Elasticity

Theory and Applications

MSc Degree/Graduate Studies/ Civil Engineering/ ThiQar University

Dr. Alaa Al-Rkaby

(Assist. Prof.)
Analysis of Stress
Stress tensor
When a body is subjected to a set of external forces, internal forces are produced in different parts of the
body so that each element of the body is in a state of statical equilibrium. Through any point O within the
body, consider a small surface element δS whose orientation is specified by the unit vector l along the
normal drawn on one side of the element (Fig. 1). The material on this side of δS may be regarded as
exerting a force δP across the surface element upon the material on the other side. The limit of the ratio
δP/δS as δS tends to zero is the stress vector T at O associated with the direction I. For given external
loading, the stress acting across any plane passing through a given point O depends on the orientation of the
plane. The resolved component of the stress vector along the unit normal l is called the direct or normal
stress denoted by σ, while the component tangential to the plane is known as the shear stress denoted by τ.
 Consider now a set of rectangular axes Ox, Oy, and Oz emanating from a typical point O,
and imagines a small rectangular parallelepiped at O having its edges parallel to the axes of
reference (Fig. 1). The normal stresses across the faces of the block are denoted by σx, σy,
and σz, where the subscripts denote the directions of the normal to the faces. The shear
stress acting on the faces normal to the x axis is resolved into the components τxy and τxz
parallel to the y and z axes respectively.

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Figure 1
 The nine components of the stress at any point form a second-order tensor σij, known as the
stress tensor, where i and j take integral values 1, 2, and 3. The stress components may be
displayed as elements of the square matrix

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 The conditions for couple equilibrium about the axes give τxy =τyx, τyz =τzy and τzx =τxz.
These identities may be expressed as σij =σji, implying that the stress tensor is
symmetric with respect to its subscripts. Thus there are six independent stress
components, three normal components σx, σy, σz, and three shear components τxy, τyz, τzx,
which completely specify the state of stress at each point of the body. The matrix
representing the stress tensor is evidently symmetrical.

 Hydrostatic stress σ0 is the mean of the three normal stresses, equal to (σx +σy
+σz)/3.

 A deviatoric or reduced stress tensor sij is defined as that which is obtained from
σij by reducing the normal stress components by σ0.

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 This gives the deviatoric stresses as

 The deviatoric normal stresses are therefore given by

3sx = 2σx − σy − σz,

3sy = 2σy − σz − σx, and

3sz = 2σz − σx – σy
Graduate Studies/ ThiQar Uni. by Dr. Alaa Al-Rkaby
 The relationship between sij and σij can be expressed as

sij = σij − σ0δij = σij – (1/3)σkk δij

where δij is the Kronecker delta whose value is unity when i=j and zero when i ≠ j. Evidently,
δij =δji. Any repeated or dummy suffix indicates a summation of all terms obtainable by
assigning the values 1, 2, and 3 to this suffix in succession. Thus σkk =σx +σy +σz.

It follows from the definition of the delta symbol that σij δjk =σik , where j is a dummy suffix
and i, k are free suffixes. Each term of a tensor equation must have the same free suffixes, but a
dummy suffix can be replaced by any other letter different from the free suffixes.

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Stresses on an oblique plane

 Consider the equilibrium of a small tetrahedron OABC (Fig. 2) of which the edges OA,
OB, and OC are along the coordinate axes. Consider the equilibrium of a small tetrahedron
OABC of which the edges OA, OB, and OC are along the coordinate axes.

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Figure 2
 Let (l,m, n) be the directions cosines of a straight line drawn along the exterior normal to
the oblique plane ABC. These are the components of the unit normal 1 with respect to Ox,
Oy, and Oz. If the area of the face ABC is denoted by δS, the faces OAB, OBC, and OCA
have areas n δS, l δS, and mδS respectively. The stress vector T acting across the face ABC
has components Tx, Ty, and Tz along the axes of reference. When δS tends to zero, these
equations give the components of the stress vector at O. Resolving the forces in the
directions Ox, Oy, and Oz, we get

Tj = liσij , or

Tx = lσx + mτxy + nτzx …………………….(a)

Ty = lτxy + mσy + nτyz …………………….(a)

Tz = lτzx + mτyz + nσz …………………….(a)

where l1 =l, l2 =m, l3 =n.

