Coffee Pests and their Management

C 961

Coffee Pests and their predatory organisms, which regulate the popula-
Management tions of many pests, represented 42% of the total
of species collected in a coffee plantation. For this
Juan F. Barrera reason, it is important to protect and maintain
El Colegio de la Frontera Sur, Tapachula, Chiapas, the natural enemies of pests, avoiding the indis-
Mexico criminate use of chemical pesticides and some
agronomic practices that are harmful to natural
The perennial and evergreen nature of the coffee control. The goal of this section is to describe the
plant (Coffea spp.) favors attack by a number of biological and ecological characteristics of the
insects and mites (Table 17, Figs. 73 and 74). All main insects and mites of C. arabica L. and
portions of the plants are susceptible to attack, C.  canephora Pierre ex Froehner, the damage
and damage may appear at the seed bed, nursery, caused by these pests, their natural enemies, and
plantation, or in the warehouse. Certain pests pest management in coffee growing countries of
affect the coffee plant only temporarily, while oth- tropical America. The pests to be described are
ers live for several generations on the plant. In listed in Table  17, which also includes the parts of
some instances, the attack may cause the death of the plant that are damaged and the development
the plant, but in most cases the pests only weaken stage of the coffee plant that they damage. The cri-
the plant, reducing yield. When the bean is terion applied to include these organisms in the
attacked, quality also may be affected. category of “major pests,” was that they were
Insects constitute the most numerous group reported in at least one of the manuals on coffee
of coffee pests; of more than 850 species of insects pests that have been published in Brazil, Colom-
that feed on coffee in the world, approximately bia, Costa Rica, Cuba, El Salvador, Guatemala,
200 (23.5%) have been reported in the tropical Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico or Venezuela.
and sub-tropical areas in America. Out of these,
hardly thirty species, mostly indigenous, cause
losses considered important. The pests and the Coffee Berry Borer, Hypothenemus
seriousness of the problems they cause vary from hampei (Ferrari) (Coleoptera:
one country to another, and from one area to Curculionidae: Scolytinae)
another. The coffee pest that is considered the
most important in tropical America is the coffee Distribution
berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari)
(Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae), now cos- This is the most serious insect pest of coffee
mopolitan but originating in Africa. The coffee worldwide. It originated in Africa. In the Americas,
leaf miner, Leucoptera coffeella Guérin-Méneville it is found in coffee plantations from Mexico to
(Lepidoptera: Lyonetiidae), and the root mealy- Brazil, including some countries in the Caribbean
bugs (Pseudococcidae) are causing serious prob- region such as Cuba, Jamaica, the Dominican
lems in several countries. Bugs of the genus Republic and Puerto Rico.
Antestiopsis (Pentatomidae), which are very harm-
ful in Africa, have not yet been reported in the
American hemisphere. Damage and Economic Importance
Most of the insects that are found in coffee
plantations are beneficial because they contrib- Coffee berry borer (Fig. 73) is a direct pest
ute to plant pollination, degrade organic matter, because it causes direct damage to the product to
or feed on phytophagous organisms. A study be harvested, the coffee bean. The attacked green,
­conducted in Mexico showed that parasitic and ripe and dry fruits or berries usually show a hole
962
C Coffee Pests and their Management

Coffee Pests and their Management, Table 17  The most common phytophagous insects and mites of cof-
fee in tropical America
Taxon (scientific and Country where the insect/ Developmental Plant parts affected
­common name) mite is reported as coffee stage feeding in/on
pest the plant
Acari: Tarsonemidae
Polyphagotarsonemus latus Brazil Nymph, adult Leaves
(Banks)
Acari: Tenuipalpidae
Brevipalpus sp. Brazil, Jamaica, Mexico Nymph, adult Leaves
Acari: Tetranychidae
Olygonychus coffeae Guatemala, Mexico Nymph, adult Leaves
(Nietner)
Olygonychus ilicis (McGregor) Brazil, Guatemala Nymph, adult Leaves
Olygonychus punicae (Hirst) El Salvador Nymph, adult Leaves
Olygonychus yothersi Colombia, Costa Rica, Nymph, adult Leaves
(McGregor) Venezuela
Coleoptera: Anthribidae
Araecerus fasciculatus All coffee growing coun- Larva, adult Bean
(DeGeer) tries in America
Coleoptera: Cerambycidae
Plagiohammus maculosus Costa Rica, El Salvador, Larva Stem, root
(Bates) Guatemala, Honduras,
Mexico
Plagiohammus mexicanus Mexico Larva Stem, root
Breuning
Plagiohammus spinipennis Mexico Larva Stem, root
(Thomson)
Coleoptera: Curculionidae
Brachyomus quadrinodosus Venezuela Adult Leaves
(Lacordaire)
Cleistolophus similis Sharp Costa Rica Adult Leaves
Compsus sp. Colombia Adult Leaves
Epicaerus capetillensis Sharp Guatemala, Honduras, Adult Leaves
Mexico
Hypothenemus hampei Mexico to Brazil, including Larva, adult Fruit, bean
(Ferrari) Cuba, Jamaica, Dominican
Republic, and Puerto Rico
Lachnopus buchanani Cuba Adult Leaves
Marshall
Macrostylus boconoensis Colombia, Venezuela Adult Leaves
Bordón
Pantomorus femoratus Sharp Costa Rica Adult Leaves
 Coffee Pests and their Management
C 963

Coffee Pests and their Management, Table 17  The most common phytophagous insects and mites of
­coffee in tropical America (Continued)
Taxon (scientific and Country where the insect/ Developmental Plant parts affected
­common name) mite is reported as coffee stage feeding in/on
pest the plant
Pantomorus godmani Brazil Adult Leaves
Crotch
Steirarrhinus sp. Costa Rica Adult Leaves
Xylosandrus morigerus Mexico to Brazil Larva, adult Young stems,
(Blandford) branches
Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae
Anomala sp. El Salvador Larva Root
Dyscinetus picipes Burmeister Cuba Larva Root
Phyllophaga spp. Widely distributed in coffee Larva Root
plantations in America
Phyllophaga latipes (Bates) El Salvador Larva Root
Phyllophaga menetriesi El Salvador Larva Root
(Blanchard)
Phyllophaga obsoleta El Salvador Larva Root
(Blanchard)
Phyllophaga sanjosecola Costa Rica Larva Root
Saylor
Phyllophaga vicina Moser Costa Rica Larva Root
Hemiptera: Aphididae
Toxoptera auranti (Boyer de Tropical and sub-tropical Nymph, adult Leaves, buds and
Fonscolombe) areas of the Old World. other tender parts of
Widely distributed in coffee the plant
plantations in America
Hemiptera: Coccidae
Coccus spp. Mexico Nymph, adult female Aerial part of the
plant
Coccus hesperidum L. Guatemala, Mexico Nymph, adult female Aerial part of the
plant
Coccus viridis (Green) Brazil, Colombia, Costa Nymph, adult female Aerial part of the
Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, El plant
­Salvador, Guatemala,
­Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico,
Puerto Rico, Surinam,
Venezuela
Parasaissetia sp. Colombia Nymph, adult female Aerial part of the
plant
Parasaissetia nigra (Nietner) El Salvador, Guatemala, Nymph, adult female Aerial part of the
Puerto Rico, West Indies plant
Saisettia spp. El Salvador, Mexico Nymph, adult female Aerial part of the
plant
964
C Coffee Pests and their Management

Coffee Pests and their Management, Table 17  The most common phytophagous insects and mites of
­coffee in tropical America (Continued)
Taxon (scientific and Country where the insect/ Developmental Plant parts affected
­common name) mite is reported as coffee stage feeding in/on
pest the plant
Saisettia coffeae (Walker) Brazil, Costa Rica, Cuba, El Nymph, adult female Aerial part of the
Salvador, Guatemala, plant
­Honduras, Mexico, Dominican
Republic, Venezuela
Saisettia olae (Oliver) Brazil, Cuba, Guatemala, Nymph, adult female Aerial part of the
Mexico plant
Toumeyella sp. Venezuela Nymph, adult female Root
Toumeyella liriodendri Guatemala Nymph, adult female Root
(Gmelin)
Hemiptera: Cerococcidae
Cerococcus catenarius Brazil Nymph, adult female Aerial part of the
Fonseca plant
Hemiptera: Diaspididae
Chrysomphalus sp. Guatemala Nymph, adult female Aerial part of the
plant
Chrysomphalus dictyospermi Guatemala Nymph, adult female Aerial part of the
(Morgan) plant
Ischnaspis longirostris Colombia, Cuba, Nymph, adult female Aerial part of the
(Signoret) Guatemala plant
Lepidoshaphes beckii Venezuela Nymph, adult female Aerial part of the
(Newman) plant
Selenaspidus articulatus Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico Nymph, adult female Aerial part of the
(Morgan) plant
Hemiptera: Margarodidae
Icerya purchasi Maskell Venezuela Nymph, adult female Aerial part of the
plant
Hemiptera: Ortheziidae
Insignorthezia insignis Browne Brazil, Colombia Nymph, adult female Aerial part of the
plant
Praelongorthezia praelonga Brazil Nymph, adult female Aerial part of the
(Douglas) plant
Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae
Brevicoccus sp. Guatemala Nymph, adult female Root
Ceroputo sp. Costa Rica Nymph, adult female Root
Dysmicoccus sp. Colombia, Ecuador Nymph, adult female Root
Dysmicoccus bispinosus Brazil, Guatemala, Hondu- Nymph, adult female Root
(Beardsley) ras, Mexico
Dysmicoccus brevipes Costa Rica, El Salvador, Nymph, adult female Root
(Cockerell) Guatemala, Honduras,
Mexico
 Coffee Pests and their Management
C 965

Coffee Pests and their Management, Table 17  The most common phytophagous insects and mites of
­coffee in tropical America (Continued)
Taxon (scientific and Country where the insect/ Developmental Plant parts affected
­common name) mite is reported as coffee stage feeding in/on
pest the plant
Ferrisia virgata (Cockerell) Brazil, Mexico, West Indies Nymph, adult female Aerial part of the
plant
Geococcus sp. Mexico, Venezuela Nymph, adult female Root
Geococcus coffeae Green El Salvador, Guatemala, Nymph, adult female Root
Honduras, Surinam
Geococcus radicum Green El Salvador Nymph, adult female Root
Neochavesia caldasiae Colombia Nymph, adult female Root
(Balachowsky)
Rhizoecus sp. Mexico, Venezuela Nymph, adult female Root
Rhizoecus andensis Hambleton Colombia Nymph, adult female Root
Rhizoecus coffeae Laing Costa Rica Nymph, adult female Root
Paraputo sp. Guatemala Nymph, adult female Root
Planococcus citri (Risso) Brazil, Colombia, Costa Nymph, adult female Root, aerial part of
Rica, Cuba, El Salvador, the plant
Guatemala, Honduras,
Jamaica, Mexico, Puerto
Rico
Planococcus halli Ezzat & Guatemala Nymph, adult female Root
McLonnell
Pseudococcus elisae Guatemala Nymph, adult female Root
(Borchsenius)
Pseudococcus longispinus Guatemala Nymph, adult female Root
(Targioni-Tozzeti)
Pseudococcus jongispinus Mexico Nymph, adult female Aerial part of the
Targioni-Tozzetti plant
Puto sp. Costa Rica Nymph, adult female Root
Puto antioquensis (Murillo) Guatemala Nymph, adult female Root
Rhizoeccus campestris Guatemala Nymph, adult female Root
(Hambleton)
Rhizoeccus caticans Guatemala Nymph, adult female Root
(Hambleton)
Rhizoeccus kondonis Kuwana Guatemala Nymph, adult female Root
Rhizoeccus nemoralis El Salvador, Honduras Nymph, adult female Root
Hambleton
Hymenoptera: Formicidae
Acromyrmex spp. Venezuela Adult Leaves
Acromyrmex coronatus (F.) Brazil Adult Leaves
Acromyrmex octospinosus Trinidad Adult Leaves
(Wheeler)
966
C Coffee Pests and their Management

