Cambridge University Press

978-0-521-51775-1 - The Nature of Life: Classical and Contemporary Perspectives from Philosophy
and Science
Edited by Mark A. Bedau and Carol E. Cleland
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The Nature of Life: Classical and

Contemporary Perspectives from
Philosophy and Science
Bringing together the latest scientific advances and some of the
most enduring subtle philosophical puzzles and problems, this
book collects original historical and contemporary sources to
explore the wide range of issues surrounding the nature of life.
Selections ranging from Aristotle and Descartes to Sagan and
Dawkins are organized around four broad themes covering
classical discussions of life, the origins and extent of natural life,
contemporary artificial life creations, and the definition and
meaning of “life” in its most general form. Each section is preceded
by an extensive introduction connecting the various ideas discussed
in individual chapters and providing helpful background material
for understanding them. With its interdisciplinary perspective,
this fascinating collection is essential reading for scientists and
philosophers interested in astrobiology, the origin of life, synthetic
biology, and the philosophy of life.

Mark A. Bedau is Professor of Philosophy and Humanities at

Reed College, Oregon, Director of the Initiative for Science,
Society, and Policy in Denmark, and a regular Visiting Professor
at the European School of Molecular Medicine in Milan, Italy. He
is an internationally recognized leader in the philosophical and
scientific study of living systems and has published and lectured
extensively on issues concerning emergence, evolution, life, mind,
and the social and ethical implications of creating life from
nonliving materials.

Carol E. Cleland is Professor of Philosophy at the University of

Colorado (Boulder). She is a central figure in the emerging
science of astrobiology and has published in major science as well
as philosophy journals. Her research focuses on issues in scientific
methodology, historical science (especially earth and planetary
science), biology (especially microbiology, origins of life, the
nature of life, and astrobiology), and the theory of computation.

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Cambridge University Press
978-0-521-51775-1 - The Nature of Life: Classical and Contemporary Perspectives from Philosophy
and Science
Edited by Mark A. Bedau and Carol E. Cleland
Frontmatter
More information

The Nature of Life: Classical and

Contemporary Perspectives from
Philosophy and Science
Edited by
Mark A. Bedau
Reed College, Oregon, USA
Carol E. Cleland
University of Colorado, Boulder, USA

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Cambridge University Press
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and Science
Edited by Mark A. Bedau and Carol E. Cleland
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# M. A. Bedau and C. E. Cleland 2010

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The nature of life : classical and contemporary perspectives from philosophy and science / edited by
Mark A. Bedau, Carol Cleland.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-521-51775-1 (Hardback)
1. Science–Philosophy. 2. Philosophy of nature. I. Bedau, Mark. II. Cleland, Carol. III. Title.
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Contents

Preface page vii 10. Are the different hypotheses

Acknowledgments viii on the emergence of life as different
Sources ix as they seem? 137
About the authors xii iris fry
Introduction xix
11. The universal nature of biochemistry 157
norman r. pace
SECTION I. CLASSICAL DISCUSSIONS 12. Is there a common chemical model
OF LIFE for life in the universe? 164
steven a. benner, alonso ricardo,
1. De Anima (selections) 9
and matthew a. carrigan
aristotle
13. Searching for life in the universe:
2. Treatise on Man 15
lessons from Earth 186
renÉ descartes
kenneth h. nealson
3. Critique of the teleological
14. The possibility of alternative
power of judgment (selections) 21
microbial life on Earth 198
immanuel kant
carol e. cleland and shelley d. copley
4. What is Life? (selections) 50
15. Introduction to the limits of organic
erwin schrÖdinger
life in planetary systems 210
5. The nature of life 70 national research council of the national
alexander oparin academies
6. What is the meaning of “life”? 88 SECTION III. ARTIFICIAL LIFE AND
ernst mayr SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY
7. The principles of life (selections) 102 16. Learning from functionalism:
tibor gÁnti prospects for strong artificial life 225
elliott sober
SECTION II. THE ORIGIN AND EXTENT 17. Life, “artificial life,” and scientific
OF NATURAL LIFE explanation 236
8. The origin of life: a review of facts marc lange
and speculation 121 18. Alien life: how would we know? 249
leslie e. orgel margaret a. boden
9. Small molecule interactions were 19. Automatic design and manufacture
central to the origin of life 129 of robotic life forms 260
robert shapiro hod lipson and jordan p. pollack

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vi Contents

20. A giant step towards artificial life? 268 26. Does ‘life’ have a definition? 326
david deamer carol cleland and christopher chyba

21. Approaches to semi-synthetic 27. Sentient symphony 340

minimal cells: a review 272 lynn margulis and dorion sagan
pier luigi luisi, francesca ferri,
28. What is life? 355
and pasquale stano
kim sterelny and paul griffiths
22. Creating “real life” 289
29. Universal Darwinism 360
evelyn fox keller
richard dawkins
SECTION IV. DEFINING AND
30. What is life? Was SchrÖdinger
EXPLAINING LIFE
right? 374
23. Definitions of life 303 stuart a. kauffman
carl sagan
31. Four puzzles about life 392
24. The seven pillars of life 307 mark a. bedau
daniel e. koshland
Supplementary bibliography on life 405
25. A universal definition of life:
Index 413
autonomy and open-ended evolution 310
kepa ruiz-mirazo, juli peretÓ,
and alvaro moreno

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Preface

This book is a collection of readings about the nature philosophical and scientific reflection about the nature
of life. The idea for it was born when we first met and of life. In our opinion, genuine progress in under-
discovered our mutual interest in the nature of life, a standing life crucially depends upon combining both
shared background in philosophy of science and scientific and philosophical perspectives on life.
philosophy of biology, and a complementary scientific Our book is aimed at a broad audience. Some
expertise in the origin of life and astrobiology of the chapters are quite accessible and others are
(Cleland) and artificial life and synthetic biology fairly technical. Each section is preceded by an intro-
(Bedau). We both wanted to have a book like this, so duction connecting the various ideas discussed in
we decided to compile it together. Our interests and individual chapters and providing helpful back-
orientation led us to include material in four general ground material for understanding them. We hope
areas: (i) classical philosophical and scientific discus- that philosophers interested in life (including those
sions about the nature of life, (ii) contemporary scien- working in philosophy of biology, philosophy of
tific and philosophical discussions of the origins of life, science, and philosophy of mind) will pay especially
and of chemical possibilities for unfamiliar forms of close attention to the scientific chapters, and that
natural life, (iii) discussions of contemporary artificial scientists interested in the nature of life (including
life creations, including not just computer simulations biologists, chemists, physicists, astronomers, geolo-
but also self-reproducing robots, protocells, and other gists, and astrobiologists) will pay especially close
synthetic biology constructions created in the wet lab, attention to the philosophical chapters. Graduate
and (iv) attempts by contemporary scientists and phil- and undergraduate students in any of these areas will
osophers to describe and explain the nature of life in also find the book useful as a text in interdisciplinary
its most general, non-Earthcentric, form. Producing courses on life. Anyone from the general public
this book confirmed for us the value of combining who is curious about up-to-date scientific and philo-
multiple perspectives on life. sophical perspectives on life should enjoy the book
We hope that this book will inform philosophers as well.
about the latest scientific advances and introduce sci-
entists to subtle philosophical puzzles and problems, Mark Bedau, Portland, Oregon
and thereby foster new, well-informed and thoughtful Carol Cleland, Boulder, Colorado

