CH-9

THEDOLITE

Theodolite is an instrument used in surveying to measure horizontal and vertical angles. It is also used
for leveling, indirect measure of distances and prolonging a line etc. The line of sight of theodolite can
be rotated through 180o in vertical plane about its horizontal axis.

Parts of Theodolite and their Functions

Following are the parts of a theodolite:

 Telescope
 Vertical circle
 Index frame
 The standards
 The upper plate
 The lower plate
 The leveling head
 The shifting head
 Plate level
 Tripod
 Plumb bob
 Magnetic compass
Telescope

A telescope is a focusing instrument which has object piece at one end and eye piece at the other end. It
rotates about horizontal axis in vertical plane. The graduations are up to an accuracy of 20’.

Vertical Circle

Vertical circle is fitted to telescope and moves simultaneously with telescope. It has graduation in each
quadrant numbered from 0 to 90degrees.

Index Frame

It is also called as t-frame or vernier frame. It consists two arms vertical and horizontal. Vertical arm
helps to lock the telescope at desired level and horizontal arm is useful to take the measurements of
vertical angles.

The Standards

The standards are the frames which supports telescope and allow it to rotate about vertical axis.
Generally, these are in letter A-shape. So, standards are also called as A-frame.

The Upper Plate

This is also called as vernier plate. The top surface of upper plate gives support to the standards. It also
consists an upper clamping screw with respect to tangents screw which helps to fixing it to the lower
plate.

When the upper clamping screw is tightened both upper and lower plates are attached and moved
together with some relative motion because of upper tangent screw. The upper [late also consists two
verniers with magnifiers which are arranged diagonally. It is attached tow inner spindle.

The Lower Plate

This is also called as scale plate. Because it contains a scale on which 0 to 360 readings are graduated.
It is attached to the outer spindle and consists lower clamping screw. If lower clamp screw is loosened
and upper clamp screw is tightened, both plates can rotate together.

Similarly, if lower clamping screw is tightened and upper clamp is loosened then, only upper plate is
movable and lower plate is fixed with tribratch plate.

The Leveling Head

The leveling head contains two parallel triangular plates called as tribratch plates. The upper one is
known as upper tribratch plate and is used to level the upper plate and telescope with the help of
leveling screws provided at its three ends. The lower one is called as lower tribratch plate and is
attached to the tripod stand.

The Shifting Head

Shifting head also contains two parallel plates which are moved one over the other with in small area.
Shifting head lies below the lower plate. It is useful to centering the whole instrument over the station.

Plate Level

Plate levels are carried by the upper plate which are right angles to each other with one of them is
parallel to trunnion axis. These plate levels help the telescope to settle in exact vertical position.

Tripod

Tripod is nothing but a stand on which theodolite is mounted. It should place in such a way that
theodolite should be in exact leveled position. The tripod has legs with steel shoes at their ends. These
hold the ground strongly without any movement when placed.

Tripod has an external screw which helps to attach the theodolite by tribratch plate in fixed position.

Plumb Bob

Plumb bob is tool having a cone shaped weight attached to a long thread. The weight is hanged using
thread from the center of tripod stand and centering of theodolite is done.

Magnetic Compass

Simpler theodolites may contain circular compass box in the center of upper plate. When we select
north as reference meridian it will be useful.

GEOMETEY OF THEODOLITE: the theodolite works based on following geometry.

 The hz axis is parallel to the line of sight.

 The Hz axis should be perpendicular to vertical axis.
 The line of sight should be parallel to axis of altitude level tube.
 Horizontal axis should be parallel to axis of level tube.
 The hz axis should be pass through center of vertical circles,
 The upper plate, lower plate and hz circle should be concentric and the vertical axis should pass
through the centers of hz circle.
Classification theodolite:
Theodolites may be classified as ;

A.

i) Transit Theodolite.

ii) Non Transit Theodolite.

B.
i) Vernier Theodolites.

ii) Micrometer Theodolites.

A. Transit Theodolite: A theodolite is called a transit theodolite when its telescope can be transited i.e
revolved through a complete revolution about its horizontal axis in the vertical plane, whereas in a-Non-Transit
type, the telescope cannot be transited. They are inferior in utility and have now become obsolete.

B. Vernier Theodolite: For reading the graduated circle if verniers are used ,the theodolite is called as a

Vernier Theodolite.Whereas, if a micrometer is provided to read the graduated circle the same is called as a
Micrometer Theodolite.Vernier type theodolites are commonly used .

