ZIMBABWE

AT I ON
SFOR M
D T R A N
ICT A N
CONFL

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 Conflict transformation and resolutions

 Explain the various causes of conflict.

 Analyse African traditional conflict resolution

methods used during the pre-colonial times.

 Outline Conflict management and resolution

styles.

 Discuss the strategies for sustaining peace.

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 CONFLICT
 Conflict may be defined as a struggle or contest

between people with opposing needs, ideas, beliefs,

values, or goals.

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CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
 Is the practice of being able to identify and handle

conflicts sensibly, fairly, and efficiently.

 Everyone is striving to show how valuable they are to the

company they work for and at times, this can lead to

disputes with other members of the team.

 Conflicts if not managed well can lead to the

organization failing to meet its goals or targets.

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Conflict Management Styles

 An accommodating manager is one who cooperates to a

high degree. This may be at the manager's own expense

and actually work against that manager's own goals,

objectives, and desired outcomes. This approach is

effective when the other person is the expert or has a

better solution.

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 Avoiding an issue is one way a manager might attempt to

resolve a conflict. This type of conflict style does not

help the other staff members reach their goals and does

not help the manager who is avoiding the issue and

cannot assertively pursue his or her own goals. However,

this works well when the issue is trivial or when the

manager has no chance of winning.

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 Collaborating managers become partners or pair up with

each other to achieve both of their goals in this style.

This is how managers break free of the win-lose

paradigm and seek the win-win. This can be effective for

complex scenarios where managers need to find a novel

solution.

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Competing: This is the win-lose approach. A

manager is acting in a very assertive way to

achieve his or her own goals without seeking to

cooperate with other employees, and it may be at

the expense of those other employees. This

approach may be appropriate for emergencies

when time is of the essence.

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Compromising:
This is the lose-lose scenario where neither person

nor manager really achieves what they want. This

requires a moderate level of assertiveness and

cooperation. It may be appropriate for scenarios

where you need a temporary solution or where both

sides have equally important goals.

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1.2When to Use Which Approach
Competing
The competing approach is often appropriate when an
emergency looms, when you are sure you are right and
being right is more important than preserving
relationships, or the issue is trivial and others do not
really care what happens. This approach is
inappropriate when collaboration has not yet been
attempted, cooperation with others is important, it is
used routinely for most issues, or when the self-
respect of others is needlessly diminished.

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Avoiding
The avoiding approach is often appropriate when the issue is
trivial, the relationship is insignificant, time is short and a
decision is not necessary, and you have little power but still
wish to block the other person. The avoiding approach is
inappropriate when you care about the relationship and the
issues involved, when avoidance is used habitually for most
issues, when negative feelings may linger, and when others
would benefit from caring confrontation.

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Accommodating
The accommodating approach is best to use when you
encounter an issue you do not really care about, you
are powerless but have no wish to prevent the other
person from achieving their goals, or you realize you
are wrong. This approach is inappropriate when you are
likely to harbor resentment as a result, and you use
this habitually in order to gain acceptance (which will
result in depression or a lack of self-respect).
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Compromising
This approach is best used when cooperation is
important but the time or resources are limited, when
faced with a stalemate and the only way to overcome
it is to settle for a less than ideal solution, and when
efforts to collaborate will be misunderstood as
forcing. This approach is least appropriate when
finding the most creative solutions possible is essential,
or when you cannot live with the consequences.
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Conflict Resolution
Conflict Resolution encompasses negotiation,

mediation, and diplomacy.

Diplomacy generally refers to international

diplomacy in which experts in the field try and

find a solution to a conflict that will be acceptable

to both parties or countries on matters of

economics, war, peace, etc.

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Mediation is necessary when two or more

parties, states, or individuals have a dispute

about a certain topic, and employ impartial,

professional mediators to try and improve

communication and dialogue between the

parties to come to an agreement.

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Negotiation is a form of dialogue used to resolve a
conflict in which advantages and disadvantages are
discussed to try and come to agreement, and persuade
the other party to agree with you on the best possible
outcome for your party, or both parties. Conflict
Resolution can vary across cultures as the presence of
a third party professional or third party trusted
individual can be outside professionals, or inner
religious or community leaders

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 (4) Conflict Resolution approaches such as
negotiation, mediation and diplomacy are best used
when a quick solution is needed and there is no
significant relationship between the conflicting
parties.
Oftentimes, professional negotiators are brought in
to resolve conflicts between larger parties, but some
of the positions they take or methods they use can
be useful in interpersonal and intergroup.
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Conflict Transformation
Conflict Transformation seeks to exceed the

goals of Conflict Management and Conflict

Resolution, moving beyond the problems and

toward a healthy development of relationships

between individuals and communities.