Coffee Pests and their Management, Table 17  The most common phytophagous insects and mites of
­coffee in tropical America (Continued)
Taxon (scientific and Country where the insect/ Developmental Plant parts affected
­common name) mite is reported as coffee stage feeding in/on
pest the plant
Atta spp. Guatemala, Ecuador, Adult Leaves
­Nicaragua, Venezuela
Atta cephalotes (L.) Colombia, Costa Rica, Adult Leaves
­Mexico, Surinam, Trinidad
Atta fervens Say Mexico Adult Leaves
Atta insularis Guérin- Cuba Adult Leaves
Méneville
Atta laevigata Smith Brazil Adult Leaves
Atta mexicana (Smith) Guatemala, Mexico Adult Leaves
Atta sexdens (L.) Brazil Adult Leaves
Atta sexdens rubropilosa Brazil Adult Leaves
Forel
Lepidoptera: Apateloididae
Olceclostera moresca Colombia Larva Leaves
(Schaus.)
Lepidoptera Arctiidae
Estigmene acrea (Drury) Colombia Larva Leaves
Lepidoptera: Dalceridae
Dalcera abrasa Brazil Larva Leaves
­Herrich-Schaeffer
Zadalcera fumata Schaus Brazil Larva Leaves
Lepidoptera: Elachistidae
Stenoma cecropia Meyrick Colombia Larva Leaves
Lepidoptera: Geometridae
Glena sp. Brazil Larva Leaves
Oxydia spp. Colombia Larva Leaves
Oxydia saturniata Guenée Brazil Larva Leaves
Lepidoptera: Limacodidae
Phobetron hipparchia Brazil, Colombia Larva Leaves
(Cramer)
Sibine spp. Colombia Larva Leaves
Lepidoptera: Lyonetiidae
Leucoptera coffeella (Guérin- Widespread wherever Larva Leaves
Méneville) ­coffee is grown in the
­Neotropical area
Lepidoptera: Megalopygidae
Megalopyge lanata (Stoll) Brazil, Colombia Larva Leaves
Podalia sp. Brazil Larva Leaves
 Coffee Pests and their Management
C 967

Coffee Pests and their Management, Table 17  The most common phytophagous insects and mites of
­coffee in tropical America (Continued)
Taxon (scientific and Country where the insect/ Developmental Plant parts affected
­common name) mite is reported as coffee stage feeding in/on
pest the plant
Lepidoptera: Noctuidae
Agrotis spp. Colombia, Costa Rica, Larva Stems of small plants
­Ecuador, El Salvador in germinating
­seedbeds or recently
transplanted plants
Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel) Brazil Larva Stems of small plants
in germinating
­seedbeds or recently
transplanted plants
Agrotis repleta Walker Venezuela Larva Stems of small plants
in germinating
­seedbeds or recently
transplanted plants
Feltia spp. Costa Rica, El Salvador, Larva Stems of small plants
Venezuela in germinating seed-
beds or recently
transplanted plants
Pseudoplusia includens Honduras Larva Leaves
(Walker)
Spodoptera sp. Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecua- Larva Stems of small plants
dor, El Salvador in germinating
­seedbeds or recently
transplanted plants
Spodoptera eridania (Stoll) Venezuela Larva Stems of small plants
in germinating seed-
beds or recently
transplanted plants
Spodoptera frugiperda (Smith) Costa Rica, Brazil Larva Stems of small plants
in germinating
­seedbeds or recently
transplanted plants;
leaves
Trichoplusia ni (Hübner) Colombia Larva Leaves
Lepidoptera: Psychidae
Oiketicus geyeri (Berg) Brazil Larva Leaves
Oiketicus kirbyi Brazil, Cuba Larva Leaves
Lucas
Lepidoptera: Saturniidae
Automeris sp. Brazil, Colombia Larva Leaves
Automeris complicata Brazil Larva Leaves
Walker
968
C Coffee Pests and their Management

Coffee Pests and their Management, Table 17  The most common phytophagous insects and mites of
­coffee in tropical America (Continued)
Taxon (scientific and Country where the insect/ Developmental Plant parts affected
­common name) mite is reported as coffee stage feeding in/on
pest the plant
Automeris coresus Boisduval Brazil Larva Leaves
Automeris illustris Walker Brazil Larva Leaves
Eacles imperialis magnifica Brazil Larva Leaves
(Walker)
Eacles masoni Schaus Ecuador Larva Leaves
Lonomia circunstans (Walker) Brazil Larva Leaves
Orthoptera: Gryllidae
Paroecanthus guatemalae Guatemala, Honduras Adult female Stem, branch
Saussure
Paroecanthus niger Saussure El Salvador, Guatemala Adult female Stem, branch
Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae
Gongrocnemis sp. Guatemala Nymph, adult Leaves, buds, fruit
pulp, beans
Idiarthron atrispinum (Stål) Costa Rica, Guatemala Nymph, adult Leaves, buds, fruit
pulp, beans
Idiarthron subquadratum Colombia, Guatemala, El Nymph, adult Leaves, buds, fruit
­Saussure & Pictet Salvador, Honduras, pulp, beans
Mexico

on its apical portion. The hole is located at the which produces ochratoxin A, a potent toxin that
center or ring of the berry’s ostiole and the emis- sometimes contaminates green coffee beans,
sion of sawdust can be observed through this roasted coffee, and coffee brews, including instant
hole. Its attack reduces the yield and affects the coffee.
bean quality. Characteristic damage includes
the rotting of developing beans as a result of sap-
rophytic microorganisms that enter through the Description
hole, the drop of young berries due to attack, and
the loss of bean weight due to insect feeding. The The egg is elliptical, crystalline and yellowish
borer can cause bean yield losses of 30–35% with toward maturity. Its length varies from 0.52 to
100% of perforated berries at harvest time; nev- 0.69 mm. The larva is white-yellowish, without
ertheless, damage can be greater if harvest is legs, with a “C”-shaped body and a wide thoracic
delayed. All the commercial coffee varieties and region. The head is light brown, with visible and
species are attacked by this insect. However, it forward-extending mandibles. Visible hairs
shows preference for C. canephora, and its multi- spread over the head and body. Females molt
plication is also higher on beans of this coffee twice and males once. The length of the last lar-
­species. Recently it was suggested that H. hampei val instar is from 1.88 to 2.30 mm. The pre-pupa
serves as a vector for Aspergillus ochraceus Wilh., is similar to the larva, but its color is milky-white,
 Coffee Pests and their Management
C 969

Coffee Pests and their Management, Figure 73  Some coffee pests: (a) Coffee berry borer,
Hypothenemus hampei (Curculionidae) infesting a coffee berry; (b) Damage of coffee leaf by coffee
leaf miner, Leucoptera coffeella (Lyonetiidae); (c) Root mealybugs (Pseudococcidae); (d) Scale insects
on coffee leaf (Coccidae).

its body is less curved, and it does not feed. The 1.84 to 2.00 mm long. The adult is elongated with
pupa is ­milky-white and yellowish towards a cylindrical body slightly arched towards the
maturity. Many of the adult’s characteristics can end of the abdomen. It is about 1.50–1.78 mm
be seen in the pupal stage. The pupa varies from long and its body is bright black, although
970
C Coffee Pests and their Management

Coffee Pests and their Management, Figure 74  Some additional coffee pests: (a) Coffee branch perforat-
ed by Xylosandrus morigerus (Curculionidae); (b) Coffee stem attacked by a stem borer, Plagiohammus
maculosus (Cerambycidae); (c) Aphids on coffee leaf; (d) Adults of a katydid, Idiarthron subquadratum;
(Tettigoiidae) (e) Oviposition by a bush cricket, Paroecanthus (Gryllidae) on the stem of a coffee bush.
 Coffee Pests and their Management
C 971

yellowish when emerging from the pupa. The adults find refuge in the black, dry berries. Adult
head is ventrally located and is protected by females emerge massively from these old berries
the pronotum. The antennae are elbowed and with first rainfall, initiating the infestation by
clubbed at the ends. Mouthparts are the typical attacking berries from the earliest flowerings of
chewing type and the elytra are convex and pos- the new harvest.
sess longitudinal grooves that alternate with lon-
gitudinal series of bristles. Females have
well-developed wings that allow them to fly, Natural Enemies
while the males’ wings are atrophied. Females
are easily differentiated from males because they Coffee berry borer is attacked by several natural
are larger. enemies. Four parasitoid species from Africa are
the best known: Prorops nasuta Waterston (from
Cameroon, Ivory Coast, Zaire, Kenya, Tanzania,
Biology and Ecology Togo, Uganda) and Cephalonomia stephanoderis
Betrem (Ivory Coast, Togo) (both Hymenoptera:
Adult females initiate the infestation. In general, Bethylidae), and two solitary ectoparasitoids of
a berry is infested by a single female. If the coffee the larva, pre-pupa and pupa, Heterospillus coffei-
bean is watery or milky, the insect tends to aban- cola Schimideknecht (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)
don it and the bean usually rots. But if the bean ­(Cameroon, Zaire, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda) (a
consistency is hard enough, the founding female free-living wasp that deposits a single egg near a
constructs a gallery where she lays the eggs. The borer’s egg cluster in a recently attacked berry)
eggs are oviposited one by one, forming small and  Phymastichus coffea LaSalle (Hymenoptera:
groups within the coffee bean. The female lays Eulophidae) (Togo, Kenya) (a gregarious endop-
from 1 to 3 eggs per day during the first 15–20 arasitoid of H.  hampei adults which parasitizes
days; afterwards, the egg laying diminishes grad- the   borer during the berry perforation). Other
ually. Both the founding female and the larvae parasitoids that have been reported attacking
build tunnels in the bean, where they also feed. H. hampei include Aphanogmus dictyna (Water-
Pupation takes place within the coffee bean ston) (Hymenoptera: Ceraphronidae) (Uganda),
where the larva hatched. The duration of the bio- Sclerodermus cadavericus Benoit (Hymenoptera:
logical cycle, from egg to adult, varies according Benthylidae) (Uganda, Zaire, Kenya), Cephalono-
to the temperature: 21 days at 27°C, 32 days at mia hyalinipennis Ashmead (Mexico) and Cryp-
22°C and 63 days at 19.2°C. As the first adult off- toxilos sp. (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) (Colombia).
spring appear, the population inside an infested In Brazil and Colombia, there are reports of an
bean typically consists of 25–30 individuals in undescribed species of Cephalonomia parasitizing
all stages of development, of which there are H. hampei.
approximately 10 females for each male. Mating Some of the predators that have been recorded
is conducted between siblings inside the bean. include Dindymus rubiginosus (F.) (Hemiptera:
The mated females leave the bean where they Pyrrhocoridae) (Indonesia), Calliodes, Scoloposcelis
developed to look for another where they will (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) (Colombia), and Lep-
oviposit. Several generations occur while berries tophloeus sp. near punctatus Lefkovich (Coleoptera:
are available. After coffee ­harvest, the borer Laemophloeidae) (Togo, Ivory Coast). However,
­continues to reproduce in the non-harvested most of the predators of H. hampei reported
berries located on the plant and on the ground. from around the world (most of them anecdotal
In locations with low rainfall, where there is a records) have been ants (Hymenoptera: Formici-
clearly defined period between harvests, the dae), including Azteca instabilis (F. Smith),
972
C Coffee Pests and their Management

