficult to analyze than quantitative data. It consists of text,
images or videos instead of numbers.
Some common approaches to analyzing qualitative data include:
  Qualitative content analysis: Tracking the occurrence, position and meaning of
words or phrases
 Thematic analysis: Closely examining the data to identify the main themes and
patterns
 Discourse analysis: Studying how communication works in social contexts

FAQS
Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative
research deals with words and meanings.
Quantitative methods allow you to test a hypothesis by systematically collecting and
analyzing data, while qualitative methods allow you to explore ideas and experiences in
depth.
In mixed-methods research, you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection
and analysis methods to answer your research question.
The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer
your research question.
 If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis, use quantitative methods.
If you want to explore ideas, thoughts and meanings, use qualitative methods.
 If you want to analyze a large amount of readily-available data, use secondary
data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how it is
generated, collect primary data.
 If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables,
use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a
research subject, use descriptive methods.
Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are
gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments,
businesses, and other organizations.
There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis, but they all share five steps
in common:
1. Prepare and organize your data.
2. Review and explore your data.
3. Develop a data coding system.
4. Assign codes to the data.
5. Identify recurring themes.
The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common
approaches include textual analysis, thematic analysis, and discourse analysis.

Quantitative research Qualitative Research

Focuses on testing theories and Focuses on exploring ideas and formulating a
hypotheses theory or hypothesis
Analyzed through math and statistical Analyzed by summarizing, categorizing and
analysis interpreting
Mainly expressed in numbers, graphs Mainly expressed in words
and tables
Requires many respondents Requires few respondents
Quantitative research Qualitative Research
Closed (multiple choice) questions Open-ended questions
Quantitative data collection methods
 Surveys: List of closed or multiple choice questions that is distributed to
a sample (online, in person, or over the phone).
 Experiments: Situation in which variables are controlled and manipulated to
establish cause-and-effect relationships.
 Observations: Observing subjects in a natural environment where variables
can’t be controlled.
Qualitative data collection methods
 Interviews: Asking open-ended questions verbally to respondents.
 Focus groups: Discussion among a group of people about a topic to gather
opinions that can be used for further research.
 Ethnography: Participating in a community or organization for an extended
period of time to closely observe culture and behavior.
 Literature review: Survey of published works by other authors.
When to use qualitative vs. quantitative research
A rule of thumb for deciding whether to use qualitative or quantitative data is:
 Use quantitative research if you want to confirm or test something (a theory or
hypothesis)
 Use qualitative research if you want to understand something (concepts,
thoughts, experiences)
For most research topics you can choose a qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods
approach. Which type you choose depends on, among other things, whether you’re
taking an inductive vs. deductive research approach; your research question(s);
whether you’re doing experimental, correlational, or descriptive research; and practical
considerations such as time, money, availability of data, and access to respondents
Analyzing quantitative data
Quantitative data is based on numbers. Simple math or more advanced statistical
analysis is used to discover commonalities or patterns in the data. The results are often
reported in graphs and tables.
Applications such as Excel, SPSS, or R can be used to calculate things like:
 Average scores
 The number of times a particular answer was given
 The correlation or causation between two or more variables
 The reliability and validity of the results
Analyzing qualitative data
Qualitative data is more difficult to analyze than quantitative data. It consists of text,
images or videos instead of numbers.
Some common approaches to analyzing qualitative data include:
 Qualitative content analysis: Tracking the occurrence, position and meaning of
words or phrases
 Thematic analysis: Closely examining the data to identify the main themes and
patterns
 Discourse analysis: Studying how communication works in social contexts
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH 
 Emphasizes the objective to deal with numbers, statistics and or numerical data
and generalizing it across groups of people.
 Allow you to test a hypothesis by systematically collecting and analyzing data.
 It tests theories.
 Covers larger respondent.
 Uses Closed (multiple choice) questions
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 
 Deals with words and meanings.
 Allow you to explore ideas and experiences in depth.
 It explores and makes theories.
 Covers small respondent.
 Uses open-ended questions

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH 
 Surveys: List of closed or multiple choice questions that is distributed to
a sample (online, in person, or over the phone).
 Experiments: Situation in which variables are controlled and manipulated to
establish cause-and-effect relationships.
 Observations: Observing subjects in a natural environment where variables
can’t be controlled.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 

 Interviews: Asking open-ended questions verbally to respondents.

 Focus groups: Discussion among a group of people about a topic to gather
opinions that can be used for further research.
 Ethnography: Participating in a community or organization for an extended
period of time to closely observe culture and behavior.
 Literature review: Survey of published works by other authors.
 MODULE 7 OVERVIEW:
 
Welcome to Module 7 – RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
 
In this module, we will discuss research methodology which covers sampling design,
research design, data collection and data analysis. At the end of this module, you are
going to design the appropriate research methodology of your chosen research study.
 
We are now fast approaching the final stage of the conduct of our research studies.
Stay motivated to pursue the research process!
 