vii

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Acknowledgments

The editors would like to thank the authors and Michael Zerella at the Boulder campus of the University
publishers who gave us permission to collect their of Colorado for help with assembling the bibliography.
work in this anthology. We owe a special thanks to We owe an important debt to the up and coming
Chris Shields, for permitting us to publish part of philosophers and scientists in Carol Cleland’s 2006
his new translation of De Anima, forthcoming from graduate seminar on life for enthusiastically and
Oxford University Press. industriously working through the articles in the
We would also like to thank many friends and original Table of Contents, helping us to decide which
colleagues who have shared and fostered our growing should be included as chapters in the final version.
fascination with life and our attempts to understand it, Thanks to the NASA Astrobiology Institute for provid-
and who helped us while developing this book. Thanks ing partial funding for this project through a grant to the
to Bob Hanna for help with the Kant selections, and to University of Colorado’s Astrobiology Center, and to
Meg Scharle for help on Aristotle. Thanks to Kellyn Reed College for a Stillman Drake grant that supported
Bardeen for collecting permissions, copy-editing, and this project. Thanks also to the Center for Advanced
producing the final manuscript, and to Emily Parke for Computation at Reed College, for hospitality during
myriad crucial assistance. Thanks to Ben Pagelar and a crucial final stage in the preparation of the book.

viii

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Sources

Grateful acknowledgment is made to the following # 2003, Oxford University Press. Reprinted by
publishers and authors: permission of Oxford University Press.
8. “The Origin of Life: A Review of Facts and
1. Selections from De Anima, written by Aristotle Speculation” by Leslie E. Orgel, from Trends
with translation and commentary by Christopher in Biochemical Sciences 23 (1998). Copyright
Shields. Copyright # 2009, Oxford University # 1998, Elsevier Science. Reprinted by permis-
Press (forthcoming). Reprinted by permission of sion of Elsevier Science and Alice Orgel.
Oxford University Press and Christopher Shields. 9. Section “A Simpler Origin for Life” by Robert
2. “Treatise on Man” by René Descartes, from The Shapiro, from Scientific American (June 2007).
Philosophical Writing of Descartes, vol. 1, translated Text copyright # 2007, Scientific American; fig-
by John Cottingham, Robert Stoothoff, and Dugald ures copyright # 2007 Jennifer C. Christiansen.
Murdoch. Copyright # 1985, Cambridge University Reprinted by permission of Scientific American,
Press. Reprinted by permission of Cambridge Jennifer C. Christiansen, and Robert Shapiro.
University Press, John Cottingham, and Dugald 10. “Are the Different Hypotheses on the Emergence of
Murdoch. Life as Different as They Seem?” by Iris Fry, from
3. Selections from Critique of the Teleological Power Biology and Philosophy 10(4) (1995). Copyright
of Judgment, written by Immanuel Kant and # 2004, Springer Science and Business Media.
translated by Paul Guyer and Eric Matthews. Reprinted by permission of Springer Science and
Copyright # 2001, Cambridge University Press. Business Media, and by permission of Iris Fry.
Reprinted by permission of Cambridge University 11. “The Universal Nature of Biochemistry” by
Press, Paul Guyer, and Eric Matthews. Norman Pace, from Proceedings of the National
4. Selections from What is Life? The Physical Aspect Academy of Sciences 98(3) (2001). Text copyright
of the Living Cell by Erwin Schrödinger. Copyright # 2001, National Academy of Sciences; figure
# 1967, Cambridge University Press. Reprinted copyright # 1997, American Association for the
by permission of Cambridge University Press. Advancement of Science. Reprinted by permission
5. Excerpt from Life: Its Nature, Origin, and Develop- of the National Academy of Sciences, the
ment, written by A. I. Oparin and translated by Ann American Association for the Advancement of
Synge. Copyright # 1964, Ann Synge. Reprinted Science, and Norman Pace.
by permission of Charlotte Synge and Liz Smith, 12. “Is There a Common Chemical Model for Life in
Academic Press, and Oliver and Boyd Ltd., the Universe?” by Steven A. Benner, Alonso
a subsidiary of Longman Publishing. Ricardo, and Matthew A. Carrigan, from Current
6. Chapter 1 from This is Biology: The Science of the Opinion in Chemical Biology 8 (2004). Copyright
Living World by Ernst Mayr. Copyright # 1997, # 2004, Elsevier Ltd. Reprinted by permission of
Harvard University Press. Reprinted by permission Elsevier Ltd., Steven A. Benner, Alonso Ricardo,
of Harvard University Press. and Matthew A. Carrigan.
7. Selections from The Principles of Life, written 13. “Searching for Life in the Universe: Lessons from
by Tibor Gánti, with commentary by James Earth” by Kenneth H. Nealson, from Annals of the
Griesemer and Eörs Szathmáry. Copyright New York Academy of Sciences 950(1) (2001).