SIZE OF THEODOLITE

A theodolite is designated by diameter of the graduated circle on the lower plate.The common sizes are 8cm to
12 cm while 14 cm to 25 cm instrument are used for triangulation work. Greater accuracy is achieved with
larger theodolites as they have bigger graduated circle with larger divisions hence used where the survey
works require high degree of accuracy.

Some terms:
Centering : Centering means setting the theodolite exactly over an instrument- station so that its vertical
axis lies immediately above the station- mark. It can be done by means of plumb bob suspended from a small
hook attached to the vertical axis of the theodolite. The center shifting arrangement if provided with the
instrument helps in easy and rapid performance of the centering.

Transiting: Transiting is also known as plunging or reversing. It is the process of turning the
telescope about its horizontal axis through 180 0 in the vertical plane thus bringing it upside down and
making it point , exactly in opposite direction.

Swinging the telescope: It means turning the telescope about its vertical axis in the horizontal plane.

A swing is called right or left according as the telescope is rotated clockwise or counter clockwise.

Face Left

If the vertical circle of the instrument is on the left side of the observer while taking a reading ,the position
is called the face left and the observation taken on the horizontal or vertical circle in this position, is known
as the face left observation.
Face Right

If the vertical circle of the instrument is on the right side of the observer while taking a reading ,the position is
called the face right and the observation taken on the horizontal or vertical circle in this position, is known
as the face right observation.

Changing Face

It is the operation of bringing the vertical circle to the right of the observer ,if originally it is to the left , and vice
– versa.It is done in two steps; Firstly revolve the telescope through 180 0 in a vertical plane and then rotate
it through 1800 in the horizontal plane i.e first transit the telescope and then swing it through 180 0.

Line of Collimation

It is also known as the line of sight .It is an imaginary line joining the intersection of the cross- hairs of the
diaphragm to the optical center of the object- glass and its continuation.

Axis of the telescope

It is also known an imaginary line joining the optical center of the object- glass to the center of eye piece.

Axis of the Level Tube

It is also called the bubble line. It is a straight line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the level tube at the
center of the tube. It is horizontal when the bubble is in the center.

Vertical Axis

It is the axis about which the telescope can be rotated in the horizontal plane.

Horizontal Axis

It is the axis about which the telescope can be rotated in the vertical plane. It is also called the trunnion axis.

Height of Instrument (HI):

Height of horizontal axis from ground point.

Adjustment of Theodolite
The adjustments of a theodolite are of two kinds:-
1. Permanent Adjustments.
2. Temporary Adjustments.
 1) Permanent adjustments: The permanent adjustments are made to establish the relationship
between the fundamental lines of the theodolite and, once made, they last for a long time.
They are essential for the accuracy of observations.The permanent adjustments in case of a
transit theodolites are :-
i) Adjustment of Horizontal Plate Levels.

The axis of the plate levels must be perpendicular to the vertical axis.

ii) Collimation Adjustment

The line of collimation should coincide with the axis of the telescope and the axis of the
objective slide and should be at right angles to the horizontal axis.

iii) Horizontal axis adjustment.

The horizontal axis must be perpendicular to the vertical axis.

iv) Adjustment of Telescope Level or the Altitude Level Plate Levels

The axis of the telescope levels or the altitude level must be parallel to the line of collimation.

v) Vertical Circle Index Adjustment.

The vertical circle vernier must read zero when the line of collimation is horizontal.

2. Temporary Adjustment

The temporary adjustments are made at each set up of the instrument before we start taking observations
with the instrument. There are three temporary adjustments of a theodolite:-

i) Centering. ii) Levelling. iii) Focusing: elimination of parallax

MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL ANGLES:

There are three methods of measuring horizontal angles:-

i) Ordinary Method

ii) Repetition Method

iii) Reiteration Method

Ordinary Method

i) Set up the theodolite at station point and level it accurately.

ii) Set the Vernier A to the zero of the horizontal circle. Tighten the upper clamp.
iii) Loosen the lower clamp. Turn the instrument and direct the telescope towards A to bisect it accurately with
the use of tangent screw. After bisecting accurately check the reading which must still read zero. Read the
vernier B and record both the readings.

iv) Loosen the upper clamp and turn the telescope clockwise until line of sight bisects point B on the right hand
side. Then tighten the upper clamp and bisect it accurately by turning its tangent screw.

v) Read both verniers. The reading of the vernier a which was initially set at zero gives the value of the
angle AOB directly and that of the other vernier B by deducting 180 0 .The mean of the two vernier readings
gives the value of the required angle AOB.

vi) Change the face of the instrument and repeat the whole process. The mean of the two vernier readings
gives the second value of the angle AOB which should be approximately or exactly equal to the previous value.

vii) The mean of the two values of the angle AOB ,one with face left and the other with face right ,gives
the required angle free from all instrumental errors.