MODULE 7 LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
 
By the end of this module, the students will be able to
1. Outline the elements of research methodology.
2. Outline the steps in communicating research results
3. Outline the different parts of the research proposal and research report
4. Explain the importance of good data management in ensuring research integrity.
 
 

7.1. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

 
Research methodology includes research design strategy that encompasses sampling
design, data collection design and instrument development.
 
Research design constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis
of data. It aids the researcher in the allocation of the limited resources by posing crucial
choices in methodology. It is considered as the plan and structure of investigation so
conceived s to obtain answers to research questions.
 
Sampling design
 
            Sampling Design Process
           Nonprobability Sampling Techniques
              Probability Sampling Techniques
 
Sampling Design Process
 
Census
       A complete enumeration of the elements of a population or study objects.
  
Sample
       A subgroup of the elements of the population selected for participation in the study.
 
 
SAMPLING DESIGN PROCESS
 
1. Define the Target Population
 
The target population is the collection of elements or objects that possess the
information sought by the researcher and about which inferences are to be made.  The
target population should be defined in terms of elements, sampling units, extent, and
time
 
     An element is the object about which or from which the information is desired, e.g.,
the respondent.
     A sampling unit is an element, or a unit containing the element, that is available for
selection at some stage of the sampling process.
     Extent refers to the geographical boundaries.
        Time is the time period under consideration.
 
Important qualitative factors in determining the sample size:
 
 
the importance of the decision
the nature of the research
            the number of variables
            the nature of the analysis
           sample sizes used in similar studies
           incidence rates
           completion rates
 
2. Determine the Sampling Frame
 
The sampling frame is the list from which units are drawn for sample. The list may be
actual listing of units, or some other description of the population, such as a map from
which areas will be sampled.
 
3. Select Sampling Techniques
 
1. Nonprobability Sampling Techniques
 
Convenience sampling attempts to obtain a sample of convenient elements.  Often,
respondents are selected because they happen to be in the right place at the right time.
use of students and members of social organizations
mall intercept interviews without qualifying the respondents
 department stores using charge account lists
“people on the street” interviews
 
Judgmental sampling is a form of convenience sampling in which the population
elements are selected based on the judgment of the researcher.
test markets
purchase engineers selected in industrial marketing research
expert witnesses used in court
 
Quota sampling may be viewed as two-stage restricted judgmental sampling. 
The first stage consists of developing control categories, or quotas, of population
elements.
In the second stage, sample elements are selected based on convenience or judgment.
 
In snowball sampling, an initial group of respondents is selected, usually at random. 
After being interviewed, these respondents are asked to identify others who belong to
the target population of interest. Subsequent respondents are selected based on the
referrals.

1. Probability Sampling Techniques
 
Simple Random Sampling
Each element in the population has a known and equal probability of selection.
Each possible sample of a given size (n) has a known and equal probability of being the
sample actually selected.
This implies that every element is selected independently of every other element.
 
 
Systematic Sampling
The sample is chosen by selecting a random starting point and then picking every ith
element in succession from the sampling frame.
The sampling interval, i, is determined by dividing the population size N by the sample
size n and rounding to the nearest integer.
When the ordering of the elements is related to the characteristic of interest, systematic
sampling increases the representativeness of the sample
If the ordering of the elements produces a cyclical pattern, systematic sampling may
decrease the representativeness of the sample.
 
For example, there are 100,000 elements in the population and a sample of
1,000 is desired.  In this case the sampling interval, i, is 100.  A random
number between 1 and 100 is selected.  If, for example, this number is 23, the
sample consists of elements 23, 123, 223, 323, 423, 523, and so on.
 
 
 
Stratified Sampling
 A two-step process in which the population is partitioned into subpopulations, or strata.
The strata should be mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive in that every
population element should be assigned to one and only one stratum and no population
elements should be omitted.
Next, elements are selected from each stratum by a random procedure, usually SRS.
A major objective of stratified sampling is to increase precision without increasing cost.
The elements within a stratum should be as homogeneous as possible, but the
elements in different strata should be as heterogeneous as possible.
The stratification variables should also be closely related to the characteristic of interest.
Finally, the variables should decrease the cost of the stratification process by being
easy to measure and apply.
 
In proportionate stratified sampling, the size of the sample drawn from each stratum is
proportionate to the relative size of that stratum in the total population.
 
In disproportionate stratified sampling, the size of the sample from each stratum is
proportionate to the relative size of that stratum and to the standard deviation of the
distribution of the characteristic of interest among all the elements in that stratum.
 
 
Cluster Sampling
 
The target population is first divided into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive
subpopulations, or clusters.
Then a random sample of clusters is selected, based on a probability sampling
technique such as SRS.
For each selected cluster, either all the elements are included in the sample (one-stage)
or a sample of elements is drawn probabilistically (two-stage).
Elements within a cluster should be as heterogeneous as possible, but clusters
themselves should be as homogeneous as possible. Ideally, each cluster should be a
small-scale representation of the population. 
In probability proportionate to size sampling, the clusters are sampled with probability
proportional to size. In the second stage, the probability of selecting a sampling unit in a
selected cluster varies inversely with the size of the cluster.