ix

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x Sources

Copyright # 2001, Blackwell Publishing. Reprinted and Pasquale Stano, from Naturwissenschaften 93
by permission of Blackwell Publishing and Kenneth (1) (2006). Copyright # 2005, Springer-Verlag.
H. Nealson. Reprinted by permission of Springer-Verlag, Pier
14. “The Possibility of Alternative Microbial Life on Luigi Luisi, Francesca Ferri, and Pasquale Stano.
Earth” by Carol E. Cleland and Shelley D. Copley, Table reprinted by permission of Professor
from International Journal of Astrobiology A. Moya, Institut Cavanilles de Biodiversitat i
4 (2005). Copyright # 2005, Cambridge University Biologia Evolutiva, Universitat de Valencia.
Press. Reprinted by permission of Cambridge 22. “Creating ‘Real Life’” by Evelyn Fox Keller, from
University Press, Carol E. Cleland, and Shelley Making Sense of Life: Explaining Biological
D. Copley. Development with Models, Metaphors and Machines
15. Introduction to The Limits of Organic Life in by Evelyn Fox Keller. Copyright # 2002,
Planetary Systems by the National Research Coun- President and Fellows of Harvard College.
cil of the National Academies. Copyright # 2007, Reprinted by permission of Harvard University
National Academy of Sciences. Reprinted by Press and Evelyn Fox Keller.
permission of the National Academy of Sciences. 23. “The Definition of Life” by Carl Sagan, from
16. “Learning from Functionalism: Prospects for Encyclopædia Britannica, 14th Edition. Copyright
Strong Artificial Life” by Elliott Sober, from # 1970, Encyclopædia Britannica Incorporated.
Artificial Life II, edited by C. Langton, Reprinted by permission of Encyclopædia
C. Taylor, J. D. Farmer, and S. Rasmussen. Britannica Incorporated.
Copyright # 2003, Westview Press, A Member 24. “The Seven Pillars of Life” by Daniel
of the Perseus Books Group. Reprinted by E. Koshland, Jr., from Science 295 (2002). Copy-
permission of Westview Press and Elliott Sober. right # 2002, American Association for the
17. “Life, ‘Artificial Life,’ and Scientific Explanation” Advancement of Science. Reprinted by permission
by Marc Lange, from Philosophy of Science 63(2) of the American Association for the Advancement
(1996). Copyright # 1996, Philosophy of Science of Science.
Association. Reprinted by permission of the 25. “A Universal Definition of Life: Autonomy and
University of Chicago Press on behalf of the Open-Ended Evolution” by Kepa Ruiz-Mirazo,
Philosophy of Science Association, and by permis- Juli Peretó, and Alvaro Moreno, from Origins of
sion of Marc Lange. Life and Evolution of the Biosphere 34(3) (2004).
18. “Alien Life: How Would We Know?” by Margaret Copyright # 2004, Kluwer Academic Publishers.
A. Boden, from International Journal of Astrobio- Reprinted by permission of Kluwer Academic
logy 2(2) (2003). Copyright # 2003, Cambridge Publishers, subsidiary of Springer Science and
University Press. Reprinted by permission of Business Media, and by permission of Kepa
Cambridge University Press and Margaret Ruiz-Mirazo, Juli Peretó, and Alvaro Moreno.
A. Boden. 26. “Does ‘Life’ Have a Definition?” by Carol Cleland
19. “Automatic Design and Manufacture of Robotic and Christopher Chyba, from Planets and Life:
Life Forms” by Hod Lipson and Jordan P. Pollack, The Emerging Science of Astrobiology, edited by
from Nature 406 (2000). Copyright # 2000, W. T. Sullivan III and J. A. Baross. Text copyright
Nature Publishing Group. Reprinted by # 2007, Cambridge University Press; image
permission of Nature Publishing Group and Hod copyright # British Library Board. Reprinted
Lipson. by permission of Cambridge University Press,
20. “A Giant Step Towards Artificial Life?” by David The British Library Board, Carol Cleland, and
Deamer, from Trends in Biotechnology 23 (2005). Christopher Chyba.
Copyright # 2005, Elsevier Ltd. Reprinted by 27. “Sentient Symphony,” from What is Life? by Lynn
permission of Elsevier Ltd. and David Deamer. Margulis and Dorion Sagan. Copyright # 1995,
21. “Approaches to Semi-Synthetic Minimal Cells: Lynn Margulis and Dorion Sagan. Reprinted by
A Review” by Pier Luigi Luisi, Francesca Ferri, permission of the authors.

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Sources xi

28. “Defining Life” by Kim Sterelny and Paul Cambridge University Press and Richard
Griffiths, from Sex and Death: An Introduction Dawkins.
to Philosophy of Biology, by Kim Sterelny and 30. “What is Life? Was Schrödinger Right?” by Stuart
Paul Griffiths. Copyright # 1999, University of A. Kauffman, from What is Life? The Next Fifty
Chicago. Reprinted by permission of the Univer- Years: Speculations on the Future of Biology.
sity of Chicago Press, Kim Sterelny, and Paul Copyright # 1995, Cambridge University Press.
Griffiths. Reprinted by permission of Cambridge University
29. “Universal Darwinism” by Richard Dawkins, Press and Stuart A. Kauffman.
from Evolution from Molecules to Man, edited 31. “Four Puzzles About Life” by Mark A. Bedau,
by D. S. Bendall. Copyright # 1983, Cambridge from Artificial Life 4 (1998). Copyright # 1988,
University Press. Reprinted by permission of MIT Press. Reprinted by permission of the author.

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About the authors

aristotle (384 BC–322 BC), a student of Plato and British Academy, and of the American Association for
teacher of Alexander the Great, was a prominent Greek Artificial Intelligence, along with its British and European
philosopher and one of the most important founding equivalents. In 2002, she was awarded an Order of the
figures in Western philosophy. With the scope of his work British Empire “for services to cognitive science,” and, in
encompassing morality, science, logic, aesthetics, meta- addition to her Cambridge Sc.D. and Harvard Ph.D., she
physics and politics, he was the first to create a comprehen- has honorary doctorates from the Universities of Bristol
sive system of Western philosophy. In addition, Aristotle is and Sussex and the Open University. Her work is highly
sometimes regarded as the originator of the scientific study interdisciplinary, and has been translated into 20 languages.
of life, as he was among the first to articulate a systematic Her latest book is Mind as Machine: A History of Cognitive
and comprehensive method for biological investigation. Science (2006).
His own studies of animals were extensive, and several of
matthew a. carrigan is a Research Fellow at the Founda-
his biological observations waited more than two millennia
tion for Applied Molecular Evolution in Gainesville,
to be confirmed by modern science.
Florida. His research centers on the origin of life and
mark a. bedau is a Professor of Philosophy and Human- synthetic biology, with a particular focus on the synthesis
ities at Reed College, editor-in-chief of the MIT Press and stability of the sugar backbone of RNA and the
journal Artificial Life, co-founder of the European Center polymerization of ribonucleotides. Current efforts are
for Living Technology (Venice), Adjunct Professor of directed toward isolating an RNA ribozyme capable of
Systems Science at Portland State University, and Visiting catalyzing RNA polymerization.
Professor at the European School of Molecular Medicine
christopher chyba is a Professor of Astrophysical
(Milan). His areas of research include emergence, biological
Sciences and International Affairs at Princeton Univer-
evolution and adaptation, the nature of life, artificial life and
sity. He served on the White House staff from 1993 to
protocells, the evolution of technology, autonomous intelli-
1995, working in the National Security Council and the
gent discovery and optimization processes, and the social
National Security Division of the Office of Science and
and ethical implications of creating life in the laboratory.
Technology Policy. His security-related research focuses
steven a. benner is a Distinguished Fellow at the Foun- on nuclear proliferation, nuclear weapons policy, and
dation for Applied Molecular Evolution and the Westhei- biological terrorism, while his planetary science and
mer Institute for Science and Technology. He received his astrobiology research focuses on the search for life in
bachelor’s degree and M.S. in Molecular Biophysics the solar system. He received the Presidential Early
and Biochemistry from Yale University, and his Ph.D. Career Award in 1996 and was named a MacArthur
in Chemistry from Harvard University. He co-founded Fellow in 2001. In addition to his Ph.D. in Astronomy,
several fields, including synthetic biology, paleogenetics, he holds an M.Phil. in History and Philosophy of Science
evolutionary bioinformatics, and dynamic combinatorial from Cambridge University.
chemistry. His research combines the traditions of natural
carol e. cleland is a Professor of Philosophy at the
history with those of the physical sciences in order to gain
University of Colorado in Boulder. She is a member of
a better understanding of life.
the NASA Astrobiology Institute (NAI) and the Center
margaret a. boden is Research Professor of Cognitive for Astrobiology at the University of Colorado. Her
Science at the University of Sussex. She is a Fellow of the research is in the areas of philosophy of science, logic,