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Principles of Conflict Transformation
 In the midst of conflict, people are always hurt. As
conflict is a natural and normal part of life, Conflict
Transformation does not seek to look at the individual
occurrences of conflict, but rather at the pattern of
conflict that is occurring in relationships.
 Conflict Transformation encourages us not to view
conflict as a threat, but rather as an opportunity for
growth and learning more about ourselves and others.
Scholars in the subject also suggest that without
conflict, life would be monotonous and that “conflict
creates life and keeps everything moving. Conflict keeps
us aware of our and other’s needs.
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Constructive Change Processes:
Engaging in conflict generates a lot of energy, and
more often than not, negative energy. Conflict
Transformation wishes to take that energy and
transform it from being destructive to being
constructive. The point is to generate creative,
constructive processes that can simultaneously
address surface issues and change underlying
social structures and relationship patterns.

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Reduce Violence and Increase Justice:
Conflict Transformation seeks to deal with the two
complex issues of violence and justice. In order to reduce
violence, the causes and patterns behind the violence must
be addressed. To increase justice, people need to have
access to political procedures and voice in the decisions
that affect their lives.
Conflict Transformation sees peace as “centered and
rooted in the quality of relationships.”
Peace is seen not as a goal, but as a process or structure,
something that is ongoing and continually developing, and
a framework within which nonviolent approaches to
conflict can be addressed through increasing
understanding, maintaining equality, and respect in the
context
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Direct Interaction and Social Structures:
 Direct interaction through dialogue is necessary at
interpersonal, intergroup and social-structural levels in
order to bring about change processes. Through dialogue,
social structures can be “modified to be more responsive
and just.
 Human Relationships: As emphasized in some of the previous
principles, relationships are the key to Conflict
Transformation. Issues in conflict are of great importance,
but relationships provide the context of the conflict.
Working for transformation within the context of
relationship as opposed to simply discussing the content of
the dispute will aid in moving from resolution to
transformation which will be sustained much longer than
resolution itself.

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The Five Steps to Conflict Resolution
Step 1: Identify the source of the conflict.
The more information you have about the cause of

the conflict, the more easily you can help to resolve

it. To get the information you need, use a series of

questions to identify the cause, like, “When did you

feel upset?” “Do you see a relationship between that

and this incident?” “How did this incident begin?” 

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As a manager or supervisor, you need to give both

parties the chance to share their side of the

story. It will give you a better understanding of

the situation, as well as demonstrate your

impartiality. As you listen to each disputant, say,

“I see” or “uh huh” to acknowledge the

information and encourage them to continue to

open up to you. 
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Step 2: Look beyond the incident.
 The source of the conflict might be a minor problem that

occurred months before, but the level of stress has

grown to the point where the two parties have begun

attacking each other personally instead of addressing

the real problem. In the calm of your office, you can get

them to look beyond the triggering incident to see the

real cause.

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Step 3: Request solutions.
 After getting each party’s viewpoint on the conflict, the

next step is to get each to identify how the situation could

be changed.
 As mediator, you have to be an active listener, aware of

every verbal nuance, as well as a good reader of body

language.
 Just listen so that the disputants stop fighting and start

cooperating, and that means steering the discussion away

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from finger pointing and toward ways of resolving the
Step 4: Identify solutions both disputants can support. 
You are listening for the most acceptable course of action.

Point out the merits of various ideas, not only from each

other’s perspective, but in terms of the benefits to the

organization. (For instance, you might point to the need for

greater cooperation and collaboration to effectively

address team issues and departmental problems.) 

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Step 5: Agreement.
The mediator needs to get the two parties to shake
hands and agree to one of the alternatives identified
in Step 4. Some mediators go as far as to write up a
contract in which actions and time frames are
specified. However, it might be sufficient to meet with
the individuals and have them answer these questions:
“What action plans will you both put in place to prevent
conflicts from arising in the future?” and “What will
you do if problems arise in the future?” 
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CAUSES OF CONFLICT. (Bell & Hart’s ):
1. Conflicting resources
Employees rely on accessing resources, such as
technology, office supplies and meeting rooms, to
perform effectively. Unfortunately, it is not always
possible for everyone to access the resources they wish
to at all times. If the reason someone cannot access the
resources is that someone else is using them then this
can lead to conflict. A manager’s job may then be to
decide who has the rightful access to the resource and
how it will be distributed in the future. 

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2. Conflicting styles
No two individuals will work the same. Different
methods of organisation, communication and time-
keeping are very common in any organisation. This is
generally effective as each individual should be
allowed to work in their own style. However, when it
comes to team tasks this can become problematic,
as some individuals will have to compromise on how
the work is done. A manager can avoid conflict
occurring here by selecting teams based on their
similarities and strengths.
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3. Conflicting perceptions
Different perceptions of what the organisation’s

goals are, the methods used and who is responsible

for what can often lead to conflict. Open and

transparent communication is the key to avoiding

this happening.

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4. Conflicting goals
Often different managers will set targets and goals for

the same individual and this can often lead to conflicting

goals being set. For instance, it is hard to deliver on both

speed and quality and hence setting both these targets

may cause issues. The conflict here may be between the

individual and on or both of the managers or between the

managers themselves.