­ rematogaster curvispinosa Mayr, C. torosa Mayr,

C Management
Dolichoderus bituberculatus Mayr, Pheidole
­radoszkowskii Mayr, and Solenopsis geminata (F.). An integrated pest management strategy is used
Unknown species of Azteca, Brachymyrmex, against the coffee berry borer. The principal tactics
Paratrechina, Pheidole, Prenolepis and Wasmannia are cultural control, biological control, use of traps
have been recorded as well. baited with attractants, and chemical control with
Several entomopathogenic fungi attack the cof- synthetic insecticides. Sampling infested berries is
fee berry borer, but Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) used for pest control decision-making.
Vuillemin is the most common species infecting H.
hampei adults under natural conditions. Other fungi
recorded infecting H. hampei are Fusarium oxyspo- Sampling Infested Berries
rum Schlechtend, F. avenaceum (Fr.) Sacc., Hirsutella
eleutheratorum (Nex ex  Gray) Petch., Metarhizium The proportion of infested berries is calculated
anisopliae (Metschnikoff) Sorokin, Nomuraea rileyi based on the following sampling protocol: in an
(Farlow) Samson, Paecilomyces amoenoroseus (Hen- area of 1–5 ha, 20 uniformly distributed sites are
nings) Samson, P. farinosus (Holm. ex S.F. Gray), P. selected; at each site five coffee plants in a row are
fumosoroseus (Wize) Brown & Smith, P. javanicus selected; 20 berries of each coffee plant are exam-
(Friederichs & Bally) Brown & Smith, P. lilacinus ined (without tearing them off), and the number
(Thom.) Samson, and Verticillium lecanii (Zimmer- of perforated berries is recorded.
man). Some of these fungi, such as M. anisopliae and
P. lilacinus, have been isolated from H. hampei-
infested berries collected from the soil. Cultural Control
Metaparasitylenchus hypothenemi Poinar
(Tylenchida: Allantonematidae), an entomopatho- There are a number of cultural practices that may
genic nematode attacking H. hampei adults, has be used to minimize damage by borers. The ber-
been reported in Mexico and appears to have a ries left on the plant before maturity and on the
wide distribution in coffee plantation in Mexico ground after harvest are collected and boiled for
and Central America 5 min to eliminate the borers in them. This practice
This nematode cause sterility in female bor- is also called “manual control” or “rere.” Weeds are
ers. The natural parasitism by an undescribed controlled after the harvest in order to facilitate
­species of Panagrolaimus (Rhabditida: Panagro- the collection of berries from the ground and to
laimidae) has been reported in H. hampei in India increase the mortality of H. hampei by dehydra-
and Mexico. M. hypothenemi and Panagrolaimus tion of the berries. The coffee and shade plants are
sp. were found infecting the same H. hampei adults pruned to create less favorable environmental
in Mexico. Species from Heterorhabditidae and conditions for multiplication of the borer. Coffee
Steinernematidae (Rhabditida) are able to infect plant density is decreased because high sowing
H. hampei in the laboratory, but this has not been densities favor infestation. The coffee plants are
observed in the field. fertilized so that they have more uniform flower-
In Colombia, infections in the coffee berry ings. Varieties with the same fruiting pattern are
borer caused by bacteria such as Bacillus sp. and used because the early flowering varieties are an
Serratia sp. were observed. Also, infections of infestation source for late flowering varieties;
­proteobacterium Wolbachia in H. hampei adults however, coffee varieties or species which flower
have been reported from samples around the world. earlier or later than the main variety can be used
The microsporidian Mattesia sp. was observed in a as “trap crops,” if managed properly. The harvest is
population of laboratory-reared insects. conducted as the fruits ripen.
 Coffee Pests and their Management
C 973

Biological Control to sunlight. Early in the morning is the most

effective time to apply it in the field, when the
The natural enemies most often used against borer is starting to penetrate the coffee berry.
the borer in tropical America have been the par-
asitoids C. stephanoderis, P. nasuta and P. coffea,
and the entomopathogenic fungus B. bassiana. Insect Traps
These three parasitoids were introduced to
tropical America from Africa. They are estab- Traps are used for monitoring and control of the
lished in most of the countries where they have coffee berry borer. They are made using 2 L plastic
been released. Nevertheless, classical biological bottles into which one or more windows have
control with these African parasitoids has not been cut to allow the entry of flying females. Bor-
been sufficient to reduce the borer population ers are attracted by a mixture of methanol and
below the economic injury level. Yearly inocula- ethanol (1:1 or 3:1) and they are caught and
tive and inundative releases of parasitoids have drowned in the water placed at the bottom of the
been used with better results. However, inunda- trap. Typically, 16–25 traps are deployed per hect-
tive releases are expensive because mass rearing are. Each trap is suspended from a branch of a
methods and facilities have not been developed coffee plant at 1.2–1.5 m above the ground. Borers
for area-wide releases. Parasitoids are produced captured are removed from the traps and counted
for inoculative releases in laboratories where weekly. The best time to use the traps for H. ham-
the borer is reared mostly in parchment coffee pei control is after the harvest, during the massive
(35% humidity) for use in rearing the parasi- emergence of females from old berries. Better
toids. A rearing system for H. hampei in an arti- results for suppression of insect infestation in the
ficial diet has been developed; however, its next harvest can be obtained by combining the
application for mass production of parasitoids use of traps with strict sanitation.
is not fully employed. An alternative and less
intensive rearing system to produce parasitoids
for inoculative releases is production of the par- Chemical Control
asitoids in rural areas, also known as “parasitoid
rural rearing.” In this system, the coffee growers There are several chemical insecticides used for
rear the parasitoids at their farms or communi- borer control, among which endosulfan is out-
ties. Such rearing is conducted using coffee standing for its ability to cause high mortality of
berries infested by the borer in the field. Regard- H. hampei. However, this organochlorine insecti-
less of the rearing method used, annual releases cide is being seriously questioned for negative
of parasitoids are needed to manage the borer side effects (it is highly toxic to fish and bees, and
population. it causes secondary pest outbreaks by eliminating
The use of B. bassiana for borer control is the natural enemies); borer resistance (appar-
more developed than is the use of parasitoids. Its ently this pest is not resistant to endosulfan in
success has resulted from the relatively easy tropical America; nevertheless, there is concern
propagation, formulation and application of this about the development of resistance, as in the
­fungus. Strains of B. bassiana are commonly case of New Caledonia); and sanctions in the
collected for mass production from infected international market due to the possible presence
H. hampei females in the field. Rice grains are used of residues in the coffee bean. The insecticide
as the propagation substrate for this entomopatho- should only be used if the borer population
gen. The fungus requires high relative humidity for reaches the economic threshold. The best time
germination of the spores and it is very susceptible for spraying is when the adult borer starts
974
C Coffee Pests and their Management

­ enetrating the fruit, at the ­so-called semi-con-

p by leaf miner can cause severe defoliation. In
sistency stage of development (about 20% dry Ecuador, defoliation between 70 and 90% has
weight in the bean). This period varies, according been reported on C. arabica and from 30 to 40%
to the temperature, from 90 to 140 days after the on C. canephora. The lack of leaves on the plant
main flowering. Formerly, treatments were reduces the photosynthetic activity, and conse-
throughout the plantation, but now sprays are quently the availability of nutrients for the fruits.
directed only at infested areas. In Brazil, when 94–95% of the leaves were mined,
a reduction in yield between 68–80% has been
observed.
Coffee Leaf Miner, Leucoptera
coffeella (Guérin-Méneville)
(Lepidoptera: Lyonetiidae) Description

Distribution The egg is oval, translucent yellow and similar to a

flattened volcano in profile. It is 0.28 mm long, 0.18
This species is found in the Neotropics: Mexico, mm wide, and 0.08 mm tall. The larva has a dors-
Central America, South America and the Caribbean oventrally flattened body with a more pro-
region. It is widespread wherever coffee is grown. nounced flattening of the head and the first
thoracic segment. The true legs are found on the
1st, 2nd and 3rd thoracic segments but four pairs
Damage and Economic Importance of prolegs occur on the 6th, 7th, 8th and 13th
abdominal segments. It has four larval instars. The
In some areas of tropical America, the coffee leaf larva attains a length of 4.5 mm. The pupa is white
miner is considered to be the principal insect in the initial stage and ochre towards maturity,
pest of coffee; certainly this is the case in some except for the dorsal portion, which remains white.
coffee-growing areas in Brazil. Leaves are the The pupa is covered by a white cocoon which
only plant organs damaged by this insect. The resembles an elongated “H” or “X.” The adult is a
damage is caused by the larva. Four larvae per small moth between 2.0 and 3.0 mm long with its
leaf may cause leaf drop. The affected leaves show body covered by silvery scales. The antennae are
irregular light-brown spots. If the damaged sur- long and thin. The front wings possess a gray oval
face of the leaf is rubbed, the leaf separates into point distally, surrounded by a black line and
two layers and between them is found a small edged by a yellow stripe that extends along the
white worm, from 2 to 5 mm in size. The coffee margin. Males tend to be slightly smaller than
leaf miner lesions may be confused with the females.
symptoms of Anthracnose (Colletotrichum sp.),
but in the latter case the leaf layers do not sepa-
rate when rubbed. Four months after flowering, a Biology and Ecology
reduction in the rate of growth of the coffee ber-
ries and an increase in leaf production take place; The female usually lays its eggs irregularly on the
this allows the plant to compensate for the dam- upper surface of the darkest, most mature leaves,
age caused by the miner. But when the fruit particularly on the middle and lower parts of the
growth starts again, if there is more than one leaf coffee plant. Eggs are laid individually or in small
miner lesion per leaf it will result in economic clusters of up to seven eggs, with a total fecundity
damage. The damage increases if simultaneously that varies between 30 and 80 eggs. Upon hatch-
the plant is under drought stress. Attack of coffee ing, the larva makes a semi-circular cut at its base
 Coffee Pests and their Management
C 975