xii

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About the authors xiii

and metaphysics. She has published articles on space and father of modern philosophy. In his pivotal work, Medita-
time, supervenience, events and causation, hypercompu- tions on First Philosophy, he famously put forth the cogito
tation, the Church-Turing thesis, standards of evidence in argument as a step in his investigation into the rational
science, the methodology of historical and experimental foundations of philosophical inquiry and natural science.
science, the problem of defining “life,” and the possibility Descartes made significant contributions to mathematics
of alternative microbial life on Earth. She is currently and science during his lifetime, inventing the Cartesian
finishing a book, The Quest for a Universal Theory of Life: coordinate system, founding analytic geometry, and dis-
Searching for Life as We Don’t Know it. covering the law of refraction. As a strong proponent of
the theory of mechanism, he was also a major player in the
shelley d. copley is a Professor of Molecular, Cellular
Scientific Revolution.
and Developmental Biology at the University of Colorado in
Boulder. Her research centers on the molecular evolution francesca ferri is currently working at the Department
of catalysts and metabolic pathways throughout the history of Neuroscience at the University of Parma. Her present
of life on Earth, from the emergence of proto-metabolic research interests include self-identity, embodiment,
networks that supported the RNA world to the evolution coherence, and disorders involving the embodied self.
of novel pathways for the degradation of toxic pollutants
iris fry teaches the history and philosophy of biology
introduced into the environment in the last century.
in the Department of Humanities and Arts at Technion
john cottingham is a Professor of Philosophy at the at the Israel Institute of Technology. She was trained
University of Reading in England. He is also the president in chemistry and biochemistry at the Hebrew University
of the British Society for the Philosophy of Religion, the in Jerusalem and studied the history and philosophy of
director of the three-year research program Impartiality science at the Universities of Haifa and Tel Aviv.
and Partiality in Ethics, and an editor for Ratio, an inter- Her publications discuss the concept of teleology in the
national journal of analytic philosophy. His main research philosophy of Kant, the history of evolutionary ideas, and
interests include early modern philosophy (particularly the origin of life. Her first book, The Origin of Life—
Descartes), ethics, and philosophy of religion. Mystery or Scientific Problem?, was published in Israel in
1997. Her second book, The Emergence of Life on Earth:
richard dawkins is a British ethologist, evolutionary A Historical and Scientific Overview, was published in 2000
biologist, and popular science author well known for his by Rutgers University Press.
criticism of religion, creationism, and intelligent design.
He currently holds the position of Charles Simonyi tibor gÁnti is a chemical engineer, theoretical biologist
Professor of the Public Understanding of Science at Oxford and D.Sc. in biology. His main work is the creation of
University. His influential first book, The Selfish Gene the chemoton theory, which contains the theory of fluid
(1976), popularized the gene-centered view of evolution (chemical) automata and its application to living systems.
and introduced the term meme to the discourse on cultural This theory makes possible the precise separation of
evolution. He is a fellow of the Royal Society and has living entities from nonliving entities and the construc-
received the Faraday Award and the Kistler Prize. His most tion of an exact, quantitative model of the minimal living
recent book is The God Delusion (2006). system (the chemoton model), while supplying the theor-
david deamer is a Research Professor of Biomolecular etical foundations for investigating the origin of life,
Engineering at the University of California, Santa Cruz. biogenesis, and the artificial synthesis of living systems.
His research interests include nanopore analysis of nucleic
acids and the biophysics behind processes of self-assembly, paul griffiths is a Philosopher of Science with a focus on
particularly those related to the structure and function of biology and psychology. He received his education from
biological membranes. He is currently writing a book on Cambridge University and the Australian National Univer-
the origin of cellular life to be published in 2009 by the sity and is currently a University Professorial Research
University of California Press. Fellow in Philosophy at the University of Sydney, Australia,
and a Professor of Philosophy of Science at the ESRC
renÉ descartes (1596–1650) was a highly influential Centre for Genomics in Society at the University of
French philosopher who is generally regarded as the Exeter, UK. He is also a Fellow of the Australian Academy