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5. Conflicting pressures
Conflicting pressures are similar to conflicting

goals, except they usually exist over a shorter

space of time. Individuals may be pressured to

complete two different tasks by two different

managers before the end of the day and this can

lead to conflict. 

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6. Conflicting roles
Often employees can be asked to perform a task that they

are not usually responsible for. This can cause conflict as

either the individual feels the task is not appropriate for

them or another individual believed it was for them. Whilst

this can be avoided by delegating the same tasks to the

same individuals, differentiating your team members’ roles

can be a good opportunity for learning and development.

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7. Different personal values
Personal values determine the way we behave and the work

we produce. Often, individuals will disagree about the

actions they should take due to their personal values and

this can lead to conflict. As a manager, you can ensure your

team members are never put in a position where they are

asked to compromise their values.

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8. Unpredictable policies
Rules and policies are not always communicated across an

organisation effectively. This can lead to a poor

understanding of them and confusion amongst team

members. It is important to ensure policies, and

particularly their changes, are communicated effectively

throughout the organisation to avoid conflict like this

from occurring. 

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3.0 Causes of conflict in the workplace
 poor management
 unfair treatment
 unclear job roles
 inadequate training
 poor communication
 poor work environment
 lack of equal opportunities
 bullying and harassment
 significant changes to products, organisational charts,
appraisals or pay systems

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 Major causes of workplace conflict
 Personality clashes - the 'personality mix' within a team

can be upset when a new member of staff joins or if two

colleagues suddenly fall out. Individuals may also

respond to difficult or challenging situations in an

unhelpful or unproductive way.

 Unrealistic needs and expectations - conflict at work can

often be caused when employers ignore the needs of

employees or set unrealistic expectations. For example,

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arranging hours that make it difficult for employees to
Business values - most people have very clear

ideas about what they think is fair, and your

organisation's procedures and policies must

reflect this. For example, giving someone a fair

hearing or explaining the reasoning behind a

decision.

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 Unresolved workplace issues - for example, an employee
might ask to be moved to another team because of their
manager's 'aggressive' leadership style. However, the
employee may have other reasons - for example, they may
blame their manager for a lack of training or career
progression.
 Increase in workload - sometimes workplace conflict is
caused because people feel they are being pushed too hard
and resentment sets in if they feel their workload is
unmanageable.
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African traditional conflict resolution methods
used during the pre-colonial times.
 Long before Africa was colonised, and way beyond the

advent of slave trade, African societies had

institutional mechanisms as well as cultural sources to

uphold the values of peace, tolerance, solidarity and

respect for, and of, one another.

 These structures were responsible for “peace

education, confidence-building, peace-making,

peacebuilding, conflict
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monitoring, conflict prevention,
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 The traditional African system of government was open
and inclusive, where all people could participate in the
decision-making process.
 While the West practised majoritarian, or representative
democracy Africans practised participatory democracy,
where decisions were taken by consensus at village
meetings, “variously called, dare by the Shona, ndaba by
the Zulu or kgotla by the Tswana.”

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 However, with slave trade and colonisation, these indigenous
institutions were largely weakened and even destroyed in many
societies, especially as the colonial masters introduced law courts,
which came to pronounce judgments rather than resolve conflicts
according to the African administration of justice.
 Of course, in this new legal system, the police took up cases that,
hitherto, were handled through traditional amicable settlements,
with emphasis on reconciliation and the restoration of social
harmony, rather than on punishment of the conflicting parties.

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 African traditional mechanisms of conflict prevention,
management and resolution were largely effective and
respected, and their decisions were binding on all parties,
mainly because “the identity of an individual is linked to
that of his or her family and these families are formed by
the acceptance of marriage alliances”.
 Here, the importance of the family in the conflict
management process was highlighted, as well as the role of
the chiefs, elders, family heads and others, to anticipate
and resolve conflicts.
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 The major sources of conflict in Africa were land,

chieftaincy, personal relationship issues, family

property, honour, murder or poisoning, and matrimonial

fall-outs. In resolving these kinds of conflicts, the

principles of equity and justice, which is entrenched in

African customs and traditions, were upheld.

 This article highlights the traditional institutions and

methods of conflict resolution in the Kom community of

Cameroon.
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 Methods engaged in resolution of conflict in Africa The

methods of performing conflict resolution in the

traditional African societies are as follows: mediation,

adjudication, reconciliation, arbitration and negotiation.

 It also includes employing extra-judicial devices and

usage of legal maxims to persuade or convince the

disputants about the implication or otherwise of their

behavior. These methods have been effective in

traditional
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Mediation
 Mediation is an old method of conflict management
surrounded by secrecy. It involves non-coercive intervention
of the mediators(s), called third party either to reduce or
… go beyond or bring conflict to peaceful settlement.
 Olaoba, described mediation as a method of conflict
resolution that had been so critical to traditional society.
The mediators usually endeavoured that peace and harmony
reigned supreme in the society at whatever level of
mediation.
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Adjudication

Adjudication In traditional African society, adjudication

involves bringing all disputants in the conflict to a

meeting usually in the chambers or compounds of family

heads, quarter heads and palace court as the case

maybe. Dialogue was linked with the ad judicatory

processes
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(Olaoba, 2005)
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Reconciliation
This was the most significant aspect of conflict

resolution. It is the end product of adjudication. After

the disputants have been persuaded to end the dispute,

peace was restored. This restoration of peace and

harmony was always anchored on the principle of give a

little and get a little.