and penetrates rapidly into the leaf, where it Management

moves about, mining the palisade parenchyma
tissue. When ready to pupate, the fully developed There are several useful approaches to manage-
larva leaves the gallery very early in the morning, ment of coffee leaf miner. population. Sampling is
making a semi-circular cut on the face of the leaf, recommended prior to initiating chemical
through which it slips down by a silk thread control.
which it secretes from the mouth. Cocoon for-
mation and pupation take place on the lower face
of the coffee leaf, often on a curvature of the leaf Sampling Damaged Leaves
or close to a protruding vein. The duration of the
life cycle, from egg to adult, lasts between 25 and The recommended sampling protocol follows:
75 days, depending on the temperature. Several sampling is initiated when the coffee flowers, and
generations occur annually, particularly in coffee is conducted monthly until the berries stop grow-
plantations with full sunlight or only lightly ing. The coffee plantation to be sampled is divided
shaded. The abundance of L. coffeella is signifi- into areas not larger than one hectare. The sam-
cantly affected by the onset of rainfall, and by pling is conducted by selecting a zigzag path
natural enemies, which are very numerous after across the coffee plantation and by selecting 12
the end of the dry season. coffee plants at random. From each coffee plant,
25 leaves are selected at random, and the number
of leaves with mines is recorded. The first two
Natural Enemies pairs of leaves at the tip of the branches are not
sampled.
The coffee leaf miner is attacked by a large
number of parasitoids; predators and some
insect pathogens have also been recorded. More Cultural Control
than 20 morphospecies of parasitoids wasps
(Hymenoptera) have been reported in tropical The shade canopy of coffee plantation should not
America. Eulophidae are the most common par- be trimmed immediately after harvest; it should
asitoids of L. coffeella; this group is largely be thinned only when the onset of the rainy sea-
unknown because keys for neotropical species do son is imminent. Adequate soil fertilization is
not exist. In Mexico, Neochrysocharis was the important. Thick mulch coverage of the soil
genus with the greater number of morphospe- should be maintained. High coffee plant densities
cies, and also the one that was collected most fre- should be avoided. The coffee plant should be
quently. It was followed, in order of abundance, pruned to stimulate vigorous growth. Damaged
by Pnigalio, Closterocerus, and Zagrammosoma. leaves should be collected and placed in contain-
Of two braconids collected in Mexico, Stiropius ers that allow the escape of parasitoids but not of
letifer (Mann) was the most abundant and most the coffee leaf miner.
widely distributed. Wasps (Vespidae) are the most
important predators of coffee leaf miner in Bra-
zil, but in Mexico, the most important predators Biological Control
are ants (Formicidae). The bacteria Pseudomonas
aeruginosa (Schroeter) Migula and Erwinia her- The introduction of natural enemies into new
bicola (Löhnis) Dye, and the fungus Cladospo- areas has not been widely explored. The most
rium sp., have been reported infecting L. important action conducted so far has been to
coffeella. protect the already existing natural enemies by
976
C Coffee Pests and their Management

avoiding the use of broad-spectrum, residual Root Mealybugs (Hemiptera:

contact insecticides. The natural control exerted Pseodococcidae)
by the coffee leaf miner’s natural enemies varies
from 2 to 70%; however, in most cases it is unnec- Distribution
essary to resort to the use of chemical control.
Regrettably, the use of chemical insecticides may Root mealybugs are found in Neotropical coun-
eliminate a large portion of the beneficial organ- tries where coffee is grown. The principal root
isms, causing pest resurgence and making it dif- mealybugs affecting coffee plants in tropical
ficult to implement control. In certain countries America are shown in Table 17.
like Honduras, high and recurring L. coffeella
infestations have diminished significantly when
the use of chemical control is not applied for sev- Damage and Economic Importance
eral years and the beneficial fauna is restored.
This supports the idea that coffee leaf miner con- These insects attack the coffee plant roots and some
trol should not be based on use of insecticides in species also affect the foliage. The foliage of attacked
order to avoid disrupting the actions of parasi- coffee plants appears withered, the color of the
toids and predators. leaves fade, and they have copper, brown or necrotic
edges. Additionally, total or partial leaf drop may
occur. These symptoms are more evident during
Chemical Control the dry season. In case of serious attacks by Dysmi-
coccus bispinosus (Beardly), a thick, cork-like, dark
Numerous chemical insecticides can be used for crust covers the main and secondary roots; the
suppression of L. coffeella and protection of foli- attacked roots lose their absorbent root hairs. Heav-
age. These products include both organophos- ily attacked plants perish. Infestation appears to be
phate and pyrethroid insecticides. They are associated with ants (Formicidae). The symptoms
inexpensive and can be applied at the same time may be confused with the symptoms of fungal
with other agrochemicals, but they are highly diseases and with physiological plant problems.
toxic and they are more likely to cause ecological In the case of Neorhizoeccus coffeae (Laing) and
disturbances. Organophosphorates are often D. brevipes (Ckll.) infestations, the branches turn
applied twice at an interval of 30–45 days, with whitish and the affected root seems to be covered
an additional application in cases of severe with flour, the crust separates easily, and consider-
attack. In the case of pyrethroids, one or two able deteriorated tissue appears. The attacked plants
applications at an interval of 45–60 days are rec- have little anchorage and are easily dislodged.
ommended. The application of granular insecti- Root mealybugs have become important coffee
cides with systemic action to the soil is also pests in some areas of tropical America during the
recommended in cases where it is difficult to last 20 years. In Guatemala, the most harmful species
apply foliar sprays. Soil applications interfere is D. bispinosus; in Costa Rica, N. coffeae and D. brevi-
much less with the natural enemies of the coffee pes; in El Salvador, D. brevipes, Rhizoeccus nemoralis
leaf miner, and this approach can be used to con- Ham. and Geococcus coffeae Green; and in Colombia,
trol pests and soil diseases simultaneously. Gran- Chavesia caldasiae (Balachowsky). At some coffee
ular insecticides should be shallowly buried at plantations in Colombia, Planococcus citri (Risso) has
the drip line of the plant once a year during the also appeared as a pest, causing up to 30% yield loss
rainy season. Where this type of product is used, in the attacked trees. Other forms of damage caused
it is recommended that harvest occur 90 days by root mealybugs include excessive extraction of
after application. potassium, destruction of the absorbent root hairs,
 Coffee Pests and their Management
C 977

development of small rotting areas which tend to Other species, such as Pseudococcus adonidum (L.)
atrophy, and enhanced entry of plant pathogens. This are oviparous. Females die shortly after the eggs
damage creates a general condition of weakness, slow hatch. Upon eclosion, the small nymphs start look-
growth and plant death in many cases. ing for an appropriate place to settle on the plant
Dysmicoccus brevipes weakens the coffee root; at the selected site, they insert their mouthparts,
plants but it rarely kills them. In Costa Rica, and feed by suctioning the sap from the root. Some
plants with more than 20 mealybugs per liter of of them settle down permanently on a site until they
soil are more susceptible to infection by the fungus reach maturity, and others may change their feeding
Cercospora coffeicola Berk & Cooke. Damage is site by moving short distances. Depending on the
more apparent on nutrient-deficient soils, and type of soil, the humidity, aeration and age of the
where weeds are abundant. Plants in seed beds coffee plant, they usually place themselves between
and tree nurseries are also attacked. The varieties 10 and 60 cm under the soil surface, their popula-
of C. arabica grown in Central America (e.g., tion diminishing as the soil depth increases. Differ-
Caturra, Catuaí, Bourbon) are susceptible to the ent species prefer different parts of the root. For
mealybug attack, while tolerance has been example, D. brevipes and R. nemoralis prefer the
observed on C. canephora, C. dewevrei De Wild. main and the lateral roots, while G. coffeae attacks
& Durand, and C. excelsa Chev. the absorbent roots; the smaller species attack the
whole root system near the soil surface.
As they feed and develop, the nymphs and
Description adults excrete their characteristic waxy cover and
form compact colonies. Mealybugs excrete sugary
Mealybug eggs are small (0.5 mm). The nymphs are substances (honeydew), which supports the growth
oval, slightly swollen, usually white, yellow or pink- of fungi (i.e., Bornetina), which contribute to for-
colored, and covered by a white waxy-mealy dust mation of the thick, cork-like, dark crust covering
with waxy filaments projecting laterally. The female and sheltering the mealybug colony; a succession of
nymphs molt three times, and the males, contrary crusts give a knotty appearance to the root. The sug-
to the females, form a waxy cocoon in the third ary substances also attract certain ant species, which
instar, where they pupate. The adult females have no live in a symbiotic association (trophobiosis) with
wings and they are similar to the nymphs but larger. the mealybugs. In exchange for the sugary foodstuff,
Smaller species, such as Geococcus and Rhizoecus, the ants give them protection and transportation
are from 1.5 to 2.0 mm long and the larger ones, from one root to another and from one plant to
such as Dysmicoccus and Pseudococcus, are from 2.5 another. The ants that associate with mealybugs in
to 5.0 mm long. Males are white, fragile-looking, South America and in some of the Caribbean
smaller than the females, and they possess a pair of Islands are in the genus Acropyga. In Colombia, the
wings and a pair of terminal filaments. Hope ant (A. robae Donisthorpe) and the Amagá
ant (A. fuhrmanni Forel) are associated with N. cof-
feae and C. caldasiae, respectively. In Guatemala, D.
Biology and Ecology bispinosus seems to be associated with the presence
of the ant Solenopsis geminata (F.). P. citri does not
Mealybugs generally live attached to the coffee root, produce large quantities of sugary excretions when
forming numerous colonies. Their reproduction it lives on the plant roots, and is not attractive to
may be sexual or parthenogenetic (partial or total). ants. In certain cases, the mealybugs have lived for
Eggs are laid in groups and covered by a layer of more than a year in the absence of ants.
cotton-like wax or by an egg sac of crystalline wax The life cycle, from egg to adult, requires from
filaments. A single female may deposit 300–600 eggs. 30 to 120 days, according to the species and the
978
C Coffee Pests and their Management

temperature. Five generations develop per year in ant nests should be examined critically; from 15 to
the case of D. bispinosus. Root mealybugs develop 20 plants/ha should be checked, paying more atten-
better during the rainy season, particularly in low tion to those that are close to the ant nests and/or
or medium altitude plantations in Central Amer- possess yellow leaves. The surrounding shade trees
ica. Other conditions that favor their development and bushes should also be checked. The plants are
are sandy, acid pH, and medium moisture soils. In checked by moving the stems in all directions in
Colombia, the damage caused by Rhizoecus sp. order to gain visibility of the base of the roots.
seems to increase in old, poorly fertilized planta-
tions, and in Guatemala D. bispinosus is found most
frequently in 1–5 year-old plantations. Mealybugs Cultural Control
are polyphagous, also attacking other plants such
as shade trees (Inga spp.), cassava (Manihot escu- Mealybugs should not be present in the seed bed
lenta Crantz), sugarcane (Saccharum), banana trees and tree nursery. The limits of any infestation
(Musa), lemon trees (Citrus) and some herbs that sites should be determined and marked. Adequate
grow on the coffee plantation. In Costa Rica, Anred- fertilization should be provided, including
era ramosa (Moq.) Eliasson is an alternate host of addition of organic matter to the soil. Physical
D. brevipes; in El Salvador, D. bispinosus has been conditions of the soil should be improved in
found associated with Lantana camara L. order to avoid floods. Planting coffee trees on
land previously supporting plants that are highly
susceptible to mealybugs (e.g., cassava, sugarcane)
Natural Enemies should be avoided. Alternate host plants should
be eliminated from the plantation. Severely dam-
In general, the literature on coffee mealybugs in aged plants should be removed and burned.
tropical America does not make reference to their
natural enemies. In Cuba, Coccidoxenoides peregrinus
(Timberlake) (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) is cited Biological Control
as a solitary, primary endoparasite of the pseudo-
coccid complex in coffee. Other natural enemies This is practically unexplored in the coffee grow-
of mealybugs reported in Cuba are Diadiplosis ing countries of tropical America.
cocci Felton (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae), Leptomastix
dactylopii Howard (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae)
and Signiphora sp. (Hymenoptera: Signiphoridae). Plant Resistance to Insects