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xiv About the authors

of the Humanities, an adjunct member of the Pittsburgh Explaining Biological Development with Models, Metaphors,
HPS faculty, and a member of the Australian Health Ethics and Machines (2002). Keller has received a number of
Committee of NHMRC. awards and honorary doctorates, and is a MacArthur
Fellow, a member of the American Philosophical Society,
paul guyer is a Professor of Philosophy and a Florence
a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
R. C. Murray Professor in Humanities at the University
and, most recently, the recipient of the Blaise Pascal
of Pennsylvania. He is the author and editor of numerous
Research Chair in Paris.
books on the philosophy of Kant, and the general
co-editor of the Cambridge Edition of the Works of Kant, daniel e. koshland, jr. (1920–2007) was a member of the
in which he co-translated the Critique of Pure Reason, the National Academy of Sciences and the editor-in-chief
Critique of the Power of Judgment, and Kant’s Notes and of the leading science journal Science from 1985–1995.
Fragments. Guyer is a fellow of the American Academy of During World War II, he was one of the scientists
Arts and Sciences and has been awarded the Alexander working on the Manhattan Project purifying plutonium.
von Humboldt-Stiftung Research Prize. He is currently In the early part of his career, his work with enzymes led
writing a history of modern aesthetics. him to propose the “induced fit” model of enzyme cata-
lysis, overturning a century-old consensus on enzyme
immanuel kant (1724–1804) was a German philosopher
function. Later in his career, he spearheaded a major
who is widely regarded as one of the most influential
reorganization of the study of biology at the University
thinkers of modern Europe and the late Enlightenment.
of California at Berkeley, bringing departmental divisions
Grappling with problems in philosophy of mind, Kant
into alignment with advances in genetics and other life
developed the doctrine of Transcendental Idealism, which
sciences. In 1990, he won the National Medal of Science,
he regarded as a compromise between the conflicting
and his more recent work focused on methane production
traditions of Rationalism and Empiricism. This doctrine
in blue-green algae.
was first set out in his epochal work, The Critique of
Pure Reason (1781), which is now uniformly regarded marc lange is Bowman and Gordon Gray Distinguished
as one of the greatest works in the history of philosophy. Term Professor of Philosophy at the University of North
Kant also exerted a profound influence on moral philoso- Carolina at Chapel Hill. His interests include scientific
phy with his contention that morality is required by explanation, inductive confirmation, natural kinds,
reason itself. disease, necessity and possibility. His most recent books
are Laws and Lawmakers (2009), which concerns the
stuart a. kauffman is a Professor of Biological Sciences,
concept of a law of nature, and Locality, Fields, Energy,
Physics, Astronomy, and Philosophy at the University of
and Mass: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Physics
Calgary, in addition to being Director of the Institute
(2002). He is a member of the American Philosophical
for Biocomplexity and Informatics (IBI) and Chair of
Association and the Philosophy of Science Society.
Informatics Circle of Research Excellence (iCORE). His
interests include developmental genetics, theoretical biol- hod lipson is an Associate Professor of Mechanical &
ogy, evolution, and the origin of life. He is a MacArthur Aerospace Engineering and Computing & Information
Fellow and received the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei Science at Cornell University in Ithaca, NY. He received
Gold Medal in 1997, and the Herbert A. Simon Award his Ph.D. in 1998 from Technion at the Israel Institute
in 2000. of Technology, and continued on to a postdoctoral fellow-
ship at Brandeis University and MIT. At present, Lipson
evelyn fox keller received her Ph.D. in theoretical
directs the Computational Synthesis group, which focuses
physics from Harvard University and worked for a
on novel ways of generating the automatic design, fabri-
number of years at the interface between physics and
cation and adaptation of virtual and physical machines.
biology. She currently holds the position of Professor
He has led work in areas such as evolutionary robotics,
Emerita of History and Philosophy of Science in the
multi-material functional rapid prototyping, machine
MIT Program in Science, Technology and Society.
self-replication, and programmable self-assembly.
She has authored many works, including: Refiguring
Life: Metaphors of Twentieth Century Biology (1995), The pier luigi luisi is a Professor of Biophysics at the
Century of the Gene (2000), and Making Sense of Life: University of Rome (Roma Tre), and Emeritus Professor

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of Macromolecular Chemistry at the Swiss Federal systems, philosophy of biology, and artificial life. He has
Institute of Technology (ETH) in Zurich. His scientific organized several international workshops and authored
interests mainly concern the origins of life, and studying many publications on the relationship between artificial
the macromolecular chemistry, enzymology, and self- life and artificial intelligence.
assembly of structures such as micelles, reverse micelles,
dugald mudoch received his higher education at the
liposomes and giant vesicles. In the last few years, his
Universities of Glasgow, Uppsala, and Oxford, and is
research has included work on the chemical implementa-
currently a Professor of Philosophy at the University of
tion of autopoiesis, the construction of minimal cells, and
Stockholm. His research interests lie in the areas of the
the origin of cellular complexity and self-reproduction
philosophy of science, epistemology, and the history of
in supramolecular structures.
modern philosophy, with a special interest in the philoso-
lynn margulis is a Distinguished University Professor phy of Descartes. At present, he is working on a project
in the Department of Geosciences at the University of concerning the nature of reasons for belief.
Massachusetts-Amherst. A member of the National
kenneth h. nealson is the Wrigley Professor of Environ-
Academy of Science, she investigates and publishes on
mental Sciences at the University of Southern California,
evolution through symbiogenesis and the Gaia hypothesis
and a Distinguished Investigator at the J. Craig Venter
(of J. E. Lovelock). She is best known for her endosym-
Institute of Environmental Genomics. His research
biotic theory of the origin of certain eukaryotic organelles,
focuses on the role of microbes in the biogeochemical
a theory that is now generally accepted by the scientific
cycle(s) of the elements, with special focus on iron and
community. In 1999, Lynn received the Presidential
manganese. He has also pursued the definition of life and
Medal of Science from William J. Clinton for her contri-
its detection, considering extreme environments on Earth
butions to the understanding of living organisms.
and probing how to effectively search for life in extrater-
eric matthews is Emeritus Professor of Philosophy and restrial environments.
Honorary Research Professor of Medical and Psychiatric
aleksandr ivanovich oparin (1894–1980) pioneered the
Ethics in the University of Aberdeen, Scotland. He has
idea that life arose from inorganic matter through the
pursued an interest in the French philosophers Henri
spontaneous generation of simple organic compounds
Bergson, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Maurice Merleau-Ponty
from inorganic molecules in the prebiotic environ-
and has translated a number of works of German philoso-
ment. In his work, he formulated a number of path-
phy for Cambridge University Press. His recent research
ways through which biologically important compounds
concerns the ethics of communicating genetic informa-
such as amino acids, volatile fatty acids and carbohy-
tion and the ethical and policy issues in the upcoming
drates could have formed in the chemically reductive
crisis of an aging population. His most recent book is
atmosphere he hypothesized for early Earth. In 1979,
Body Subjects and Disordered Minds: Treating the Whole
he received the Lomonosov Gold Medal from the
Person in Psychiatry (2007).
USSR Academy of Sciences for his work in
ernst mayr (1904–2005) is widely regarded as one of the biochemistry.
foremost evolutionary biologists of the twentieth cen-
leslie e. orgel (1937–2007) was a distinguished biologist
tury. His work contributed to the conceptual revolution
and one of the fathers of the RNA-world theory and
that led to the modern evolutionary synthesis of Men-
the concept of panspermia. Born in London, he received
delian genetics, systematics, and Darwinian evolution.
his undergraduate degree and doctorate from Oxford
He also contributed to the development of the biological
University before pursuing research at Cambridge, the
species concept that is currently in use. Among other
University of Chicago, and the California Institute of
honors, Mayr received the National Medal of Science in
Technology. He assisted NASA in analyzing the findings
1970, the Balzan Prize in 1983, the International Prize
of the Viking missions to Mars and was one of five
for Biology in 1994, and the Crafoord Prize in 1999.
principal investigators in the NASA-sponsored NSCORT
alvaro moreno is a Professor of Philosophy of Science at program in exobiology. He was a fellow of the Royal Society
the University of the Basque Country, in Spain, where he and a member of both the National Academy of Sciences
founded a research group specializing in complex and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