 
4. Determine the Sample Size
 
SAMPLING: FINAL AND INITIAL SAMPLE-SIZE DETERMINATION
 
Statistical Approach to Determining Sample Size
Adjusting the Statistically Determined Sample Size

Key Terms
 
Parameter
A parameter is a summary description of a fixed characteristic or measure of the target
population.
A parameter denotes the true value which would be obtained if a census rather than a
sample was undertaken.
 
Statistic
 A statistic is a summary description of a characteristic or measure of the sample.  The
sample statistic is used as an estimate of the population parameter.
 
Random sampling error
The error when the sample selected is an imperfect representation of the population of
interest.
 
Precision level
When estimating a population parameter by using a sample statistic, the precision level
is the desired size of the estimating interval.  This is the maximum permissible
difference between the sample statistic and the population parameter.
 
 
Confidence interval
The confidence interval is the range into which the true population parameter will fall,
assuming a given level of confidence.
 
Confidence level
The confidence level is the probability that a confidence interval will include the
population parameter.
 
 
 
The Confidence Interval Approach 
 
 

The confidence interval is given by:

 
        
       We can now set a 95% confidence interval around the sample mean of 182. 
       The 95% confidence interval is given by
 
              
       = 182.00 + 1.96(3.18) = 182.00 + 6.23
 
       Thus the 95% confidence interval ranges from 175.77 to 188.23. 
 
 
 
  
Adjusting the Statistically Determined Sample Size
 
Incidence rate refers to the rate of occurrence or the percentage of persons eligible to
participate in the study. 
      
       In general, if there are c qualifying factors with an incidence of Q1, Q2, Q3, ...QC,
each expressed as a proportion,
 
       Incidence rate               = Q1 x Q2 x Q3....x QC
 
       Initial sample size                     =          Final sample size                 
                                                        Incidence rate x Completion rate
 
ETHICAL CONSIDERATION
 
The researcher has the ethical responsibility to not use large estimates of the population
variance simply to increase the cost of the project by inflating the sample size.
When the sample standard deviation varies widely from that which is assumed, the
researcher should disclose the larger confidence interval to the client and jointly arrive
at a corrective action.
Incorrectly reporting the confidence intervals
of survey estimates based on statistical samples is unethical.
 
5. Execute the Sampling Process
 
Reference:
Malhotra, N. (2012). Basic marketing research. Pearson, Education Inc.
 
 
 
DATA GATHERING INSTRUMENT
 
Refers to the device used to collect data, such as a paper questionnaire or computer
assisted interviewing system
 
Methodologies used to identify information sources and collect information during an
evaluation. (surveys, observation, interviews)
 
1. QUESTIONNAIRE
 
Uses carefully planned and printed items given to respondents to elicit answers to
questions of the research
a means of eliciting the feelings, beliefs, experiences, perceptions, or attitudes of some
sample of individuals.
 
Advantages
Economy - Expense and time involved in training interviewers and sending them to
interview are reduced by using questionnaires
Uniformity of questions - Each respondent receives the same set of questions phrased
in exactly the same way. Questionnaires may, therefore, yield data more comparable
than information obtained through an interview.
Standardization - If the questions are highly structured and the conditions under which
they are answered are controlled, then the questionnaire could become standardized.
 
Disadvantages
Respondent’s motivation is difficult to assess, affecting the validity of response
Unless a random sampling of returns is obtained, those returned completed may
represent biased samples.
 
Factors affecting the percentage of returned questionnaires
 
Length of the questionnaire.
Complexity of the questions asked.
Relative importance of the study as determined by the potential respondent.
Extent to which the respondent believes that his responses are important.
Quality and design of the questionnaire.
Timing
 
Types of Questionnaire
Closed or restricted
Yes/No
Short Response
Item Checking
Easy to interpret, tabulate, summarize
 
Open or non-restricted
Free response
Greater depth of response, difficult to interpret, tabulate, summarize
 
 
               A good questionnaire has the following characteristics:
 
Deals with a significant topic
Seeks only that information which cannot be obtained from other sources
As short as possible, only long enough to get the essential data
Attractive in appearance, neatly arranged, and clearly duplicated or printed.
Questions are presented in good psychological order, proceeding from general to more
specific responses.
Directions are clear and complete, important terms are defined, each question deals
with a single idea, all questions are worded as simply and clearly as possible, and the
categories provide an opportunity for easy, accurate, and unambiguous responses.
Questions are objective, with no leading suggestions to the desired response.
Easy to tabulate and interpret.
 
Guides for preparing and administering the questionnaire
 
Get all of the help you can in planning and constructing your questionnaire.
Try your questionnaire out on a few friends or associates.
Choose respondents carefully. 
Be sure to include a courteous, carefully constructed cover letter to explain the purpose
of the study.
 
Rules for proper construction of a questionnaire
Define or qualify terms that could easily be misunderstood or misinterpreted.
Be careful with descriptive adjectives and adverbs that have no agreed upon meaning,
such as frequently, occasionally, and rarely
Beware of double negatives.
Be careful of inadequate alternatives.
 