In Guatemala, some research has been conducted

Management which supports the use of plants grafted on resis-
tant rootstocks of C. canephora (genotypes 3757,
There are management options for mealybugs, but 3754, 3751, 3581, 3752 and 3756) and C. dewevrei.
insecticides are normally used once pest popula-
tions develop.
Chemical Control

Sampling Systemic organophosphorate and carbamate insec-

ticides produce good results, although they are
Sampling should preferably be conducted on young expensive. The presence of mealybugs in seed beds
coffee plantations (up to 6 years old). Plants near or on plants younger than 1 year old is sufficient
 Coffee Pests and their Management
C 979

justification for insecticide application. On planta- When Capnodium (sooty mold) and Meliola (black
tions older than 3 years, insecticide application is mildew) fungi grow on the honeydew excreted by
made if more than 1.6 colonies per plant, on average, the scales, they interfere with photosynthesis. Ants
are found. In no case should the damage be allowed are present where scale insects are feeding.
to exceed 25% of the absorbent roots. Insecticides In cases of severe attack, a dirty appearance
are applied on the drip line of the plant if the dam- on the plant, general weakening, growth delay, yel-
age is on the small roots. If the damage is on the lowing and drop of foliage and fruit are observed.
main root a funnel-shaped hole should be made With the articulated scale, Selenaspidus articulatus
around the tree trunk, the insecticide should be (Morgan), old attacks may be recognized because
poured in and the hole should be covered again with the site where the scales were located turns yellow
soil, adding also a layer of dead leaves. Application of or discolored, resembling infection by the coffee
granular insecticides is made at the beginning of the rust fungus (Hemileia vastatrix Berk. and Br.).
rainy season or 3 months before starting the harvest. Some species, such as the green scale, Coccus
viridis (Green), are considered to be quite impor-
tant to coffee production, though some attack a
Scale Insects, Mealybugs and number of different cultivated plants. Severe infes-
Related Foliage Pests (Hemiptera) tations of C. viridis may kill young tree nursery
plants. The incidence of these pests is highest on
Distribution coffee plantations lacking adequate shading.

Different scale insects, mealybugs and related

foliage pests live on the coffee plant. The geo- Pest Description
graphic distribution of some is restricted to a few
countries of tropical America, whereas others The following cases are presented as examples:
are distributed more widely. Some are reported C. viridis – adult females are motionless, oval, some-
attacking the coffee plant only in South America, times asymmetric, very flat and pale yellow. They
others only in Central America or the Caribbean have some black spots centrally, and they tend to
(Table 17). be  soft and elastic. They are about 2.2 mm wide
and  4.0 mm long. The presence of males is very
rare. Saisettia coffeae (Walker) – adult females are
Damage and Economic Importance motionless, almost spherically shaped and dark
brown. They are 2.0–3.5 mm in diameter. The males
Scale insects, mealybugs and related species attack are winged. P. citri – adult females are mobile, oval,
the aerial part of the coffee plant and, in some spe- pale yellow or dark orange, with very clear segments
cies, also the root (e.g., Planococcus citri [Risso]). on the body, and 4.0 mm in size. They are covered
The leaves, fruit, branches and young tissues of with a dusty white glandular secretion except for a
the  aerial part of the attacked coffee plant often longitudinal stripe dorsally. They have filaments lat-
support colonies or groups of circular, oval or elon- erally. Males are smaller (1.0 mm), violet to yellow
gated scales, which may be flattened or swollen, in color, and they have well-developed wings.
with a soft or hard consistency. In other cases, colo-
nies of insects have a soft body covered with white,
cotton-like filaments. These insects cause damage Biology and Ecology
by removing large quantities of sap, which causes
plant malnutrition. Also, sticky honeydew and The biology of these insects varies among spe-
blackish molds can be found covering the foliage. cies and can be quite complex. The first instar
980
C Coffee Pests and their Management

has legs and antennae and is very active. To feed, Natural Enemies
the insects attach and insert their mouthparts.
After the first molt, they generally lose their legs These insects are susceptible to a large number of
and antennae and the insect becomes sessile. By parasites, predators and pathogens as natural
then, it begins to secrete a waxy, scale-shaped enemies.
layer that covers the body. In the case of scales of
the family Diaspididae, this layer of scale is
almost always separated from the insect’s body. Management
Adult females remain under this cover and they
produce their eggs or directly give birth to the Sampling
nymphs therein. The location on the plant, and
the age of the plant they prefer to attack, depends During the dry season, inspections should be con-
on the species of scale: C. viridis is commonly ducted to check for the presence of scales and
located along the leaf veins, on the back of the related species in the coffee plantation, as well as
leaves, on young buds and on seed bed coffee on other plants cultivated nearby or at the same
fruits of nursery plants; S. articulatus is found time.
mainly on the leaves and fruits of production
plants; the round scale, Parasaissetia sp., mostly
attacks the stems and branches of coffee plants
Cultural Control
younger than 1 year; the black scale, Ischnaspis
The nursery shading should be reinforced during
longirostris (Signoret), infests the leaves, branches
the dry season. Affected plants should not be
and fruits of old, poorly attended coffee planta-
transplanted. Weeds should be suppressed. The
tions; Cerococcus catenarius Fonseca gathers in
pests should be kept under control on host plants
the form of a line or chain along the trunks and
existing in or near the coffee plantations. Sanitary
branches; P. citri attacks new branches, leaves,
pruning should be performed to eliminate (by
flower buds, fruit peduncles and fruits; Orthezia
burning) old and unproductive branches infested
spp. attack branches, leaves and fruits, mostly of
by the pests.
robusta coffee in Brazil. The males develop very
much like the females except that in the last
stage, before transforming into adults, they go Biological Control
through a pupal stage; the wings develop exter-
nally over the pupa. Most of the scales reproduce Natural enemies should be protected and pre-
parthenogenetically. Some species are oviparous served, using insecticide only if necessary.
(S. coffeae, S. olae [Oliver]) and others are vivipa-
rous (Coccus hesperidum L.). The total number
of eggs produced per female varies among the Chemical Control
species; for example: C. viridis, between 50 and
600 eggs; Orthezia praelonga Douglas, more than Chemical control is directed only at infested plants,
200 eggs; C. catenarius, about 900; S. coffeae can after checking to determine that the scale colonies
lay up to 1,600 eggs. The complete life cycle, from are alive. For better control, mineral oil is added to
egg to adult, lasts between 40 and 60 days. The the insecticide solution, with applications made
scale insects are more abundant during the dry every 15 days until the problem is corrected. The
season and at the onset of the rainy period. Hard oil should not be used during flowering or during
rains and natural enemies are important factors sunny periods of the day. During the rainy season,
in the mortality of these pests. granulated insecticides may be used.
 Coffee Pests and their Management
C 981

Cutworms and Armyworms Biology and Ecology

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
Adults are moths that are active at night, laying
Distribution their eggs individually (A. ipsilon) or in groups
(S. frugiperda). During the first two larval stages,
These insects are widely distributed in the coffee they feed on leaves that are at soil level, and in
plantations of tropical America (Table 17). the  last three they act as cutting worms. During
the  day, they remain hidden in the soil. In some
species, such as A. ipsilon, the larvae coil up when
Damage and Economic Importance disturbed. Larvae pupate in the soil.

Cutworms and armyworms constitute an economi-

cally important pest for many crops. Damage is Natural Enemies
caused during the night by the larval stage. The
larvae attack the stems of small coffee plants in ger- There are many natural enemies (parasitoids,
minating beds, seedbeds or plant nurseries, and predators and pathogens) of these pests. In Ecua-
recently transplanted plants. On seed beds and plant dor, the larval parasitoids Bonetia sp. (Diptera:
nurseries, plant damage typically takes the form of Tachinidae) and Chelonus sp. (Hymenoptera:
plants cut at the soil level or slightly above, or Braconidae) and the predatory ground beetle
withered plants. In the case of recently transplanted Calosoma sp. (Coleoptera: Carabidae), are cited.
coffee plants, defoliated and sometimes dead coffee
plants can be observed. Spodoptera frugiperda
(Smith) larvae feed on the stem, causing withering Management
and finally death of the small plants during the first
year of their lives. In other cases, the stem breaks at Sampling
the site of the ring formed by the larval feeding.
When the infestation is severe, many plants are killed Night-time inspection of seedbeds and the young
and re-sowings are needed, which increases the cof- plantations should be made to detect initial
fee plantation set-up costs. Damage is more frequent infestations.
in plantations that are close to fields where corn,
beans, vegetables, cassava or pasture are grown.
Cultural Control
Pest Description
Seedbeds or plant nurseries should be kept clean
The following species are presented as examples: of weeds and dead leaves, since the larvae seek
S.  frugiperda – the larvae have a well-contrasted, shelter there.
inverted “Y” on the head; neonate larvae are white
with a black head, but as they grow they turn dark.
Large worms are light brown to dark green in color Mechanical Control
and they are about 4.0 cm long. Agrotis ipsilon (Huf-
nagel) – small larvae are brown with paler back Larvae should be eliminated by hand during the
marks, and large ones, which may be as be as large as night-time inspections. Heavy watering should be
4.0–5.0 cm, are shiny black-gray in color, with a pale applied to get the larvae out of their hiding places,
gray line on the back and black tubercles on each of followed by manual elimination. Light traps can
the segments. be used to capture the adults.
982
C Coffee Pests and their Management

Biological Control mortality of the branches and stems is caused by

microorganisms that invade the plant tissues
Biological insecticides such as Bacillus thuringiensis through the feeding sites formed by the brown
Berliner should be used, particularly at the begin- coffee borer. Ants, termites or mites can be found
ning of infestations, when the larvae are small. in the abandoned galleries. Often the ants cause
the death of branches or stems when enlarging the
Chemical Control abandoned galleries of X. morigerus to construct
their own nests. If death of branches or stems does
Insecticides can be incorporated into the soil, before not occur, the yield is reduced as a result of dam-
or after sowing, for cutworm control. Granular age to the flowering and development of the fruit.
products are used in a preventive manner. The use The symptoms can be observed more frequently
of poisoned baits during the night and dry weather on weak coffee plants, but attacks may also be seen
is also recommended. on the young stems of pruned plantations. This
pest is particularly important in Ecuador. In Mex-
ico, X. morigerus is also an important pest in the
Soconusco region in Chiapas.
Brown Coffee Borer, Xylosandrus
morigerus (Blandford) (Coleoptera:
Curculionidae: Scolytinae) Description