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xvi About the authors

norman r. pace is a Distinguished Professor at the of life, protocell models (in vitro and in silico), and major
University of Colorado in Boulder and an investigator transitions in the origin of living systems.
for NASA’s Astrobiology Institute. His research interests
carl sagan (1934–1996) was an astronomer, astrochemist,
focus on RNA biochemistry, the application of molecular
and author who pioneered exobiology, promoted the search
tools to problems in microbial ecology, and the develop-
for extraterrestrial intelligence, and successfully popularized
ment of methods for analyzing phylogenetic and quanti-
astronomy, astrophysics and other natural sciences.
tative aspects of natural microbial populations without
He played a leading role in the American space program
the necessity for laboratory cultivation. He is a member
from its inception, acting as an advisor to NASA and being
of the National Academy of Sciences and a fellow of the
directly involved in the Apollo, Mariner, Viking, and Galileo
American Association for the Advancement of Science.
missions. A best-selling author and Pulitzer Prize winner,
In 2008, he received Lifetime Achievement Awards from
Sagan received twenty-two honorary degrees from American
both the RNA Society and the International Society for
colleges and universities for his contributions to science,
Microbial Ecology.
literature, education, and the preservation of the environ-
juli peretó is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular ment. As one of the first scientists to suggest the possibility
Biology at the University of València, and researcher at of a nuclear winter, he also received multiple awards for his
the Cavanilles Institute for Biodiversity and Evolutionary work on the long-term consequences of nuclear war and for
Biology. From 2005 to 2008, Peretó served as the secretary his attempts to reverse the nuclear arms race.
of the International Society for the Study of the Origin of
dorion sagan is an American science writer and General
Life (ISSOL – The International Astrobiology Society).
Partner of Sciencewriters, an organization whose goal is to
His research interests include the evolution of metabolic
advance science through “enchantment in the form of the
networks, the minimal genome concept, and the history of
finest possible books, videos, and other media”. He has
ideas concerning the artificial synthesis of life and its
written or co-authored many essays and more than four-
natural origin.
teen books on evolution and other topics in biology, and is
jordan p. pollack is a Professor at Brandeis University in a recipient of an Ed-Press Award from the Educational
the Computer Science Department as well as the Volen Press Association of America for excellence in Educa-
Center for Complex Systems. He directs a research tional Journalism. A recent book, Death and Sex, won
laboratory seeking a fundamental and replicable under- first place at the 2010 New York Book Show in the general
standing of how nature can “design” biologically complex trade nonfiction category.
machinery. In conjunction with Hod Lipson, Pollack led
erwin schrödinger (1887–1961) was an Austrian physi-
the Golem project (Genetically Organized Lifelike Electro
cist best known for his contributions to the understanding
Mechanics) to evolve simple electro-mechanical systems
of quantum mechanics, particularly the Schrödinger
from scratch to yield physical locomoting machines.
Equation, for which he received the Nobel Prize in
alonso ricardo is a postdoctoral fellow working at 1933. He also devised the famous “Schrödinger’s cat”
Szostak Lab, a research group aimed at creating the thought experiment to illustrate what he saw as a problem
functional components of a protocell. He earned his Ph.D. with the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum physics.
from the University of Florida, working under Steven In 1944, he wrote What is Life? in which he derived the
Benner for his doctorate. His research interests center concept of a complex molecule as a carrier for genetic
on bioorganic chemistry, the origins of life, and using information. This book directly influenced James Watson
mRNA display as a tool for discovering new antibiotics. and Francis Crick whose work eventually led to the dis-
covery of DNA in 1953.
kepa ruiz-mirazo is currently a Ramón y Cajal Research
Fellow at the University of the Basque Country, Spain, robert shapiro is Professor Emeritus and Senior
working in the Department of Logic and Philosophy Research Scientist in the Department of Chemistry at
of Science in addition to the Biophysics Research Unit New York University. He is author or co-author of over
(CSIC-UPV/EHU). With a degree in Physics and a 125 publications, primarily in the areas of DNA chemistry
Ph.D. in Complex Systems, his present research activity and the origin of life. In his research, he and his co-
cuts across several disciplines, centering on the definition workers have studied the ways in which environmental

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About the authors xvii

chemicals can damage hereditary material, causing changes kim sterelny is an Australian philosopher and Professor
that can lead to mutations and cancer. His research has of Philosophy. He is affiliated with both the Philosophy
been supported by numerous grants from the National Program in the Research School of Social Sciences (RSSS)
Institute of Health, the Department of Energy, the at Australian National University and the Philosophy
National Science Foundation, and other organizations. Program at the Victoria University of Wellington. He is
the editor of Biology and Philosophy, the main specialist
christopher shields is a Professor of Classical Philosophy
journal of the philosophy of biology, co-editor of the MIT
at the University of Oxford and Tutorial Fellow at Lady
Press series, Life and Mind, and the winner of several
Margaret Hall. His interests lie in classical philosophy,
international prizes, including the Lakatos Award and the
metaphysics, and philosophy of mind. He is the author
Jean-Nicod Prize, in the philosophy of science. In addition,
of Order in Multiplicity (1999), Classical Philosophy:
he is a Fellow of the Australian Academy of the Human-
A Contemporary Introduction (2003), Aristotle (2007), and
ities. His main research interests are philosophy of biology,
coauthor of The Philosophy of Thomas Aquinas (2004)
philosophy of psychology, and philosophy of mind.
along with Robert Pasnau. He also has a forthcoming
translation (with commentary) of Aristotle’s De Anima in robert stoothoff is an Emeritus Professor in the
the Clarendon Aristotle Series of Oxford University Press. School of Philosophy and Religious Studies at the
University of Canterbury, New Zealand. His work,
elliott sober is Hans Reichenbach Professor of Philoso-
The Philosophical Writings of Descartes, co-edited with
phy and William F. Vilas Research Professor at University
John Cottingham and Dugald Murdoch and published
of Wisconsin-Madison. His research is based in the
in three volumes by Cambridge University Press, has
philosophy of science, with a particular focus on the phil-
become the standard edition of Descartes’ philosophical
osophy of evolutionary biology. Sober’s books include The
work. Stoothoff also coauthored the entry on theories
Nature of Selection—Evolutionary Theory in Philosophical
of meaning in the Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1988) along
Focus (1984), Reconstructing the Past—Parsimony, Evolu-
with Jack Copeland.
tion, and Inference (1988), Unto Others—The Evolution and
Psychology of Unselfish Behavior (1998, coauthored with
ann synge (1916–1998) studied medicine in Cambridge
David Sloan Wilson), and Evidence and Evolution—the
and Dublin before marrying Nobel Prize winner
Logic Behind the Science (2008).
Dr. Richard L. M. Synge, with whom she had eight chil-
pasquale stano is a research assistant to Professor Pier dren. She started translating from Russian in 1954 when
Luigi Luisi at the University of Rome (Roma Tre). His she worked on A. I. Oparin’s book, Life: Its Nature, Origin,
research interests concern the properties and reactivity of and Development. She also translated Protein Biosynthesis
vesicles and other supramolecular assemblies, and the use and Problems of Heredity Development and Aging by Zhores
of liposomes as cellular models. He is currently involved A. Medvedev (1966). Later on, she taught biology and
in the EU project “Synthcells.” worked actively for nuclear disarmament and world peace.