Graduate Studies/ ThiQar Uni. by Dr. Alaa Al-Rkaby
 The normal stress across the plane specified by its normal (l,m, n) is

σ = lTx + mTy + nTz = ljTj = li lj σij

= l2σx + m2σy + n2σz + 2lmτxy + 2mnτyz + 2nlτzx ………………..(b) ´

The shear stress across the plane can be resolved into two components in a pair of mutually
perpendicular directions in the plane. Denoting one of these directions by (l´,m´,n´), the
corresponding shear component is obtained as

τ ´ = l´Tx + m´Ty + n´Tz = l´jTj = li l´jσij

= ll´σx + mm´σy + nn´σz + (lm´ + ml´)τxy + (mn´ + nm´)τyz + (nl´ + ln´)τzx ……………(c)

Graduate Studies/ ThiQar Uni. by Dr. Alaa Al-Rkaby

 The direction cosines satisfy the well-known geometrical relations

l2 + m2 + n2 = 1 …………………………(d)

L´2 + m´2 + n´2 = 1 …………………………(d)

ll´ + mm´ + nn´ = 0 …………………………(d)

The shear stress =(T 2 −σ 2)0.5, or

Tx – lσ

Ty − mσ

Tz − nσ

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 Let xi and x´i represent two sets of rectangular axes through a common origin O, and aij denote the
direction cosine of the x´i axis with respect to the xj axis. The direction cosine of the xi axis with
respect to the x´j axis is then equal to aji. It follows from geometry that the coordinates of any point
in space referred to the two sets of axes are related by the equations

x´i= aijxj xj = aijx´i …………………………..(e)

The components of any vector transform according to the same law as (e). Let σ´ij denote the
components of the stress tensor when referred to the set of axes x´i. A defining property of tensors is the
transformation law

σ´ij= aikajlσkl …………………………(f)

 Note
Note:: Let us suppose that a11 =l, a12 =m, a13 =n, and a21 =l´, a22 =m´, a23 =n´. The normal stress
across the plane (l,m, n) is then equal to σ´11, and the corresponding expression (b) can be readily
verified from (f). Similarly, the component of the shear stress across the plane resolved in the
Graduate Studies/ ThiQar Uni. by Dr. Alaa Al-Rkaby

direction (l´,m´, n´) is equal to σ´12 which can be shown to be that given by (c).
Principal stresses
 Regarding l and m as the independent direction cosines, the conditions for stationary σ may be
written as

∂σ/∂l=0, ∂σ/∂m=0.

Differentiating the first equation of (d) partially with respect to l and m, we get ∂n/∂l=−l/n and
∂n/∂m=−m/n. Inserting these results into the partial derivatives of (b), and using (a), the
stationary condition can be expressed as

Tx/l = Ty/m = Tz/n

Each of the above ratios is therefore equal to the normal stress σ. The substitution into (a) gives

l(σx − σ) + mτxy + nτzx = 0

lτxy + m(σy − σ) + nτyz = 0 ……………………..(g)

lτzx + mτyz + n(σz − σ) = 0 Graduate Studies/ ThiQar Uni. by Dr. Alaa Al-Rkaby
 Therefore,

Expanding this determinant, we obtain a cubic equation in σ having three real roots σ1, σ2, σ3,
which are known as the principal stresses. These stresses act across planes on which the shear
stresses are zero. The cubic may be expressed in the form
σ3 − I1σ2 − I2σ − I3 = 0 ……………………………(h)
Where I1 = σx + σy + σz = σ1 + σ2 + σ3 = σii
I2 = −(σxσy + σyσz + σzσx) + τ2xy + τ2 yz + τ2 zx
= −(σ1σ2 + σ2σ3 + σ3σ1) = ½ (σijσij − σiiσjj)
I3 = σxσyσz + 2τxyτyzτzx − σxτ2yz− σyτ2zx− σzτ2xy

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 Invariants of the stress tensor
 The quantities I1, I2, I3 are known as the invariants of the stress tensor. The expressions for I1,
I2, I3 in terms of the principal stresses follow from the fact that (h) is equivalent to the equation
(σ −σ1)(σ −σ2)(σ −σ3)=0. Since the stationary values of the normal stress do not depend on the
orientation of the coordinate axes, the coefficients of (h) must also be independent of the choice
of the axes of references.

Let (l1,m1, n1) and (l2,m2, n2) represent the directions of σ1 and σ2 respectively. If we express (g)
in terms of l1,m1, n1, and σ1, multiply these equations by l2,m2, n2 in order and add them
together, and then subtract the resulting equation from that obtained by interchanging the
subscripts, we arrive at the result

(σ1 − σ2)(l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2) = 0

Graduate Studies/ ThiQar Uni. by Dr. Alaa Al-Rkaby

 Note:

 If σ1 ≠ σ2, the above equation indicates that the directions (l1,m1, n1) and (l2,m2, n2) are
perpendicular to one another. It follows, therefore, that the principal directions
corresponding to distinct values of the principal stresses are mutually orthogonal. These
directions are known as the principal axes of the stress.

 When two of the principal stresses are equal to one another, the direction of the third
principal stress is uniquely determined, but all directions perpendicular to this principal
axis are principal directions.