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 A feast was usually organized to confirm the readiness

of the conflicting parties towards reaching points of

compromise (Ibid).

 At least, as characteristic of African traditional society,

conflict resolution method is the use of arbitration.

 The purpose is not to render a judgment in law but to

reconcile
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the conflicting parties and
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its norms.
Negotiation
 The secret is to harmonize the interests of the parties
concerned. Thus, even when the conflict involves a member
against his or her society, there is an emphasis on
recuperation and reinsertion of errant member back into its
place in society.
 The recovery of a dissident member can just as well be seen
as the restoration of the harmony and integrity of the
community, as the assertion of value consensus and social
cohesion, so that the management of the conflict favours the
concerns
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 Conflict resolution in traditional shona people (zezuru)

Traditional Brew
 In the Zezuru communities, fermented beers are commonly
prepared at home from locally grown grains like sorghum or
rapoko.
 Traditionally, these homemade beers are used during special
cultural events such as weddings, funerals and spirit-
appeasing ceremonies amongst others.
 The most common of these traditional beers is a seven-day
brew called „rematanda’,MANHURU
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‘ndari’ or ‘ngoto’.
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Silence Traditionally

silence has been used by victims of injustices as a

way of keeping away from constant reminders of
the past and possibly, buttressed by the 1979
approach by the liberation and former colonial
movements;
 it has now become an official mode of healing
and reconciliation.

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Compensation „Kuripa‟
 Compensation „Kuripa‟ In the Zimbabwean customs,
compensation or reparation is a common method of settling
disputes especially where one or the perpetrator would
have caused the victim to lose his/her valuables.
 In such cases, negotiations are held before an agreement
is reached as to how much is supposed to be paid as
appropriate repayment or compensation.
 In Shona culture, it is called „kuripa’ and is highly
recognized as a long-term cultural method of healing.

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Traditional Court Systems
 According to Jenkins (2004), the rule of law concept lies in the
Eurocentric paradigm that assumes that the state, rather than
the community, carries the responsibility of dealing with crime
and other social problems.
 This approach, which is derived from English common law, uses the
state as the primary agent in dealing with the behaviour of
individuals, treatment of offenders, and compensation for
victims.
 However, prior to that, there was the traditional court system
headed by traditional leaders that operated effectively and
efficiently.
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Marriage
 One of the most respected institutions involved in conflict
resolution in the Zezuru culture is marriage.
 It is believed that marriage brings together strangers
creating strong bonds, sees the continuation of the family
name, solves conflicts and brings labour into the family
amongst others.
 In the Zezuru culture marriage is basically the coming
together of two or more parties of different sex for
procreation

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Traditional Appeasement of the Dead
 Appeasement of the dead, bringing home or re-calling the
spirit back into the village „Kurova guva, kutamba guva,
kuchenura munhu or magadziro‟ is a traditional ritual which
is performed in honour and remembrance of the dead by
the living. Gundani (1994) calls it ritual integration of the
deceased's spirit.
 It is a ceremony which is performed once and usually a year
after the death of a person or after a rain season in the
year after death.
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‘Jakwara’ as a Conflict Resolution Measure
 ‘Jakwara’ or collective work is an approach that is used in
communal areas to help each other execute heavy tasks
especially related to agricultural activities.
 This activity is known by different terms within the Zezuru
community with some societies calling it „nhimbe‟ while
others call it „jangano‟ or „humwe‟ (Tavuyanago et al,
2010).
 It must be realized however that „jangano‟ was a concept
seeking cooperation but without involving beer.
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Traditional ‘Bira’ Roles

 The spiritual dance ceremony ‘bira’ served various

purposes in society; appeasement of the dead ‘kurova

guva’,
 paying tribute to the ancestors ‘kukudza/kurangarira

vadzimu’, evoking spirits ‘kukumbira mudzimu’,

 celebration ‘mhemberero’,

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house warming ‘kuratidza musha’,
seeking family blessings ‘kuuraya gono/

kuparadza bhuru remusha’,

rain-seeking ‘mukwerera/mutoro’,
thanking the spirits for successes ‘kutenda

mashavi’ and memorial programs ‘mharadza

musasa/nyaradzo’ and several others. Some

people call this ‘mutambo’ for party.