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Introduction

This book is a collection of classic and contemporary requires more than this. It requires analyzing, evaluating,
readings by philosophers and scientists on the nature and systematizing disparate information emerging
of life. Philosophers have pondered the question “what from a multiplicity of scientific disciplines. It is natural
is life?” since at least the time of the ancient Greek for philosophy to play a central role in this process.
philosopher Aristotle. In recent years the question has Philosophers are trained in logical and conceptual analy-
taken on increasing scientific importance. Molecular sis. They have expertise in sorting out foundational
biologists and biochemists investigating the origin of issues, rooting out subtle inconsistencies, transform-
life or trying to synthesize chemical life in the labora- ing vague generalizations into logically precise principles,
tory from basic molecular building blocks want to tracing logical relations among concepts, principles,
know at what stage an ensemble of nonliving molecules hypotheses, and empirical evidence, and evaluating the
turns into a primitive living thing. Astrobiologists strength of arguments and theories. Philosophy brings
charged with designing instrument packages for space- conceptual clarity and logical rigor to scientific theoriz-
craft to detect extraterrestrial life struggle with the ing. At the same time, science grounds philosophical
question of which characteristics of familiar Earth life reflection on empirical evidence gleaned from careful
(metabolism? reproduction? Darwinian evolution? observation and experiment. Together, contemporary
carbon-based chemistry?) are universal indicators of philosophy and science hold forth the promise of find-
life. Even computer scientists find themselves mired ing a satisfactory answer to the age-old question of the
in questions about the nature of life when they specu- nature of life.
late whether lifelike systems constructed of software The contents of this anthology are the outcome of
(purely informational or digital structures) or hard- many lively discussions among the editors and their
ware (metal, plastic, and silicon) could ever literally scientific and philosophical colleagues concerning
be alive. Many of these pressing questions are notable which issues about life matter most. The chapters
for their lack of obvious scientific solutions; one cannot selected represent only a small portion of a vast
answer them merely by performing more experiments philosophical and scientific literature on life; readers
or constructing additional lifelike systems. Although are urged to consult the extensive Supplementary
they arise out of science, these questions are deeply Bibliography at the end for many excellent and impor-
philosophical. tant additional writings on life. We tried to be repre-
The twentieth-century American philosopher sentative, that is, to include classical writings that
W. V. O. Quine proposed that epistemology could be covered the historically most influential scientific and
viewed as an “enterprise within natural science” philosophical ideas, and the leading contemporary
(Quine, 1975, p. 68). In a similar spirit, the editors of scientific and philosophical positions. Chapters were
this volume believe that collaboration between scien- selected also on the basis of their promise for shedding
tists and philosophers provides the best hope for light on central contemporary issues and controversies
achieving a compelling answer to the question of the about life, such as how recent discoveries in microbio-
nature of life. Contemporary science has greatly logy have challenged traditional conceptions of the
expanded our understanding of the complexities of nature of life. We also made a point to include different
natural life, and it has provided many intriguing new approaches to methodology, such as whether the best
examples of lifelike artificial systems. But an intellec- answer to the question “what is life?” is a definition or
tually satisfying answer to the question “what is life?” a theory, or something else entirely.

xix

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xx Introduction

We divided the anthology into four sections, explored in the classic works included in Section I.
corresponding to four central areas of contemporary Although sometimes disguised in innocuous-sounding
philosophical and scientific research: Classical Discus- contemporary scientific terminology, this debate
sions of Life (Section I), The Origin and Extent of reoccurs throughout this whole anthology.
Natural Life (Section II), Artificial Life and Synthetic Section II provides an overview of our current
Biology (Section III), and Defining and Explaining scientific understanding of the origin and extent of
Life (Section IV). Each section is preceded by an natural forms of life. Most of the authors are scientists
introduction that conveys the current scientific and who share the view that an understanding of life lies at
philosophical debate about the nature of life, under- the level of molecules and biochemical processes, as
scoring lines of agreements and disagreements, and opposed to higher-level organizational and functional
raising questions that, in our view, need greater atten- properties. This is reflected in the ways in which they
tion. We hope that, taken together, the readings in this interpret and articulate traditional questions about the
book will help inform and guide further scientific and nature of life. For example, what was “nutrition” for
philosophical investigations into the nature of life. Aristotle and “metabolism” for early modern biologists
The father of classical physics, Issac Newton, becomes “chemical self-organization,” and what
famously observed in a letter to fellow English scientist was “reproduction” for Aristotle and “Darwinian
Robert Hooke, “if I have seen further, it is by standing evolution by natural selection” for nineteenth-century
on the shoulders of giants.” Newton’s remark reflects biologists becomes “replication” by means of “genetic
the truism that most cutting-edge intellectual work [informational] structures.” The reader is encouraged
builds upon earlier work. So, it is no surprise that many to consider whether this is the proper level of analysis
contemporary debates about life have deep historical for theorizing about life in general.
roots. The chapters in Section I provide an historical The authors in Section II discuss a variety of
context for the discussions in the rest of the book. We important issues about life within the context of recent
begin with the birth of philosophy in ancient Greece scientific developments in molecular biology, biochem-
and the rise of modern philosophy and science in the istry, microbiology, and astrobiology: Is the transition
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and continue with from a nonliving ensemble of molecules to a primitive
subsequent seminal scientific and philosophical deve- living thing gradual or abrupt? Can an account of the
lopments up through the early twentieth century. nature of life be given independently of an account of
These readings put contemporary thought about life the origin of life? Which came first, chemical self-
into historical context and remind us of some great organization or genetic structures? Was the original
lessons from this history. They also reveal the extent genetic molecule RNA or something else, e.g.,
to which contemporary perspectives and problems a mineral surface? What are the alternative molecular
reflect their historical origins. Here is one illustration: and biochemical possibilities for life? How can we
A central theme running through the writings of the design methods and instruments for searching for
ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle up to the present truly “weird” forms of life elsewhere in the solar
is the idea that living things have functional character- system, given that all known life on Earth is so similar
istics, such as metabolism and development, which at the molecular and biochemical level? Could the
distinguish them from non-living things. As the contemporary Earth contain undetected alternative
chapters in Section I underscore, one of the great forms of microbial life descended from a separate
controversies about the nature of life bequeathed to us origin? A couple of chapters in this section are
by Aristotle is whether these prima facie “teleological” authored by philosophers who ferret out philosophical
(purposive, goal-directed or self-causing) characteris- assumptions underlying scientific investigations into
tics are primitive or somehow “reducible to” nonteleo- the origin and extent of life. They also evaluate the
logical (structural or compositional) characteristics. bearing of the results of these scientific investigations
Many different approaches (essentialist, mechanistic, on some traditional and contemporary philosophical
vitalist, organismic, Darwinian, information-theoretic, questions about life. Philosophers will want to know
thermodynamic, and chemical) to understanding the the material in this section, so that their discussions
prima facie teleological characteristics of life are about life are scientifically informed.