Distribution The egg is oval, white and very small. The larva is
milky white, with a yellowish head, and lacks legs.
This pest comes from the Oriental region, having The pupa is white initially, turning cream to brown
its distribution center in the Indomalayan area. It toward maturity. The adult is cylindrical and from
was detected in the western hemisphere in 1958– 1.40 to 1.90 mm long. It is differentiated from
1959, and it is now found from Veracruz, Mexico other species of the same genus by the bright
to Brazil. brown-reddish color, by the stouter body and
because the declivity commencing only on-third
of the elytral length from the base, and by the near
Damage and Economic Importance absence of punctures on the sides of the elytra
(variable). Females have well-developed wings and
Various tree species can be attacked by X. morigerus fly, but males are incapable of flight. Females are
(e.g., avocado, cacao, cedar, coffee). This insect dis- larger than males.
plays a strong preference for attacking robusta cof-
fee, C. canephora. Some reports indicate that it
may also infest C. arabica; however, this has not Biology and Ecology
been confirmed in Mexico. The attacked coffee
plant branches and young stems typically display a Mated females take flight during the day, leaving
few or many holes of about 1.0 mm diameter. the gallery where they developed in search of
Blackening of the tissues may be seen around the branches or stems, which they penetrate to
perforations. A longitudinal cut of an affected construct the new galleries. The female lays
branch reveals a gallery in which the whitish lar- from 20 to 60 eggs in 8–10 days. X. morigerus is an
vae can be observed, along with reddish brown ambrosia beetle. The adults and larvae get more
adults. The attacked young branches and stems nutrition by feeding on fungi (e.g., Ambrosiaemy-
dry up distally and then die. Apparently, the ces zeylanicus Trotter is reported from Ecuador;
 Coffee Pests and their Management
C 983

Raffaelea tritirachium Batra from Mexico) than ethanol have been used for monitoring flying
from the coffee plant tissues. These fungi grow females in robusta coffee plantations.
inside the gallery, which is inoculated by the found-
ing female. The larvae have three instars. The life
cycle, from egg to adult, is 20–40 days. A gallery Cultural Control
may contain more than 80 individuals in all stages
of development. The sex ratio in galleries is female- Infested vegetative material, particularly in
dominated; various studies have found only one young or pruned plantations, should be cut and
male for each 7, 11 or 20 females. Mating occurs burned periodically. Adequate fertilization should
within, or very close to the gallery. Infestation is be applied. Shade of coffee should be regulated by
apparently less evident under drought conditions, pruning. Weeds should be suppressed by shading,
because the ambrosia fungi require moisture. Nev- mulching, use of ground cover, and by selective
ertheless, reports from Ecuador indicate that the weeding by hand.
populations are larger during the dry season of the
year. X. morigerus is a pest which frequently attacks
healthy plants; however, very strong attacks may be Biological Control
observed when the coffee plants have been weak-
ened by droughts, malnutrition, nematode attacks This approach has not yet been attempted for this
and competition with weeds. The attacks may be species.
accompanied by attacks from other Scolytinae.

Chemical Control
Natural Enemies
This is recommended when the beetle population
No native parasitoids of this pest have been has undergone a marked increase and natural and
reported in coffee growing countries in tropical cultural control cannot restrain it. Insecticides are
America. However, it should be mentioned that in useful only when adults are out of the galleries or
Indonesia, a Tetrastichus sp. (Eulophidae) has been are boring on the branches; once they have taken
reported, and also probably a bethylid parasitoid. refuge within the galleries, insecticides have little
In Ecuador, ants (Formicidae) have been recorded or no effect on X. morigerus.
as predators of the brown coffee borer, including
species of Crematogaster, Leptothorax, Pheidole,
Pseudomyrmex and Solenopsis. The entomopatho- Stem Borers Plagiohammus spp.
genic fungus B. bassiana has been reported infecting (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)
this insect pest.
Distribution

Management Three species of Plagiohammus have been reported

attacking the stem of coffee plants in Mexico and
Sampling Central America. P. maculosus (Bates) has the wider
geographic distribution (Costa Rica, El Salvador,
No sampling methods have been developed in Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico), while P. mexicanus
coffee plantations; however, some studies indicate Breuning and P. spinipennis (Thomson) have
that penetrated branches and stems have an aggre- been recorded attacking coffee only in Mexican
gated distribution in the field. Traps baited with plantations.
984
C Coffee Pests and their Management

Damage and Economic Importance ready to pupate, the larva moves close to the excre-
tory opening, which has been made close to the
A pile of white-yellowish sawdust or powder present ground, and it isolates itself within the stem in a
at the base of coffee plants, at the soil level, in a good chamber surrounded by sawdust. The larval period
indication of infestation by Plagiohammus. Infested lasts from 2 to 3 years. Adults are more visible at the
plants may have a withered, yellow-like and decay- beginning of the rainy season (April through June),
ing appearance. Careful observation at the stem base the period when egg laying occurs. The abundance
may help identify the hole or holes (ca. 5.0 mm in of these cerambycids is higher in high-altitude cof-
diameter), where the sawdust originates. A longitu- fee plantations (>1,000 m) and in places with long
dinal cut of the stem and root may uncover a large, summers or with lack of rain. Abandoned coffee
white or creamy-colored larva with long gallery plantations are more severely attacked.
containing powder; the gallery begins at the stem
and may go as low as the tip of the central tap root.
These borers are one of the most destructive coffee Natural Enemies
plant pests in certain areas of tropical America. The
damage is caused by the larva when it bores into the There is no information on the natural enemies of
stem and the root. The borer attack delays the plant the Plagiohammus spp.
growth and it may cause death directly by damaging
its root, or indirectly, by facilitating stem breakage
following wind action or other factors. Management

Sampling
Description
Coffee plants having sawdust as the base of the
The egg is unknown. The larva is creamy-white, with trunk should be searched for. If damage is recent,
the thorax wider than the abdomen, and legless. Its the sawdust is white or pale yellow.
head is light brown with strong and visible mandibles
extended forward. A well-developed larva is about
4.5 cm long. The pupa is brown and similar in size to Cultural Control
the adult. The adult has an elongated body, cylindri-
cal, from 2.0 to 3.5 cm long by 0.8 cm wide. The body Infested stems should be removed. Adequate
is light brown with two white lines on the prothorax fertilization should be applied. Weeds should be
and with irregular white spots on the elytra. The managed by shading, mulching, ground cover,
antennae are longer than the body (4.0 cm). and mechanical removal.

Biology and Ecology Biological Control

Not much is known about the bionomics of Plagio- This has not been attempted yet.
hammus spp. Adult females lay eggs on the bark of
coffee plant stems, at a height below 30.0 cm. Upon
eclosion, the larva penetrates the stem and bores Chemical Control
longitudinally all the way to the root, while it feeds,
grows and develops. The larvae may be found in the In places where the pest appears yearly, a preven-
stem, from the base to a height of one meter. When tive insecticide application with a brush or a
 Coffee Pests and their Management
C 985

manual pump is recommended, treating from important, because they may cause death of the plants.
the stem base up to 60.0 cm high. Application may The attacks are more severe in plant nurseries, on
be repeated once or twice every 20 days. In order recently transplanted coffee bushes and on 1 year-old
to kill the larva within the stem, a cotton ball plants, although mature plantations may also suffer
soaked in an insecticide can be inserted through the attacks of these pests. In some plantations it is esti-
the respiration and excretion opening made by the mated that 2 or 3% of the transplanted coffee plants
larva, or insecticide solution can be injected into may be lost to white grub attack. Coffee plantations
the opening with a syringe. When treating in this located in the vicinity of pastures are most affected.
manner, the orifice is enlarged, the product is
applied and the orifice is sealed with mud, clay
or any other material that solidifies. This step, Pest Description
though effective, can be expensive due to the labor
it may require. The egg is white; when recently laid, they are elon-
gated, and later on they adopt a round shape. The
larva has a milky-white colored body with a “C”
White Grubs (Coleoptera: shape, with long thoracic legs covered with hair. The
Scarabaeidae) head is dark or light, with strong mandibles. There
are three larval stages; the last stage grows up to
Distribution 3.5–4.0 cm long. The pupa is brown-golden in color,
with a size that varies between 1.8 and 2.0 cm. The
Phyllophaga is a well-represented genus of white adult is a strong, heavy bodied scarab. Depending
grubs in coffee plantations in tropical America on the species, they may be light or dark brown
(Table 17). In El Salvador, P. latipes (Bates), P. men- or reddish-brown in color, measuring from 0.5 to
etriesi (Blanch) and P. obsoleta (Blanch) are found, 2.5 cm in length; the antennae are enlarged distally,
whereas in Costa Rica P. sanjosecola Saylor and with the apical expansion consisting of several
P. vicina (Moser) are reported. Other white grubs laminated segments. They are able to fly.
recorded in coffee are Anomala sp. (El Salvador)
and Dyscinetus picipes Burmeister (Cuba). Biology and Ecology

Adult females, which have twilight habits, come

out at the beginning of the rainy season and they
Damage and Economic Importance lay their eggs within the first 10.0 cm of depth in
the soil, close to pastures or fodders. The eggs are
White grubs attack the coffee plant root. The damage laid one by one or forming small groups. A female
is caused by larvae that live in the soil and feed on the may lay up to 200 eggs. Small larvae feed them-
root system of the plant. In the seedbed and plant selves with organic matter and small roots, and
nursery, the plants wither and die rapidly; in the when they reach the last development stage, they
coffee plantation, irregular areas on one or several are voracious root eaters. They are found at dif-
coffee plants, usually young, may be observed, which ferent depths, according to the soil temperature
show symptoms of yellowishness, limited growth, and humidity. They are common in areas that
scarce fruits and mummified fruits.When the affected have been gramineous pastures. The larval stage
plants are taken out of the soil, lesions, very few small lasts about 6 months. Pupation takes place in a
roots and partial or total bark peeling on the main chamber or cell located in the soil at a depth
and secondary roots are observed. In some coffee between 10.0 and 20.0 cm. The duration of the
growing areas, these pests can be economically life cycle, from egg to adult, varies from 9 to 10
986
C Coffee Pests and their Management

months. Adults are strongly attracted by artificial manually. Light traps, preferably 40 watt black-
light and they feed from the leaves of some plants, light traps, should be used to capture and eliminate
such as cassava, African oil palm and Erythrina adults. The use of a trap for every 10–15 ha is rec-
trees (Fabaceae). ommended, which should be turned on from 18:00
to 21:00 o’clock. This procedure has the disadvan-
tage of attracting a number of other night habit
Natural Enemies insect species, which should not be eliminated.

The larval parasitoids Campsomeris, Elis and

Tiphia (Hymenoptera: Scoliidae) have been Biological Control
reported in coffee plantations. Parasitism of bac-
teria Micrococus sp. on larvae and parasitism of Biological control has not been attempted in cof-
fungi Spicaria sp. and Metarhizium sp. on pupae fee plantations.
has been observed. Nematodes as parasites of lar-
vae have been observed as well. A robber fly Diog-
mites species (Diptera: Asilidae) has been recorded Chemical Control
predating larvae in the soil. Several mammal,
reptile and bird species predate on the adults. In the case of plant nurseries and recently trans-
planted coffee plants (<1 year old), one larva per
plant justifies the use of granular insecticides.
Management The application can also be made at sowing time.
With three large larvae or seven small larvae per
Sampling square meter, insecticides are recommended for
young plants. Three year old plants withstand
Root and soil samples at a depth of up to 20.0 cm up to eight larvae; for 4 year-old plants, 12–15
should be taken, in order to determine the infes- larvae; well-attended mature plantations with-
tation sources. The samples are taken from three stand up to 20 larvae per coffee plant.
coffee plants, at 30.0 m intervals. On areas <7 ha,
sampling should be taken diagonally and for
larger areas sampling should be taken in parallel. Black Citrus Aphid, Toxoptera
aurantii (Boyer De Fonscolombe)
(Hemiptera: Aphididae)
Cultural Control
Distribution
Weeds should be suppressed principally by
shading, by mulching, by ground cover vegeta- This aphid comes from the tropical and sub-tropi-
tion, by slashing back and by selective weeding cal areas of the Old World. It is widely distributed
by hand. Shade trees should be pruned. in coffee plantations in tropical America.