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Traditional Story-Telling
 Normally, story-telling is taken as a past-time activity, which is
supposed to entertain people as they while up their evenings in the
rural communities.
 However, what must be realized is that, there were several other
purposes that they served, deliberately or otherwise, amongst
them wisdom and knowledge dissemination.
 These two aspects helped in inculcating a sense of love, peace,
harmony, tolerance, relationship, togetherness and the ability to
converse, engage, confront, mediate (Price, 2007) negotiate,
reason,
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and analyse
GIBSON 2020 events as they unfolded.
Importance of conflict resolution
 Conflict resolution provides an opportunity to interact with the
parties concerned, with the hope of at least reducing the scope,
intensity and effects of conflicts.
 During formal and informal meetings, conflict resolution
exercises permit a reassessment of views and claims as a basis
for finding options to crisis and to divergent points of view.
 Those who organize conflict resolution exercises or meetings
usually constitute the third party in a triangular arrangement
and consist of traditional rulers (King, Chiefs, etc).

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 Conflict resolution in the plural societies can be quite

complex, principally because of the determinate effects

of culture and language symbolism.

 According to Airuch (2001) it is quite dangerous to

relegate culture to the background in conflict resolution.

 Although, culture is a marker of social differences, it

should be regarded as an obstacle to conflict resolution

in multi-ethnic/multi-cultural societies.
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 Conflict resolution performs a healing function in
African societies.
 It provides opportunity for the examinations of
alternative positive decision to resolve differences.
 Failure to resolve conflict over access to commonly valued
scarce resources, and over divergent perceptions of
socio-political situations, has the high potential of
degenerating into genocide or fratricide as it occurred
the Hutu-Tutsi of Burundi and Rwanda (Punier, 1995).

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 Conflict resolution promotes consensus-building, social

bridge reconstructions, and the re-enactment of order

in society.

 Conflicts hardly break up societies (Otite, 2001, p. 9).

 It takes into account the cultural setting and the social

context.

 It looks at the history of preceding events which have

led to the conflict concerned.

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 it takes possible implications for the future seriously.
 A wider look is taken than one which just includes the
disputing parties, possible consequences for others in their
families and social network are also taken into
consideration.
 Potential effects on relationship and interests are
envisaged.
 Cross examination a means of weighting evidence through
cross checking and corroborating of the facts of the
conflict (Olaoba, 2000)

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strategies for sustaining peace.

 The overall objective of the Strategy for sustainable

peace is to contribute to prevention of armed conflict,

effective conflict resolution, sustainable peacebuilding

and state building, increased human security in fragile

and conflict-affected states, and empowerment of

women as well as of youth, children and other excluded

groups in these situations.

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 The strategy therefore include a broad approach of

prevention of armed conflict, peacebuilding and state

building, human security, and strengthened role for

women and for young people in fragile and conflict-

affected situations in order to enable relevant support

to sustainable peace.

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 Examination Questions
Define the term conflict
Conflict is a relationship between two or more

parties who perceive they have incompatible goals

or means or means of achieving those goals,

(Fisher 2017)

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 Define conflict resolution
 Diamond (2009) defines conflict resolution as those

activities that seek to discover, identify and resolve the

underlying root cause of conflict

 They are approaches aimed at terminating conflicts

through constructing solving the problems distinct from

management or conflict transformation.

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Discuss the impact of conflict in Africa
 Destruction of public infrastructure-roads,
schools , hospitals, bridges and industries
 Displacement of people
 Loss of lives
 Destruction of property
 Tenure, Rape and assaults
 Persistence of poverty, economic decline, loss of
income
 Obstacle to development
 Diverting of resources from investment to war
 Forced migration MANHURU GIBSON 2020
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Discuss any six reasons why mediation as a conflict resolution
method is preferred over litigation in solving a conflict in
Zimbabwe.

 mediation-it is a voluntary process in which an impartial

person (the mediator) helps with communication and
promotes reconciliation between the parties which will allow
them to reach a mutually acceptable agreement. It is the
next step if the negotiation process is unsuccessful.

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 Why mediation is preferred
 Mediation is a less expensive route to follow than

litigation.
 Mediation offers a confidential process while court cases

(litigation) happen in public.

 Mediation meetings are confidential and are conducted

behind closed doors.

 Outsiders can only observe proceedings with both

parties consent.
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 In mediation parties have control over the resolution
and the resolution, and the resolution can be unique to
the conflict while in litigation the judge decides the
outcome.
 Solutions developed by the parties are ones that a judge
or jury cannot provide.
 Mediation is more likely to produce a result that is
mutually agreeable.
 Mediation is a win-win outcome while in litigation one
losses the case.
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Using relevant examples, discuss causes of conflict in Zimbabwe
and across Africa
 Economic conflict/ resource conflict- access to land, minerals,
water, timber, rubber, etc.
 Class conflict (rich v the poor)
 Racial or tribal conflict-Ndebele v Shona
 Power conflict (MDC v ZANU PF)
 Territorial/ boundary conflict
 Religious conflicts (Christians v Moslems or African religion v
Christians)
 Personal or leadership conflicts
Ideological conflicts
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Examples of conflicts in Zimbabwe and Africa
 first and second chimurenga
 Operation restore order-operation Murambatsvina in

2005.
 Zimbabwe’s land redistribution programme
 Religious conflicts in southern and northern Sudan

(Christians v Muslims).
 Apartheid in south Africa
 17 November 2018 military takeover in Zimbabwe
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Conflict is natural, inevitable and sometimes necessary to

produce innovative solutions to problems. In the light of

the above statement, discuss any conflict which has

resulted in socio-economic changes in your community.