Rules for proper construction of a questionnaire
 
  Avoid double barreled questions.
Underline a word to emphasize its importance.
When asking for a rating, a point of reference is needed.
Avoid unfounded assumptions.
Phrase questions so that they are appropriate for all respondents.
Design questions that give complete possibilities for comprehension of responses.
Provide for a systematic quantification of responses.
Consider the possibility of classifying the responses yourself rather than having the
respondent choose categories.
 
Note: The questionnaire is said to be the most "used and abused" method of gathering
information by the lazy man because often it is poorly organized, vaguely worded, and
excessively lengthy.
 
INTERVIEW
 
An interview is a direct face-to-face attempt to obtain reliable and valid measures in the
form of verbal responses from one or more respondents.
Can be structured or unstructured
Advantages
Allows the interviewer to clarify questions
Allows the informants to respond in any manner they see fit.
Allows the interviewers to observe verbal and non-verbal behavior of the respondents.
Means of obtaining personal information, attitudes, perceptions, and beliefs.
Reduces anxiety so that potentially threatening topics can be studied.
 
Disadvantages
Unstructured interviews often yield data too difficult to summarize or evaluate.
Training interviewers, sending them to meet and interview their informants, and
evaluating their effectiveness all add to the cost of the study.
 
Structured interview - are rigidly standardized and formal.
The same questions are presented in the same manner and order to each subject.
The choice of alternative answers is restricted to a predetermined list.
The same introductory and concluding remarks are used
 
Unstructured interview
 
They have few restrictions.
If preplanned questions are asked, they are altered to suit the situation and subjects.
Subjects are encouraged to express their thoughts freely.
Only a few questions are asked to direct their answers.
In some instances, the information is obtained in such a casual manner that the
respondents are not aware they are being interviewed.
 
Advantages
 
One can penetrate behind initial answers.
One can follow up unexpected clues.
One can redirect the inquiry into more fruitful channels.
It is very helpful in the exploratory stage of research.
 
 
 
Disadvantages
 
Difficult to quantify the accumulated qualitative data.
One usually cannot compare data from various interviews and derive generalizations
that are universally applicable because of the non-uniform tactics employed.
Unstructured interviews are not ordinarily employed when testing and verifying
hypotheses.
 
Factors to be considered before interviewing
 
Determine when to interview.
Determine if the respondent is telling the truth.
Consideration for sources of bias.
 
Four specific sources of error
 
Errors in asking questions occur whenever an inappropriate question is asked where
the response to the question will not satisfy the objectives of the investigation.
  
Errors in probing occur when the interviewer does not allow the respondent sufficient
time to respond or when he anticipates what the response will be.
 
Errors in motivating respondents can be a source of invalidity.
 
Errors in recording responses occur when the interviewer records the respondent’s
answers inaccurately by omitting information. 
 
 
 
 
FOCUS GROUPS DISCUSSION (FGD)
 
- allows for group interaction and greater insight into why certain opinions are held.
- can improve the planning and design of new programs, provide means of evaluating
existing programs, and produce insights for developing marketing strategies.
 
Characteristics
 
Involve people.6-10; share insights and provide diversity of perceptions.
Conducted in series.to detect patterns and trends across groups.
Possess certain characteristics.Participants are homogeneous and unfamiliar with each
other.
Provide data.Focus groups pay attention to the perceptions of the users and consumers
of solutions, products, and service.
Produce qualitative data.
 
Advantages
It is a socially oriented research procedures.
The format allows the moderator to probe.
Discussions have high face validity.
Discussions can be relatively low cost.
The format can provide speedy results.
Focus groups enable the researcher to increase the sample size of qualitative studies.
 
  
Disadvantages
 
The researcher has less control in the group interview as compared to the individual
interview.
Data are more difficult to analyze.
The technique requires carefully trained interviewers.
Groups can vary considerably.
Groups are difficult to assemble.
The discussion must be conducted in an environment conducive to conversation.
 
Types of Focus Group Discussion Questions
 
Opening Question.Round-robin, answer quickly, identify common characteristics, factual
Introductory Questions.introduce the general topic of discussion and/or provide
participants an opportunity to reflect on past experiences and their connection with the
overall topic.
Transition Questions.
Key Questions. 2-5 questions
Ending Questions.
 
OBSERVATION
 
Direct observation is a measuring instrument used to measure such traits as self-
control, cooperativeness, truthfulness, and honesty. In many cases, systematic
direct observation of behavior is the most desirable measurement method. An
investigator identified the behavior of interest and devises a systematic procedure
for identifying, categorizing, and recording the behavior in either a natural or
"staged" situation.
 
Systematic Direct Observation
 
Selecting the aspect of behavior to be observed.
Defining the behavior that fall within a category.
         Know in advance what will or will not be classified as          aggressive
behavior, problem-solving behavior or any other classification of interest.
Training observers.
      for uniformity of interpretation and standard application of the         
observation categories.
Quantifying observations.
Developing procedures to facilitate recording.
         A useful technique is to     develop a coding plan that enables        
observers to record their observations with a single letter or           digit rather
than in narrative form. 
 