Physical-Mechanical Control Damage and Economic Importance

During preparation of the seedbed or plant T. aurantii attacks leaves, buds and other tender
nursery, the soil to be used for bag filling should parts of the coffee plant. Coiled, deformed and curled
be sifted, and the larvae found therein killed leaves and tender buds are signs of infestation;
 Coffee Pests and their Management
C 987

also, reduced growth, and leaf and flower drop Natural Enemies
occur. Damage may occur in seedbeds, plant nurs-
eries, and on adult coffee plants. Yellow, green or More than 70 species of natural enemies have been
black insect colonies, more or less round shaped, reported on T. aurantii around the world. In coffee
can be found on the lower surface of foliage. They plantations in tropical America, the following
are easily excited, producing a characteristic noise have been reported: the braconid parasitoids
which may be audible if the colonies are very large. Diaretus sp. and Lysiphlebus testaceipes (Cresson);
The infestation may be accompanied by a fungus, the entomopathogenic fungus Acrostalagmus
called sooty mold, on the foliage, and also by the albus Preuss; the coccinellid predators Hippodamia
presence of ants. In general, this aphid is not very sp. and Cycloneda sp.; the syrphid predators
important as a pest; however, a considerable yield Allograpta sp., Paragus borbonicus Macquart and
reduction may appear when severe and prolonged Baccha clavata Fabricius; and the green lacewing
attacks occur, particularly if the infestation appears predator Chrysopa sp. (Chrysopidae).
during the flowering and fruiting season. The
damage is often more severe in the plant nursery,
on growing plants. T. aurantii is reported to be Management
responsible for the transmission of pathogens to
coffee plants in Costa Rica and Guadeloupe. Sampling

Description Growers are advised to monitor young leaves

throughout the dry season for aphids or damage.
The nymphs are similar to adults, but smaller and
dark-brown in color. The adults have a globoid,
dark green or black body, and they may or may not Cultural Control
have wings; apterous females are larger (2.0–2.1
mm) than winged ones (1.7–1.8 mm). They bear a Reinforce shade of coffee plantation during the dry
pair of cornicles on the back of the body. season. Affected plants should not be transplanted.

Biology and Ecology Biological Control

Adult females generally reproduce by parthenogen- It is generally acknowledged that natural enemies
esis and are viviparous. Males are winged and rarely contribute importantly to prevent T. aurantii from
seen. An apterous female may produce 50 female having greater economic impact. Natural enemies
nymphs in 7 days. The life cycle, from nymph to should be conserved.
adult, is 6 days at 25°C. These aphids excrete honey-
dew on which the sooty mold fungus grows. The
fungus gives a blackish appearance to the plant. Chemical Control
The honeydew is highly appreciated by ants; hence
the association of ants with aphids, providing them with If chemical control becomes necessary, either
protection and transport to other plants. T. aurantii insecticidal oil or an insecticide may be used.
finds conditions more favorable during the dry sea- Chemical control should only be applied at the
son. When conditions are adverse, winged females first signs of damage during periods of young
are produced in order to disperse and colonize new leaves’ growth. Young leaves should be completely
plants. Infestations appear in a cyclic manner. moistened after application of chemicals.
988
C Coffee Pests and their Management

Leaf-Cutting Ants, Atta and Pest Description

Acromyrmex (Hymenoptera:
Formicidae) Atta cephalotes (L.) is hereinafter described. Their
colonies contain three castes: queens, males and
Distribution workers. Queens are big (16 mm), with a strong
brown-reddish color, and they have wings (although
Leaf-cutting ants of the Atta and Acromyrmex they lose them after the nuptial flight); also, they
genera are found in Neotropical countries where have a pair of horns on the occipital lobules and
coffee is grown. The principal leaf-cutting ant another pair on the lower part of the head, close
species affecting coffee plants in tropical America to the mandibles. Males are winged but smaller
are shown in Table 17. (13 mm) than the queens, and they do not have the
aforementioned horns. Workers are wingless. Sol-
dier workers present abundant yellowish hair on the
Damage and Economic Importance forehead sides, and they are about 13–15 mm long.
Forager workers have less hair and they are about
Leaf-cutting ants attack leaves, tender buds and 9–10 mm long; fungus-cultivator workers are lighter
flowers of the coffee plant. The leaves of attacked colored and smaller (from 2 to 4 mm).
coffee plants have semi-circular cuts or these plants
are completely defoliated. Leaf fragments dispersed
on the ground are seen around the defoliated plants. In Biology and Ecology
recent attacks, the presence of ants carrying leaf and
flower pieces may be observed. It is possible to detect Atta and Acromyrmex ants are social insects that
earth mounds (nests) nearby or relatively far away. use plant leaves to cultivate symbiotic fungus
Situations in which ants are direct plant pests (Leucoagaricus gongylophorus (Möller) Singer;
are rare; however, in the tropical and sub-tropical Attamyces spp.), which serves as their foodstuff.
areas of America, ants of the Atta and Acromyrmex They form colonies constituted of three castes:
genera can constitute important pests of many cul- queens, males and workers; the latter are sterile
tivated and wild plants. In tropical America, cutting and present acute polymorphism and functions
ants constitute the dominant group of herbivorous (soldiers, foragers, cultivators). The mating of
animals, because they consume much more vegeta- queens with males takes place outside the nest
tion than any other animal group. In the case of during the nuptial flight, at the beginning of
coffee, these ants are generally considered of minor the first rains. Newly mated females dig their
importance. Nevertheless, in some areas like the nests in the soil and begin to cultivate the fungi
Turrialba region of Costa Rica, A. cephalotes attacks which will serve as their food and to lay their
on coffee plants can be severe in monocultures. The first eggs. The eggs give birth to the larvae and
damage is caused by the worker caste when they cut after 40–60 days, the first adult workers emerge.
the coffee foliage and flowers with their mandibles. In New colonies have a single tower-like mound of
some Atta species, from 5 to 28 colonies/ha have small size of <200 cm2 in area, and with a small
been observed, with the possibility of having one entrance hole, whereas older colonies are flat-
or more millions of workers in each colony. The tened, with larger entrance holes and a colony
nests they construct may have dimensions that vary surface area >200 cm2. The growth of the colony is
between 30 and 600 m2. From one day to the other, very slow at the beginning, but during the second
one or more coffee plants may be completely defo- and third year it accelerates rapidly and then it
liated by these ants. Coffee plantations near woody diminishes as the colony starts production of
or weedy areas are attacked more commonly. males and winged queens. Towards the end of the
 Coffee Pests and their Management
C 989

third year, the population is enormous, and it is Cultural Control

possible to observe more than 1,000 entrance/exit
holes on the nest. The Acromyrmex nests are Queens should be eliminated at the recently formed
simpler than those of Atta. In order to reach the nests using a grub hoe. Repellent plants (e.g., sor-
plants which serve as their food, the forager work- ghum) should be sown. Because coffee on farms
ers move from the nest, which is often in non- with low vegetational diversity is at greater risk of
cultivated fields, through narrow paths which can attack by A. cephalotes, it is recommended that
go more than 100 m in distance. The workers’ shade trees be planted in order to increase shade
activity is more intense during the night. levels and therefore to decrease ant colonization.
Also, it may be desirable to plant shade trees that
are palatable to leaf-cutting ants, but that should
Natural Enemies be either not commercially valuable (e.g., Erythrina
poeppigiana [Walp]. Cook, Cordia alliodora (Ruiz
Apparently these ants have few natural enemies. & Pav.) Oken, Swietenia macrophylla King, Cedrela
Several predators, such as birds, toads, lizards and odorata L.), or that are tolerant of ant attack, in
anteaters feed on the queens and males during the order to divert ants from foraging coffee plants.
nuptial flight. In Colombia, other carnivorous ants
have been observed to be predators of leaf-cutting
ants. The importance of all these natural enemies in
Biological Control
regulating leaf-cutting ant populations is unknown.
Some entomopathogenic (e.g., Paecilomyces sp.
and M. anisopliae) and antagonist (Trichoderma
viride Persoon ex Gray) fungal strains have proved
Management
to be successful against leaf-cutting ant colonies in
experimental studies. However, the practicality of
The optimal time of the year to control leaf-cutting
these fungi has not been assessed in commercial
ants has not been determined. However, the nup-
coffee plantations.
tial flight period, a crucial event within the ant life
cycle, should be taken into account. Considering
the ecological importance of leaf cutting ants as
plant population regulators in woody and grazing Chemical Control
areas, and taking into account that in certain areas
they are eaten by humans, it is recommended Insecticides are applied directly through some of
that population regulation, not elimination, be the entrance/exit holes of the nests, taking the
the primary goal. precaution of plugging or closing most of them
before. The “ant hill beating” procedure may also
be used, which consists of digging in the nest
Sampling with a shovel in order to uncover the ant brood,
and spraying them with insecticide. Also, leaf-
No sampling techniques have been developed for cutting ants can be successfully controlled using
leaf-cutting ants in coffee plantations. The nests can baits containing insecticides. Treatment results
be located by following the narrow paths used by can be improved by basing the amount of insec-
the ants. Ant colony density can be estimated by ticide applied on an estimate of the colony
sampling four 125-m2 plots at each edge of a farm volume, instead of surface colony area. An
(north, west, east and south), and a single 500-m2 experimental study shows that mounds of dump
area in the center of the farm (a total area of 1,000 m2). material can be used as a highly effective
990
C Coffee Pests and their Management

small-scale deterrent to protect Hibiscus plants fungi may be involved in the damage (e.g., Phoma
from defoliation by A. cephalotes, but this method costarricensis Echandi).
has not been tested in coffee.

Description
Long-Horned Grasshoppers or
Katydids (Orthoptera: The eggs of I. subquadratum are brown in color,
Tettigoniidae) elongated, with a hard chorion; they are oviposited
in compact clusters. There are six nymphal instars.
Distribution Newly emerged nymphs are fragile and gray in
color. Nymphs resemble adults, but are smaller,
Two Idiarthron species, I. subquadratum Saussure lighter colored, and lack wings. Nymphs and adults
& Pictet and I. atrispinum (Stål), and one unknown have strong and large mandibles and the antennae
Gongrocnemis species have been reported attacking are very thin and longer than the body. Adults have
coffee in Mexico and Central America; apparently, a heavy set, more or less cylindrical body, greenish,
I. subquadratum is present in Colombia too. Of brown-gray or light gray in color, with females
these, I. subquadratum is the most important katy- from 5.0 to 6.0 cm long. Males are smaller. With
did pest in coffee because very high infestations their thorny, strong and long back legs, they can
have been reported in some coffee plantations in jump. Their ability to fly is limited and in general
El Salvador and Mexico. Most of the information their movements are clumsy. Females have an ovi-
available on katydids comes from this species. positor, from 1.0 to 2.3 cm long, at the tip of the
abdomen, which looks like a spur or a knife point.