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Introduction xxi

Any contemporary attempt to understand the what epistemological authority they should have. Part
nature of life should be informed by important recent of the problem is that our experience with natural life
scientific developments. Artificial life and synthetic is limited to familiar Earth life. As the discussions in
biology are motivating significant philosophical and Section II reveal, we have compelling scientific reasons
scientific reflection about the nature of life. Section III for believing that all known life on Earth descends
concerns the implications of attempts in artificial life from a common ancestor. We also have good scientific
and synthetic biology to recreate life in the laboratory reasons for believing that life could have been at least
and to make lifelike systems out of hardware or soft- modestly different, but we have very little idea how
ware. The scientific state of the art in artificial life different it could have been. This makes it difficult to
and synthetic biology is presented in some chapters. identify which characteristics of familiar Earth life
In other chapters philosophers and historians reflect are found universally in all actual examples of life.
on the larger implications of those scientific develop- For all we know, familiar Earth life could constitute
ments. The strong thesis of artificial life and synthetic an unrepresentative example of all possible forms of
biology is that we can construct new kinds of systems life. However, not everyone views this problem as
(using software, hardware, or wetware) that literally are insurmountable. The development of artificial (“hard”
alive—as alive as any other form of life we know. It and “soft”) life systems and the creation of novel
contrasts with a weaker thesis that construes the lifelike microorganisms in the laboratory by synthetic biolo-
systems constructed by artificial life researchers as gists give us powerful new tools for exploring and
useful theoretical tools for exploring properties of living expanding our concept of life, and perhaps even
systems, but not literally alive. Because research in increasing the sample size of kinds of life available to
artificial life aims to create novel kinds of lifelike us for empirical investigation. The discussions in
systems, scientists must ask what really makes some- Section IV also address foundational theoretical issues
thing alive. Is it the material stuff out of which it is about life such as the role of reduction and emergence
composed (cytoplasm, flesh and bones, etc.)? Or is it the in explanations of life and the question of whether life
kinds of metabolic processes in which those materials is a compositional, structural, or functional kind, or
are participating, in a transitory and fleeting way? some combination thereof. The chapters in this section
Attempts to create lifelike systems or even life itself explore different perspectives on these and related
from nonliving materials also focus attention on a var- issues within the context of recent scientific and
iety of foundational issues, such as whether there is a philosophical advances.
sharp distinction between life and non-life, or whether The question of the proper methodology for con-
there is an open-ended array of alternative kinds of structing and evaluating views about the nature of life
systems that are more or less alive. Artificial life and is a central concern of many of the chapters in Section IV
synthetic biology also raise a fundamental epistemo- written by philosophers. One issue is the evidential
logical issue: What kind of evidence should we use when status of signs, hallmarks, and puzzles about life. What
explaining why a given kind of chemical system is liter- role should these play when investigating the nature
ally alive? For example, what weight should we give to of life? Are they test cases for evaluating accounts of
generalizations derived only from all known forms of life? A striking feature of investigations into the nature
life on Earth? of life is the ambiguous and uncertain application of
Section IV illustrates the main philosophical and various methodologies. Another important question
scientific approaches to answering the general question concerns the widespread use of definitions in explaining
“what is life?” Achieving a satisfactory understanding life. Definitions can be distinguished from criteria for
of the nature of life involves explaining a range of life, and from life’s signs and hallmarks. They can take
familiar and striking phenomena. As these chapters different forms, including pragmatic and operational,
illustrate, there is not a consensus about which although many scientists and philosophers prefer logic-
characteristics of familiar life constitute the “signs,” ally complete definitions providing necessary and suffi-
“hallmarks,” or “puzzles” most in need of explanation. cient conditions for life. Some authors in Section IV
We need to figure out what evidential status to give to reject the project of defining life. They contend that
our current preconceptions about life. It is not obvious definitions cannot provide satisfactory answers to “what

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xxii Introduction

is” questions about natural kinds, such as water and life. In our view, attempting to answer any of these
On their view an empirically well-grounded, scientific questions in isolation generates a tangle of thorny
theory of life is needed. But how does a theory of life philosophical and scientific issues that can be
differ from a highly complex definition of life? There is resolved only by addressing the two other questions.
also the question of the status of computer simulations of In fact, we find it difficult to draw a bright red line
complex living systems. Some authors argue that simu- separating scientific and philosophical questions
lations can be fruitfully construed as distinctively con- about life. Fundamental progress in either discipline
structive definitions or theories of life. Many of the requires knowing and appreciating the other discip-
chapters in Section IV address these issues. Scientists line. This book aims to foster mutual understanding
engaged in theorizing about life might find the material and appreciation among philosophical and scientific
in this section especially useful. perspectives on life. In the long run, a good measure
The four sections of this anthology are knit of its success will be the advances in understanding
together by three central open philosophical and of the nature of life that are eventually made by its
scientific questions about the nature of life: readers.
1. What are the central characteristic phenomena
exhibited by all forms of life?
REFERENCES
2. What are the best descriptions and explanations of
the nature of life? Quine, W. V. O. (1975). The nature of empirical knowledge.
3. What is the proper way to construct and evaluate In S. Guttenplan, S. (Ed.), Mind and language
views about the nature of life? (pp. 57–81). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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