SURVEYS
 
   Administered to assess opinions, perceptions and attitudes
Identify and select potential sample members.
Contact sampled individuals and collect data from those who are hard to reach (or
reluctant to respond).
Evaluate and test questions.
Select the mode for posing questions and collecting responses.
Train and supervise interviewers (if they are involved).
Check data files for accuracy and internal consistency.
Adjust survey estimates to correct for identified errors.
 

DATA COLLECTION
Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on
variables of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to
answer stated research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. 
Different Types of Data for Analysis
 
 
Types of Variables
 
According to the level of measurement:
Continuous or Quantitative Variables
Discrete or Qualitative Variables
 
 
Continuous or Quantitative Variables
Interval - scale Variables
Continuous Ordinal Variables
Interval - scale Variables
Ratio - scale Variables
 
Interval Variables
 
The highest form of measurement and the easiest to manipulate and analyze
Fixed and consistent space between each variable
 
Interval - scale Variables
 
Interval scale data has order and equal intervals. Interval scale variables are
measured on a linear scale, and can take on positive or negative values.
 
 It is assumed that the intervals keep the same importance throughout the scale.
They allow us not only to rank order the items that are measured but also to quantify
and compare the magnitudes of differences between them.
 
We can say that the temperature of 40°C is higher than 30°C, and an increase from
20°C to 40°C is twice as much as the increase from 30°C to 40°C. Counts are
interval scale measurements, such as counts of publications or citations, years of
education, etc.
 
 
Continuous Ordinal Variables
 
 They occur when the measurements are continuous, but one is not certain whether
they are on a linear scale, the only trustworthy information being the rank order of
the observations.
 
 For example, if a scale is transformed by an exponential, logarithmic or any other
nonlinear monotonic transformation, it loses its interval - scale property. Here, it
would be expedient to replace the observations by their ranks.
 
Ratio - scale Variables
 
These are continuous positive measurements on a nonlinear scale.
 
Ratio data are also interval data, but they are not measured on a linear scale. . With
interval data, one can perform logical operations, add, and subtract, but one cannot
multiply or divide.
 
For instance, if a liquid is at 40 degrees and we add 10 degrees, it will be 50 degrees.
However, a liquid at 40 degrees does not have twice the temperature of a liquid at 20
degrees because 0 degrees does not represent "no temperature" -- to multiply or divide
in this way we would have to use the Kelvin temperature scale, with a true zero point (0
degrees Kelvin = -273.15 degrees Celsius). In social sciences, the issue of "true zero"
rarely arises, but one should be aware of the statistical issues involved.
 
QUALITATIVE OR DISCRETE VARIABLES
 
Nominal Variables
Ordinal Variables
Dummy Variables from Quantitative Variables
Preference Variables
Multiple Response Variables
 
Nominal Variables
Cannot be ranked
g. to offer alternative answers in a multiple choice question
Examples:
Marketing management strategies
Financial Management strategies
Risk Management
Investment
Nominal variables allow for only qualitative classification.
can be measured only in terms of whether the individual items belong to certain distinct
categories, but we cannot quantify or even rank order the categories
assignment of numbers to categories is purely arbitrary.
 
Ordinal Variables
 
Can be ranked
Ordinal data has order, but the intervals between scale points may be uneven. Because
of lack of equal distances, arithmetic operations are impossible, but logical operations
can be performed on the ordinal data.
g. socio-economic status of families.
useful for subjective assessment of 'quality; importance or relevance'.
 
 
 
 
Dummy Variables from Quantitative Variables
 
A quantitative variable can be transformed into a categorical variable, called a dummy
variable by recoding the values. Consider the following example: the quantitative
variable Age can be classified into five intervals. The values of the associated
categorical variable, called dummy variables, are 1, 2,3,4,5:
1          [Up to 25]
2          [25, 40 ]
            3          [40, 50]
4          [50, 60]
5          [Above 60]
 
 
 
Preference Variables
 
Preference variables are specific discrete variables, whose values are either in a
decreasing or increasing order. For example, in a survey, a respondent may be asked
to indicate the importance of the following nine sources of information in his research
and development work, by using the code [1] for the most important source and [9] for
the least important source:
Literature published in the country
Literature published abroad
Scientific abstracts
Unpublished reports, material, etc.
Discussions with colleagues within the research unit
Discussions with colleagues outside the research unit but within institution
Discussions with colleagues outside the institution
Scientific meetings in the country
Scientific meetings abroad
*Note that preference data are also ordinal.
 