 When σ1 =σ2 =σ3, representing a hydrostatic state of stress, any direction in space is a
principal direction.

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 The invariants of the deviatoric stress tensor are

J1 = sx + sy + sz = s1 + s2 + s3 = sii = 0

where s1, s2, s3 are the principal deviatoric stresses. These principal values are the roots of the
cubic equation

s3 − J2s − J3 = 0 ……………………………….(i)

J2 = ½ sijsij J3 = ½ sijsjkski

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 As σ =s+I1/3, therefore,

J2 = I2 + 1/3 I 21

J3 = I3 + 1/3 I1I2 + 2/27 I 31

equation (i) may be solved by means of the substitution s=2 (J2/3 )0.5cos φ, which reduces
the cubic to

…………….(j)

The principal deviatoric stresses may also be written as

………………(k)

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Principal shear stresses
 When the principal stresses and their directions are known, it is convenient to take the

principal axes as the axes of reference. If Ox, Oy, Oz denote the coordinate axes associated

with the principal stresses σ1, σ2, σ3 respectively, the components of the stress vector across

a plane whose normal is in the direction (l,m, n) are

Tx = lσ1 Ty = mσ2 Tz = nσ3

The normal stress across the oblique plane therefore becomes

σ = l2σ1 + m2σ2 + n2σ3

The shear stress τ across the plane is

τ2 = T2 − σ2 = (l2σ21+ m2σ22+ n2σ23 ) − (l2σ1 + m2σ2 + n2σ3)2

= (σ1 − σ2)2l2m2 + (σ2 − σ3)2m2n2 + (σ3 − σ1)2n2l2 Graduate Studies/ ThiQar Uni. by Dr. Alaa Al-Rkaby
 Hence the direction cosines of the shear stress are

Note: A plane which is equally inclined to the three principal axes is known as the octahedral
plane, the direction cosines of its normal being given by l2 =m2 =n2 =1/3. The octahedral shear
stress is of the magnitude

Moreover, the normal stress on a face of the octahedron is σoct = (σ1 + σ2 + σ3) /3 = I/3

Note:: The components of the octahedral shear stress along the principal axes are numerically
Note
equal to 1/√3 times the deviatoric principal stresses.

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 The principal shear stresses that act in directions which bisect the angles between the
principal axes can be written as

τ1 = ½ (σ2 − σ3) τ2= ½ (σ1 − σ3) τ3= ½ (σ1 − σ2)

The normal stresses acting on the planes of τ1, τ2, τ3 are, respectively,

½ (σ2 + σ3) ½ (σ1 + σ3) ½ (σ1 + σ2)

Note:: In view of the assumption σ1 >σ2 >σ3, the greatest shear stress is of magnitude ½ (σ1
Note
−σ3), and it acts across a plane whose normal bisects the angle between the directions of σ1
and σ3. It follows from (k) that the greatest shear stress is equal to J2 cos(π/6−φ), where φ
lies between zero and π/3 satisfying (j)

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Plane stress
 A state of plane stress is defined by σz =τyz =τzx =0.

Setting l= cos φ, m= sin φ, and n=0 in (a), the components of the stress vector across AB
are obtained as

Tx = σx cos φ + τxy sin φ Ty = τxy cos φ + σy sin φ , and

σ = Tx cos φ + Ty sinφ τ= −Tx sin φ + Ty cos φ

The normal and shear stresses across the plane are obtained as

σ = σx cos2φ + σy sin2φ + 2τxy sin φ cos φ

= ½ (σx + σy) + ½ (σx − σy)cos 2φ + τxy sin 2φ

τ = −(σx − σy) sin φ cos φ + τxy(cos2φ − sin2φ)

= −½ (σx − σy)sin 2φ + τxy cos 2φ

Graduate Studies/ ThiQar Uni. by Dr. Alaa Al-Rkaby
 These results may be directly obtained from (a) and (b) by setting l=m´ = cos φ, m=−l´ =
sinφ and n=n´ =0. Since dσ/dφ=2τ, which is readily verified from above, the shear stress
vanishes on the plane for which the normal stress has a stationary value. This corresponds
to φ=α, where

Which defines two directions at right angles to one another, giving the principal axes in
the plane of Ox and Oy. The principal stresses σ1, σ2 are the roots of the equation

(σ − σx)(σ − σy) = τ2xy

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 The shear stress has its greatest magnitude when φ=±π/4, the maximum value of the shear
stress being

 Further Reading:
 Detailed reading about the Analysis of Stress.
 Shear Stress and the Oblique triangle.
 Mohr’s Representation Stress

Graduate Studies/ ThiQar Uni. by Dr. Alaa Al-Rkaby