 Land reform and redistribution in Zimbabwe

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Socio-economic changes
 Employment creation for the mases of Zimbabweans in
agriculture.
 Construction of schools, hospitals, roads , clinics in the
formerly white owned farms.
 Local people involved in the production of commercial crops
such a tobacco.
 Settlers accumulated assets
 Increase in agricultural production in tobacco farming.
 Infrastructural development.
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 Improvement in the standard of living of the people

(settlers being able to send their children to reputable

institutions).
 Food provisions for families
 Black ownership of the land
 Brings foreign currency especially in tobacco farming.
 Modernisation of agricultural equipment
 Increased knowledge in agriculture.
 Government support.
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Discuss the impact of conflict resolution methods used by

African traditional leaders to resolve conflicts in

communities.
 African traditional leaders guided and counselled

communities in moral codes of the community.

 In matters relating to lord, sprits and ancestors.
 There was more action for peace than more talk.
 An offence was forgiven and was never recalled.

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 In case of murders and various crimes courts were held

and these were presided over by chiefs.

 These were conducted under tress or specifically

designated arears.
 Restitution or compensation for loss was done.
 Killing or pouring of kinsman’s blood in a conflict would

anger the ancestors and would demand sacrifice.

 Sacrifices of blood were mad.

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 For crimes committed people were asked to pay goats,

etc.
 Violation of certain values and beliefs in the community

meant punishment through payment.

 These conflict resolution methods were meant to turn a

conflict into a peaceful relationship.

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The following are conflict resolution methods , which one
would you preferer to use in order to resolve any conflict.
Support you’re your answer;
 Arbitration
 Conciliation
 Mediation
 Negotiation
 Power sharing
 Litigation
 adjudication
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With reference to your community, discuss the
causes of conflict.
Conflict - is the result of opposing interests involving scarce
resources, goal divergence and frustration.
Answer
 Raw materials
 Water
 Minerals
 Religion
 Poor management
 -Unfair
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treatment MANHURU GIBSON 2020
 Unclear job roles
 Inadequate training
 Poor communication
 Poor work environment
 Lack of opportunities
 Bullying
 Harassment

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Using practical examples, highlight the operations of
the conflict model
Definition of Terms
Conflict Model-
According to Mitchell, the conflict structure consists of three
parts:
 attitudes
 behavior
 situations that interact and create conflicts between actors.
 Mitchell’s conflict structure simplifies the complex reality in
an understandable way.
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 The situation impacts the behavior (failure to reach

targeted goals, especially important goals, creates

frustration and increases the willingness to reach these

goals).
 The situation impacts attitudes (incompatible goals

increase the suspicion and distrust between the actors).

 Behavior impacts the situation (success can introduce

new questions in the conflict as demands increases).

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 Behavior impacts the attitudes (destruction increases

hatred, success can impact the group solidarity and

the notion of "us").

 Attitudes impact the behavior (expectations such as

"our traditional enemies will attack again" will impact

the defensive planning and preventive actions).

 Attitudes impact the situation (the longer the conflict

continues the more questions will be introduced).

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With reference to your community, explain the
traditional conflict resolution methods used
during the pre-colonial era
Answer
Zimbabwe communities have varied traditional methods

for conflict handling. The methods have complemented

the government efforts in dealing with protracted

violence in some parts of the country. The methods vary

from one conflict environment to the other. Some

examples
11/11/2020 include the following:
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a) Negotiation
 In negotiation parties meet to identify and discuss the issues at
hand so as to arrive at a mutually acceptable solution without the
help of a third party. Negotiation is thus voluntary.
 It allows party autonomy in the process and over the outcome. It
is non-coercive thus allowing parties’ room to come up with
creative solutions.
 It has also been described as a process involving two or more
people of either equal or unequal power meeting to discuss
shared and/or opposed interests in relation to a particular area
of mutual concern.

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 As such the focus of negotiations is the common interests
of the parties rather than their relative power or position.
The goal is to avoid the overemphasis of how the dispute
arose but to create options that satisfy both the mutual
and individual interests.
 Consequently whatever outcome is arrived at in negotiation
it is one that satisfies both parties and addresses the root
causes of the conflict and that’s why negotiation is a
conflict resolution mechanism.