 
 
Multiple Response Variables
 
Multiple response variables are those, which can assume more than one value. A
typical example is a survey questionnaire about the use of computers in research. The
respondents were asked to indicate the purpose(s) for which they use computers in
their research work. The respondents could score more than one category.
Statistical analysis
Lab automation/ process control
Data base management, storage and retrieval
Modelling and simulation
Scientific and engineering calculations
Computer aided design (CAD)
Communication and networking
Graphics
 
Dichotomous Variables
 
The answers can easily fall into one or two categories
 
 
CODING AND ENTERING DATA
 
Set out data in a matrix (Excel/SPSS/Spreadsheet)
Coding
       Male 1 Female 2
       nominal variables can be text names
 
Consequences from improperly collected data
 
inability to answer research questions accurately
inability to repeat and validate the study
distorted findings resulting in wasted resources
misleading other researchers to pursue fruitless avenues of investigation
compromising decisions for public policy
causing harm to human participants and animal subjects
 
 
DATA ANALYSIS
 
a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling data with the goal of
discovering useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting decision
making.
Summarizing the trend patterns observed in the data presented in order to arrive at
concrete and acceptable findings
Univariate, Bivariate or Multivariate
 
Univariate
 
  
IDAMS (Internationally developed Data Analysis and Management Software)
 
 
STATISTICAL TOOLS
 
Bivariate analysis - Relationship between variables  
 
Set up a frequency table
                If It involves independent variable, it should be shown in a column variable.
 
Pearson’s r or Pearson’s Moment Correlation Coefficient (PMCC)
      Looks for relationship between interval variables; ranges from 0 (no         
relationship) to 1 (perfect relationship)
 
Regression Analysis
       regression coefficient = r2 * 100
       or
 
 
Describes the proportion of variation in one dependent variable accounted for by the
other independent variable
 
Spearman’s rho
used when one or two variables is/are ordinal and the other is ordinal or interval
outcome between 0 and 1
Phi and Cramer’s V
Phi’s used for exploring relationship between dichotomous variables
Cramer’s V does the same for two nominal variables
outcomes: 0, +1, -1
can only show strength of relationship, not direction
 
Eta
used to explore relationships between an interval variable and a nominal variable
can only show strength of relationship, not direction
 
Statistical significance
A way of testing the level of confidence that a probability sampling technique has
generated results
Can be applied to a full population
Can estimate the chance of no relationship
Null hypothesis is set up, decide the acceptable level of significance,
 
Descriptive statistics
provide basic information about the distribution of a variable in a data set, such as:
 
(i)   Its central tendency – How the data ‘bunch up’ 
            -  a single value that attempts to describe a set of data by identifying
the central position within that set of data
            - are sometimes called measures of central location and also classed
as summary statistics that represents the center point or typical value of a data
set
            - these measures indicate where most values in a distribution fall
 
 
 
 STATISTICAL TOOLS TO MEASURE CENTRAL TENDENCY
 
Mean – the sum of the numbers divided by the number of numbers
Median – midpoint of a distribution: the same number of scores is above the median as
below it
Mode – the most frequently occurring value
 
Learn more on these statistical tools thru this link: 
onlinestatbook.com
 

(ii) Dispersion – How the data ‘spread out’ 

how a spread out a set of data is: when a data has a large value, the values in the set
are widely scattered; when it is small the items in the set are tightly clustered.
 
STATISTICAL TOOLS TO MEASURE DISPERSION
 
Range
 
the difference between the maximum value and the minimum value given in a data set
the interval between the highest and the lowest score.
a measure of variability or scatteredness of the variates or observations among
themselves and does not give an idea about the spread of the observations around
some central value.
 
 
 
Variance
Variance is computed by deducting the mean from each data in the set then
squaring each of them and adding each square and finally dividing them by the
total number of values in the data set
Quartile Deviation
Quartile deviation is one-half the scale distance between the third quartile and
the first quartile. It is the Semi-interquartile range of a distribution
Average Deviation
 Average deviation is the arithmetic mean of the deviations of a series computed
from some measure of central tendency (mean, median or mode), all the
deviations being considered positive. In other words the average of the
deviations of all the values from the arithmetic mean is known as mean deviation
or average deviation. (Usually, the deviation is taken from the mean of the
distribution.)
Standard Deviation
the square root of the variance
The standard deviation characterizes the nature of distribution of scores. When
the scores are more widely spread S.D. is more and when scores are less
scattered S.D. is less. For interpreting the value of the measure of dispersion, we
must understand that greater the value of ‘σ‘ the more scattered are the scores
from the mean.
 
 
SUPPLEMENTAL READING...READ THIS
 
Learn more thru this link:    https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/statistics-2/4-
commonly-used-measures-of-dispersion-statistics/92258
 
 
 
 (iii) Shape of the distribution– How the data ‘look like’
 
Symmetry
Skewness
Modality
Outliers
 
 
SUPPLEMENTAL READING...READ THIS
 
Learn more thru this link: online.stat.psu.edu
 
Descriptions and examples of the four scales of measurement
 
 
 
SUPPLEMENTAL VIDEO... WATCH THIS
 
Enhance your research skills in writing research methodology thru this link:  
 
 
                                                                
                                 

7. 2 RESEARCH PROPOSAL AND RESEARCH REPORT WRITTEN AND ORAL

PRESENTATION
 
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
 
A plan of how a study will be undertaken
It describes the steps that will be followed in the conduct of the study from problem
identification to data analysis
It serves as a guide for the researcher in the implementation of the study
 
Purpose of the Research Proposal
 
To present the management question to be research and relate its importance
 
To discuss the research efforts of others who have worked on related management
questions
 
To suggest the data necessary for solving the management questions and how the data
will be gathered, treated and interpreted.
 