Repetition Method

This method is used for very accurate work. In this method ,the same angle is added several times
mechanically and the correct value of the angle is obtained by dividing the accumulated reading by the no. of
repetitions. The No. of repetitions made usually in this method is six, three with the face left and three with the
face right .In this way ,angles can be measured to a finer degree of accuracy than that obtainable with the least
count of the vernier.

To measure horizontal angle by repetitions:-

i) Set up the theodolite at starting point O and level it accurately.

ii) Measure The horizontal angle AOB.

iii) Loosen the lower clamp and turn the telescope clock – wise until the object (A) is sighted again. Bisect B
accurately by using the upper tangent screw. The verniers will now read the twice the value of the angle now.

iv) Repeat the process until the angle is repeated the required number of times (usually 3). Read again both
verniers . The final reading after n repetitions should be approximately n X (angle). Divide the sum by the
number of repetitions and the result thus obtained gives the correct value of the angle AOB.

v) Change the face of the instrument.

Repeat exactly in the same manner and find another value of the angle AOB. The average of two readings
gives the required precise value of the angle AOB.

Reiteration Method

This method is another precise and comparatively less tedious method of measuring the horizontal angles.
It is generally preferred when several angles are to be measured at a particular station. This method consists in
measuring Cseveral angles successively and finally closing the horizon at the starting point. The final
reading of the vernier A should be same as its initial reading. If not ,the discrepancy is equally distributed
among all the measured angles

Procedure

Suppose it is required to measure the angles AOB,BOC and COD. Then to measure these angles by
repetition method :

i) Set up the instrument over station point O and level it accurately.

ii) Direct the telescope towards point A which is known as referring object. Bisect it accurately and check
the reading of vernier as 0 or 3600 . Loosen the lower clamp and turn the telescope clockwise to sight point B
exactly.Read the verniers again and The mean reading will give the value of angle AOB.

iii) Similarly bisect C & D successively, read both verniers at each bisection, find the value of the angle
BOC and COD.

iv) Finally close the horizon by sighting towards the referring object (point A).

v) The vernier A should now read 360 0. If not note down the error .This error occurs due to slip etc.

vi) If the error is small, it is equally C distributed among the several angles .If large the readings should be
discarded and a new set of readings be taken.

Use of theodolite:

 To measure hz angle
 To measure vertical angle
 To measure bearing.
 To prolong any line
 For ranging: to divide any line
 To measure deflection angle
 To set any angle: for setting curve,building etc.

Sources of error

a) Instrumental errors
The geometry of a theodolite comprises three axes directly related to ech other called vertical,
trunnion and optical axes.When the theodolite is in adjustment:

i)The vertical axis is vertical

ii)The trunnion axis is at right angles to the vertical axis

 iii)The optical axis is at right angles to the trunnion axis.

iv)The zero line of the vertical circle is horizontal when the altitude bubble is level.

v)The crosshairs are vertical

vi)The optical plummet provides a vertical line of sight once the instruments is level.

These sources of error can be detected by undertaking a series of standard tests .

Changing face will eliminate errors due to (ii), (iii), (iv)

Note: Changing face will not eliminate errors crept in while levelling the instrument.

b)Manipulation errors

i)Parallax not properly eliminated

ii)Sighting wrong target, or part of target

ii)Using stadia hair in vertical angle measurement

iii)Incorrect use of upper and lower plate clamps and slow motion screws

iv)Poor centering of instrument over a ground mark

v)Targets not properly centred over ground marks

vi)Incorrectly set up tripod

c)Reading and booking errors

i)Incorrect reading of scales

ii)Incorrect booking of plate readings

iii)Arithmetic errors – there is no convenient arithmetic check.

iv)Check left and right face readings – is there the correct difference between them?

v)If several rounds of angles have been observed, look for the odd one out.

d) Natural error: error due to high wind, temperature, refraction, curvature of earth etc