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b) Mediation
 Mediation in traditional dispute resolution is a very informal

process. It is a continuation of the negotiation process by

other means whereby instead of having a two way

negotiation, it now becomes a three way process: the

mediator in essence mediating the negotiations between the

parties.
 Mediation is thus a continuation of the negotiation process in

the presence of a third party. It is voluntarily entered into,

parties
11/11/2020 exhibits autonomy in GIBSON
MANHURU the choice
2020 of the mediator, over
 Such mediations result in a resolution of the conflict as opposed to

a settlement. Traditional mediation is effective in dealing with

interpersonal or inter - community conflicts.

 Local mediation typically incorporates consensus building based on

open discussions to exchange of information and clarify issues.

 Conflicting parties are more likely to accept guidance from these

mediators than from other sources because an elder’s decision

does not entail any loss of face and is backed by social pressure.
 The end result is, ideally, a sense of unity, shared involvement and

responsibility, and dialogue among groups otherwise in conflict.

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Conciliation
 Conciliation is a process in which a third party, called a

conciliator, restores damaged relationships between

disputing parties by bringing them together , clarifying

perceptions and pointing out misperceptions.

 The difference between mediation and conciliation is

that the conciliator, unlike the mediator who is supposed

to be neutral, may or may not be totally neutral to the

interests of the parties.

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 Successful conciliation reduces tension, opens channels

of communication and facilitates continued

negotiations.
 Frequently, conciliation is used to restore the parties

to pre-dispute status quo, after which other

alternative dispute resolution methods are applied

 Conciliation is also used when parties are unwilling,

unable or unprepared to come to the bargaining table.

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 Having looked at the concept of access to justice using

the traditional justice systems, the traditional justice

systems are dictated by the custom and traditions of

the people.
 It is passed down from generation to generation as a

way of regulating life of the people in the community

the basic logic being to maintain harmony and good

relationships among the people.

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The examples of traditional conflict resolution

methods have been discussed; we now focus on

the advantages and benefits of using traditional

justice systems, doing a case against engaging

with traditional justice systems and analyzing

traditional institutions that are used in conflict

management.
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Analyze the benefits and advantages of using traditional
conflict resolution methods in your community

 Traditional approaches provide for inclusion and

participation. In the same way as all parties (and every

member of each party) are responsible for the conflict,

everybody also has to take responsibility for its solution.

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 A solution can only be achieved by consensus. Every side

has to perceive the resolution as a win-win outcome,

compatible with its own interests – which are not

confined to the material sphere, but also comprise issues

such as honor, prestige, saving one’s face.

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 In a non-adversarial atmosphere, communication between

alienated parties can be restored, leading to increased

mutual understanding.
 Interested parties that are involved in the issues at

stake bring to the bargaining table a much deeper

understanding of the technical and institutional

dimensions of the problem than an external judge would,

and are in a better position to explore different solutions

and analyse their consequences.

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In contrast to the adversarial environment of

the courts, resolution facilitators are

impartial and work with all the parties to a

dispute which helps bring about an effective

resolution that satisfies their respective

interests.

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 In the same spirit a resolution process gives the parties

control over costs and the potential to settle earlier

than you could in adversarial litigation, which gets more

expensive the longer it takes.

 The wide range of resolution techniques available and

their adaptability make them a very flexible vehicle for

the resolution of many different types of disputes

that could arise among parties.

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 Facilitated resolution allows disputing parties to

discuss and clarify their respective needs and

concerns informally and to resolve underlying issues

in their relationship.
 This enables them to preserve and sometimes even

enhance their relationships.

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 Litigation carries a high level of uncertainty and risk

over which the parties to a dispute have little control.

 Traditional conflict resolution puts the parties in control

of the process with greater certainty that a mutually

satisfactory solution will be reached.

 Since the interested parties retain control, substantive

issues of importance to them can be discussed and the

roots of the problem tackled.

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 These are major attributes of traditional conflict

resolution mechanisms.
 By their very own characteristics, there has to be a

spirit of co-operation, a passive stance, the parties

should be willing to reach a mutually satisfying

resolution to a problem and most importantly, there has

to be persuasion as opposed to coercion.

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 Informal justice systems are often more accessible to the poor
and the disadvantaged people and may have the potential to
provide a quick, cheap and culturally relevant remedies.
 Informal justice systems are prevalent throughout the world,
especially in developing countries.
 They are the cornerstone of dispute resolution and access to
justice for the majority of populations, especially the poor and
disadvantaged in many countries, where informal justice
systems usually resolve between 80 and 90 percent of the
disputes.
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 The prospects for successful implementation of the

decisions/solutions produced by the interested parties

themselves are enhanced and, as they have a better

understanding of and a greater investment in the

settlement, any subsequent problems that do arise can

often be expeditiously resolved, rather than becoming

the subject of further litigation (lawsuits breed more

lawsuits).
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 They focus on consensus, reconciliation and social harmony:

the goal often is not just to punish the perpetrator, but to

compensate the victim for their loss, to prevent the accused

from committing the crime again, and to reintegrate both

the victim and the offender back to the community.

 The type of justice promoted by these systems may be the

most appropriate option for people living in a close-knit

community whose members must rely on continued social and

economic cooperation of the neighbors.