CHARACTERISTICS OF A WELL-WRITTEN RESEARCH PROPOSAL
 
Persuasive
                Relevant & worth doing, the researcher is knowledgeable about the problem,
and has adequate background knowledge about the problem and the problem has a
logical basis
 
Complete
        Must contain all the parts required by the institution to which it will be 
submitted
 
Clear
       Must be written in clear and simple language and the methodology must be clearly
and adequately described
 
Flexible
       It should allow for possible changes or modification during implementation
____________________________________________________________________
 
COMPONENTS OF THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL
 
TITLE PAGE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
 
INTRODUCTION
       Background and Rationale of the Study
       Statement of the Problem/Objectives of the Study
       Hypothesis of the Study
       Theoretical Framework and Conceptual (if necessary)
      Conceptual and Operational Definition of Variables and Other Terms
       Significance/Importance of the Study
       Scope and Limitation of the Study
 
 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
       Conceptual Literature/Related Literature
       Research Literature/Related Studies
 
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
Target Population and Sampling Procedures
Data Collection
Data Processing and Data Analysis Plan
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY/REFERENCES
 
APPENDIXES /APPENDICES
Research Instruments/Materials
Relevant communications
Dummy Tables for Analysis (if required)
Schedule of Activities
            Budgetary Requirements
 
 
 COMPONENTS OF THE RESEARCH REPORT
 
PREFATORY ITEMS
       Title Page
       Table of Contents
       Acknowledgements
       Abstract
 
INTRODUCTION
       Problem Statement
       Research Objectives
       Background of the Study
 
METHODOLOGY
       Sampling Design
       Research Design
       Data Collection
       Data Analysis
 
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 
CONCLUSIONS
       Summary and Conclusions
       Recommendations
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY
 
APPENDICES
___________________________________________________________________
 
 
SUPPLEMENTAL VIDEO...WATCH THIS
 
 
Enhancement :  How to structure your Thesis/Dissertation:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hxSD8VqgS6o
 
WRITTEN PRESENTATIONS
 
WRITING THE REPORT
 
The Outline
Once the researcher has made the first analysis of the data, drawn tentative
conclusions and completed statistical significant tests, it is time to develop the outline. A
useful system employs the following organizational structure:
Major Topic Heading
       Major Subtopic Heading
            Subtopic
               Minor subtopic
                        Further detail
                                    Even further detail
 
The Bibliography
Style Manuals provide guidelines on forms, sections, and alphabetical arrangement and
annotation.
Proper citation, style and formats are unique to the purpose of the reports.
For this, it is recommended to use the Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (APA), 7th Edition.
 
In Writing the Research Report, observe the following:
 
Readability
Be a sensitive writer who considers the reading ability of the audience to achieve high
readership.
Utilization of the research will be higher by pointing out how the report will be useful to
the reader. Write the report at a level that is appropriate to the audience reading
abilities.
 
Note: Research Report Paper should undergo a Plagiarism Scan and Grammar and
Style Proofreader Check through the use of Computer software packages provided by
the University as one of the Student Services.
 
Comprehensibility
Research writing is designed to convey information of a precise nature. Avoid
ambiguity, multiple meanings, and allusions.
Choose the right words – those words that convey body of knowledge accurately,
clearly and efficiently.
When concepts and constructs are used, they must be defined
conceptually/descriptively and operationally. Words and sentences are carefully
organized and edited.
 
Tone
Make sure that the writing tone is appropriate. The reader can and should be referred to
but researchers should avoid referring to themselves.
According to one author, “application of the “you” attitude, makes the message sound
like it is written to the reader not sent by the author. This tone conveys sincerity,
personalization, warmth and involvement.
 
Presentation Consideration
Be particular about production of the report. Reports can be printed on an ink-jet, laser,
color or other printer.
The presentation of the report conveys to the readers the professional approach used
throughout the research project. Use compatible fonts throughout the entire report. The
printer should produce consistent, easy to read letters on quality paper.
When reports are photocopied for more than one reader, make sure the copies are
clean and have no black streaks or gray areas.
 
PRESENTATION OF STATISTICS
 
 
Text Presentation
 
This is the most common method of presentation when there are only few statistics. The
researcher can direct the reader’s attention to certain numbers or comparisons and give
emphasis on specific points.
 
Semi-tabular Presentation
 
When there are few figures, they may be taken from the text and listed. List of
quantitative comparisons are much easier to read and understand than embedded
statistics.
 
Tabular Presentation
 
Tables are superior to text for presenting statistics, although they should be
accompanied by texts stating comments directing the readers’ attention to important
figures.
 
Tables facilitate quantitative comparison and provide a concise, efficient way to present
numerical data.
 
 
 Graphics
 
Graphs show less information and often only approximate values yet they are more
often read and remembered than tables.
 
Graphs convey quantitative values and comparisons are readily comprehensible than
tables.
 
Line graphs, area chart, pie chart, bar chart, pictographs, geographs,3-D graphics and
others can be used.
 
 
 
ORAL PRESENTATION
 
 
Introduction
 
The presentation will give emphasis on presentation of the data and conclusions that
will help the audience make crucial decisions.
 
This will be often as short as 20 minutes and may run longer than an hour and the
presentation is normally interspersed with questions and discussions.
 
A successful presentation requires condensing a lengthy and complex body of
information.
 
Aristotle’s Three Principle of Persuasive Communication
 
Ethos
 
Ethos is the projection of ones credibility through personal characteristics.
 
The perception of the presenter’s character affects how believable or convincing that
person is.
 
The strong research presentation relies on a researcher’s ability to convince his or her
audience of the following:
 
that he/she is credible
that the findings from the research are credible
that the audience should act upon the findings as well as conclusions and
recommendations drawn from these findings
 
Pathos
 
Pathos relies on emotional connection between the speaker and the audience. It
involves an appeal to an audience sense of identity, self-interest and emotions. These
appeals take advantage of common biases that: we naturally move in the direction of
what is advantageous, what serves our interests, or the interests of the group we are
part of.
 
Logos
 
Logos are the logical argument, we find explicit reason that the speaker needs to
support a position.
 
This translates into supporting evidences and analytical techniques that reveal and
uphold the researchers’ findings and conclusions.
 
 
 
 
Support
 
Supporting materials create interest, clarify the presenters point, provide emphasis to
point, and offer proof that results in belief.  Without supporting materials, the oral
presentations are nothing more than a series of claims without evidences.
 
Criteria in Evaluating the Materials to be Used:
 
relevant
appropriate
believable
timely
variety
balanced
speaker specific
stylistic
simplicity
detail
 
Frequently Used Materials for Supporting Oral Presenter’s Arguments:
Facts
Statistics
Specific Instance
Example
Testimony/Expert Opinion
Analogy
Methapor
 
 
 
Visualize
 
slides
notes
handouts
 
 
 
Design Principle
 
Visual Preparation
Flow aids
Visibility
Whitespace
picture Supreme
Photographic Framing
Contrast
Compatibility
Relationship
Simplicity
 
 
 
Deliver
 
Deameanor, posture, dress, total appearance should be appropriatefor the occasion.
Speed of Speech, clarity of the enunciation, pauses or gestures will take a part. Voice
pitch and tone quality be observed properly.
Rapport development techniques are important for the speaker to take hold of the
audience.
 
 
 
Scripts and Notes
 
Write the script in full sentences in the note section of the Powerpoint no more than four
to five sentences.
 
Do not script every word: take only the key words
 
Highlight keywords and use them without regard to details to get key points into memory
 
Memorize the one key idea for each slide.
 
Practice the presentation without notes using the slides keywords, graphs or visuals as
the prompter.
 
 
 
Details Make a Difference
 
      
Nonverbal Communication
 
Eye Contact
Gesture
Posture and Body Orientation
Paralanguage
 
 
  
Controlling Performance Anxiety
 
reduced the imagined power of others by increasing your own power
eliminate the imagination of negative possibilities
hold the performance in perspective by seeing its outcome as insignificant in relation to
the totality of one’s life
remember that one cannot control others reaction or judgment but only one’s
performance
refocus ones attention away from self and increase one’s awareness of others without
considering them as judges
 
 
Arrangement for Facilities and Equipment
 
Staging involved detailed management of facilities, operational problems and equipment
lights
projectors
cords
controls
sound system
video
internet conferencing
racks
displays/props
Staging also requires attention to meeting rooms, seating arrangement, screens and
lightings, testing of virtually everything along with back up for disasters.
 
 
 SUPPLEMENTAL VIDEOS... WATCH THESE
 
 
Please be more equipped with the Style and Form of Writing the Research Report thru
the links as follow:
 
 
Citation:
 
 
 
APA Style/APA Manual 7th Edition
 
 
 
The Basics of APA in In-text citation:
 
 
 
How to avoid plagiarism:
 
 
 
How to paraphrase:
 
 
 
How to quote:
 

DESIGNING A BUSINESS RESEARCH PROPOSAL

 
Create and submit your Written Business Research Proposal with the following
contents:
 
Prefatory Items
     Title Page
     Table of Contents
 
INTRODUCTION
   Background  and Rationale of the Study
   Statement of the Problem
   Hypothesis
   Theoretical Framework and   Conceptual Framework
  Conceptual and Operational Definition of Variables and Other Terms
   Significance /Importance of the Study
   Scope and Limitations of the Study
 
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
     Conceptual Literature/Related Literature
      Research Literature/Related Studies
 
METHODOLOGY
            Research Design
            Study Population and Sample
            Research Instrument
            Data Analysis Plan (Statistical Tools to be Used)
             
BIBLIOGRAPHY
      - Alphabetical listings of all the references
 
Note: 
Font style: Times New Roman
Font size: 12
Margin:  1.5 inches left side and
              1 inch. in right side, top, bottom
Double-spaced