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 They enjoy social legitimacy, trust and understanding of

local problems: informal justice systems often reflect

local social norms and are closely linked to the local

community. Community members often have a sense of

ownership towards their respective system. Informal

justice actors have local legitimacy and authority that is

not always afforded to formal operators.

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 Informal justice systems tend to work well where the
community is relatively homogenous, linguistically, culturally
and is bound by ties of mutual dependency. In this setting
one often defines one’s identity as being inextricably part
of networks: familial networks, cultural networks, religious
networks and strong sense of bounded communities.
Informal justice actors often understand local problems and
are capable of finding practical solutions to their problems.

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 The traditional conflict resolution methods are often

preventive and deterrent measures of conflicts both

within and without the community.

 Most of the rituals performed during conflict

management process are horrifying, strenuous and

expensive and as such are avoided.

 This has been reinforced by cultural beliefs, taboos,

norms and superstitions that further make the

mechanisms binding and adhered to.

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 The penalties, fines and compensations imposed by

customary courts are very severe and prohibitive

making it a perfect mechanism of preventing intra and

inter-ethnic conflicts and crimes.

 The collective nature of some of the punishments places

the role of preventing conflicts at the family and clan

level enlisting the support of everybody in the clan.

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 They are easily accessible and devoid of bureaucratic

hitches that have marred the modern court system.

 Incase of a dispute, elders can easily convene anywhere

in the villages and solve the problem.

 It is a quick and effective way of administering justice.

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 The traditional methods are also culturally accepted

and adhered to. Customary law is based on societal

norms, taboos and beliefs.

 The verdict of informal court sittings is taken as a

direct reflection of the cultural norms and customary

law.
 The customary law is reinforced by a strong belief in

curses.

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With reference to your community, highlight the
conflict resolution styles that can be used to solve a
conflict
• The five styles used to manage conflict are:
• Avoiding: low assertiveness and low cooperation
• Accommodating: Low assertiveness and high cooperation
• Competing: High assertiveness and low cooperation
• Compromising: Medium assertiveness and medium

cooperation
• Collaborating: High assertiveness and high cooperation
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 Competing is assertive and uncooperative, a power-

oriented mode. When competing, an individual pursues his

or her own concerns at the other person’s expense, using

whatever power seems appropriate to win his or her

position. Competing may mean standing up for your

rights, defending a position you believe is correct or

simply trying to win.

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 Accommodating is unassertive and cooperative—the

opposite of competing. When accommodating, an

individual neglects his or her own concerns to satisfy

the concerns of the other person; there is an element

of self-sacrifice in this mode. Accommodating might

take the form of selfless generosity or charity,

obeying another person’s order when you would prefer

not to, or yielding to another’s point of view.

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 Avoiding is unassertive and uncooperative. When avoiding,

an individual does not immediately pursue his or her own

concerns or those of the other person. He or she does not

address the conflict. Avoiding might take the form of a

diplomatically sidestepping an issue, postponing an issue

until a better time, or simply withdrawing from a

threatening situation.

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 Compromising is intermediate in both assertiveness and
cooperativeness. When compromising, an individual has the
objective of finding an expedient, mutually acceptable solution
that partially satisfies both parties. Compromising falls on a
middle ground between competing and accommodating, giving
up more than competing but less than accommodating.
Likewise, it addresses an issue more directly than avoiding but
doesn’t explore it in as much depth as collaborating.
Compromising might mean splitting the difference,
exchanging concessions, or seeking a quick middle-ground
position.
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 Collaborating is both assertive and cooperative. When
collaborating, an individual attempts to work with the other
person to find a solution that fully satisfies the concerns of
both. It involves digging into an issue to identify the
underlying concerns of the two individuals and to find an
alternative that meets both sets of concerns. Collaborating
between two persons might take the form of exploring a
disagreement to learn from each other’s insights, resolving
some condition that would otherwise have them competing
for resources, or confronting and trying to find a creative
solution
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MANHURU GIBSON 2020
Using practical examples, discuss conflict resolution
skills that can be employed at a place of employment
Conflict resolution - is a way for two or more parties to
find peaceful solution to a disagreement among them. The
disagreement may be personal, financial, political or
emotional.
Answer
 The ability to successfully resolve conflict depends on
your ability to;
 Manage stress quickly while remaining alert and calm
 Control your emotions and behavior
 Pay attention to the feelings being expressed as well as
the spoken words of others.
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 Be aware of and respect differences.

Using practical examples, highlight strategies that can be
implemented in conflict resolution
Definition of terms
• Conflict resolution
Answer
 When angry, separate yourself from the situation and
take time to cool out.
 Attack the problem, not the person. Start with a
compliment.
 Communicate your feelings assertively, NOT
aggressively. Express them without blaming.
 Focus on the issue, NOT your position about the issue.
 Accept
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and respect that individual opinions may differ,
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don’t try to force compliance, work to develop common

 END

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