Damage and Economic Importance

Biology and Ecology
Attacked coffee leaves show irregular holes mar-
ginally and centrally; feeding can also be observed Idiarthron subquadratum is arboreal, polyphagous,
on the tender buds, shoots and branch tips. A char- and nocturnally active. Both nymphs and adults
acteristic symptom of katydid damage is the leave their daytime shelters at night and disperse
appearance of green and ripe fruits with damaged by jumping between tree and bush canopies. They
pulp, so that the coffee beans are exposed. The hide in shady places, such as dead leaves, rotten
damage is caused by both the nymphs and adults. trunks and weeds; in particular, they take refuge in
In coffee plantations where heavy attacks of I. sub- plants of wind-breaks, izote (Yucca guatemalensis
quadratum occur, complete destruction of leaves, Baker) barriers, banana plants (Musa spp.) and
buds and small branches, the fall of tender fruits Sanseviera sp. This species feeds on leaves and
and the destruction of fruits can be observed. In fruits of several plants, including coffee (Coffea
general, I.  subquadratum is not an economically spp.), banana (Musa spp.), orange (Citrus spp.),
important problem in coffee, although it some- chayote [Sechium edule (Jacq.) Swartz], and pacaya
times may create some concern in certain areas of (Chamaedorea sp.). Mating occurs in plant cano-
Central America and Mexico. In southeastern pies at night or in daytime shelters. Adult females
Mexico (Siltepec, C­ hiapas), the most critical attack place their eggs in the soil and, in some cases,
period is from June through November. Damage is under the bark. The eggs are placed in a mass
more important in very shaded and abandoned (from 5 to 50), and one female may lay several
coffee plantations. In addition to direct damage hundred. In Siltepec, Chiapas, Mexico, mating
caused by I. subquadratum, plant pathogenic usually occurs in October, and oviposition occurs
 Coffee Pests and their Management
C 991

in November and December. Adults are killed by the insects are killed manually and/or used as food
low temperatures in January and February, and for domestic animals (e.g., chickens and dogs).
eggs undergo diapause. At the beginning of the
rainy season, between May and June, nymphs
emerge and start to feed on coffee plants. Genera- Biological Control
tions are overlapping in warmer regions. The life
cycle from egg to adult is about 80 days at 28°C. In Some strains of B. bassiana kill nymphs in the lab-
El Salvador, this pest is especially common in high oratory. However, the use of this biocontrol agent
altitude coffee plantations. has not been attempted in field.

Natural Enemies Chemical Control

Birds, spiders, parasitic nematodes and an unknown When infestations are heavy, the application of
tachinid fly species (Diptera: Tachinidae) have chemical insecticides at the places of refuge is recom-
been reported in Mexico. mended. Toxic baits placed inside the bamboo traps
are also recommended. The most convenient period
for chemical control is 1 month after the beginning of
Management rainfall and before oviposition takes place. Because
high infestations of the pest have been related to low
Sampling populations of natural enemies, insecticide use should
be avoided in order to conserve natural control.
“Shelter traps” made with a 10-cm-diameter by
30-cm-long bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris Schrad.)
internode closed at one end, can be used for sam-
Bush Crickets, Paroecanthus spp.
pling I. subquadratum. The bamboo traps are
(Orthoptera: Gryllidae)
placed on coffee bushes upon the first rainfall
events, and during daytime are checked every
Distribution
week for captured insects.
Bush crickets appear sporadically, affecting coffee
Cultural Control plants and shade trees in coffee plantations in some
areas of Central America and Mexico. The reported
Weed control should be applied. The shade should species are Paroecanthus guatemalae Saussure
be regulated. Trash and rotten trunks in the coffee (Guatemala, Honduras) and P. niger Saussure (El
plantation should be prevented. Dry banana and Salvador, Guatemala). The Paroecanthus species
plantain leaves should be eliminated. in Mexico remains unknown. Recently, high infes-
tations of bush crickets have been reported in
Honduras.
Mechanical Control

Bamboo traps as described earlier for sampling Damage and Economic Importance
can be used for elimination of I. subquadratum.
The traps are placed in dark spots of the plantation Paroecanthus spp. attack lignified stems and
and in the vicinity of the plants that are normally branches of coffee bushes and shade trees. The
used as refuge. The traps are checked weekly and affected plants show small marks or holes, 3.0 mm
992
C Coffee Pests and their Management

in diameter by 1.0 mm in depth, distributed in line coffee plant. Three or four generations appear
throughout the affected stems and branches. This per year. The attacks are more severe in unshaded
mark along the stem gives it the appearance of a coffee plantations. In Honduras, acute infestations
flute; hence this damage is known as “flute disease.” have been reported in the dry season in plantations
If the stem or branch bark is lifted right below each located between 900 and 1,250 m above sea level.
hole, an “X” shaped scar on the wood may be
observed. The damage is caused when the adult
female of the cricket lays its eggs. Heavy attacks of Natural Enemies
the bush cricket (when there are many holes), may
cause physiological disorders in the coffee plant, An egg parasitoid wasp, Acmopolynema sp.
which affects its development. The cricket can be a (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae), has been reported in
pathogen vector, or perhaps the lesions may favor Honduras and Mexico.
the penetration of diseases. A severe infestation can
kill the coffee plant. In Honduras, where high infes-
Management
tations have been reported, the affected plants
develop a yellowish color and they lose leaves and
Sampling
fruits.
Scouting should be conducted to determine the
Description limits of the infestation during the dry season. Upon
detection of damage, the trunk bark should be
The egg is white with elongated shape (1.0 by scratched in search of the insect’s eggs. If the damage
5.0 mm). Nymphs are similar to adults, but their is recent, the perforations are white and unhatched
wings are not well developed and they are smaller eggs shall be observed; if the damage is old, the
than adults. The adult has a cylindrically shaped perforations are dark and the eggs have hatched.
body and is 2.0–2.5 cm long. The legs are yellowish
in color and the abdomen is dark brown. The Cultural Control
antennae are filiform and their length is almost
twice the size of the body. In the female, the wings Weeds should be controlled within and on the
do not cover all of the abdomen, which at its tip edges of the plantation. Severely damaged plants
shows the cerci and a long pin-shaped ovipositor. should be re-planted, or pruned of the affected
stems, and burned thereafter to eliminate the eggs.
Biology and Ecology

The bush cricket is active at night, while during Biological Control

daytime it takes refuge in dark places in the weeds,
dead leaves and some plants such as bananas (Musa This has not been attempted.
spp.) and izotes (Y. guatemalensis). Only on cloudy
days and when it is very abundant can it be seen
during the day. The female lays about eight eggs in Chemical Control
each oviposition hole, distributing two on each end
of the scar it makes on the wood, in an “X” shape. In plantations that are close to the affected planta-
The nymphs emerge in about 3 weeks, and they go tions, a preventive insecticide application with a brush
through several molts for 3 months before becom- or a manual pump is recommended, treating from
ing adults. Nymphs and adults can feed from the the stem base up to 60.0 cm high. Application may be
 Coffee Pests and their Management
C 993

repeated once or twice every 20 days. Also, an insecti- species, such as Phobetron hipparchia (Cramer), Sib-
cidal dust can be directed to the main stem, to the soil, ine spp., Olceclostera moresca (Schaus), Megalopyge
and to the plantation edges during the dry season. lanata (Stoll & Cramer) and Automeris sp., among
others, have urticating hairs which cause painful
lesions to anyone touching them. Measuringworms,
Leaf-Eating Caterpillars which are active nocturnally, possess camouflage
(Lepidoptera) which allows them to go unnoticed during the day.
In general, the pupation takes place in the soil. In
Distribution Ecuador, Automeris sp. and Eacles masoni Schaus
appear cyclically during the rainy season. The adults
There is a large and diverse group of leaf-eating or moths have nocturnal habits. Insecticide abuse
caterpillar species in tropical American countries and climatological changes can affect the natural
affecting coffee. The principal leaf-eating caterpil- enemies of leaf-eating caterpillars, so their popula-
lars are shown in Table 17. tions may increase and become damaging.

Damage and Economic Importance Natural Enemies

Coffee bushes affected by leaf-eating caterpillars There are many natural enemies of leaf-eating cat-
show totally or partially consumed leaves. Some- erpillars.Among them,birds,parasitic Hymenoptera
times the fruits are also affected. Eventually, and Diptera, and fungal, bacterial and viral dis-
voracious worms or caterpillar larvae, as well as, eases are notable.
their feces, can be observed. Some of these are
urticating caterpillars. These insects are frequently
mentioned in the coffee pest manuals of South Management
American countries, such as Brazil and Colombia.
Some species even defoliate entire sections of Sampling
the coffee plantation.
Regular inspection of the coffee plantation should
be made to detect initial infestation sources.
Description

As example of leaf-eating caterpillars, Oxidia sp. Mechanical Control

(Geometridae), is described. When small, they are
black, and when large, they are light gray. These The larvae of urticating worms should be elimi-
caterpillars attain a length of 5.0–6.0 cm. The lar- nated manually using gloves. In the case of mea-
vae are called inchworms or measuringworms. suringworms, the same can be done, but at night.
Adults should be eliminated with light traps.

Biology and Ecology

Biological Control
Adults lay their eggs individually or in groups on the
foliage of various plants. The larvae or worm feeds Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner can be used, partic-
on the foliage. The caterpillar goes through several ularly at the beginning of infestations when the
molts, and as it grows, feeds itself voraciously. Some caterpillars are small.
994
C Coffee Pests and their Management

Chemical Control Biology and Ecology

Some organophosphates and pyrethroids are Adults feed from the foliage of coffee and other
recommended. In general, the use of chemical plants. A distinctive characteristic of these ­weevils
insecticides is not necessary, because the natural is that when they feel threatened they contract
enemies provide regulation of the populations of their legs and snout and let themselves fall to the
these leaf-eating caterpillars. Thus, it is important to ground where they seemingly disappear. Their
preserve the natural enemies, and use insecticides eggs are laid in the soil and the larvae lead a sub-
only in extreme cases. terranean life (between 10.0 and 20.0 cm deep),
feeding from weed roots, including the coffee plant
root. The weevil populations are higher from June
Leaf Weevils (Coleoptera: through August in Honduras. In Brazil, Pantomo-
Curculionidae) rus leucoloma (Boheman) is more frequent in
the summer and it attacks both C. arabica and
Distribution C. canephora. In Honduras, the most frequent
attacks appear in the highest altitude areas. Very
Various leaf weevils are present in coffee planta- weedy areas favor infestation.
tions in tropical America (Table 17).

Natural Enemies
Damage and Economic Importance Predation by assassin bugs (Hemiptera: Reduvii-
dae) is reported in Costa Rica.
Leaf weevils attack the coffee bush leaves. The
leaves show irregular holes, tearing and notches
on their edges, often beginning at the tip and from
Management
the edge towards the vein. The most affected parts
are new leaves and shoots. The damage is caused
Sampling
by the adults, which feed on the coffee foliage. The
attack of these weevils can become important
Tender buds and new leaves of the coffee plants
when they affect the buds of recently pruned plants
should be checked. When the damage only appears
and of trees <1 year old. The lesions caused by
on old leaves and not new ones, no control mea-
this pest on the leaves may favor the infection of
sure should be initiated.
P. costarricensis.

Cultural Control
Description
Weeding should not be complete, so that adult and
Larvae are whitish and legless. The color of adults larvae weevils have a feeding source and abstain
varies according to the species, being off-white from attacking the coffee plants.
(Compsus sp.), light brown with yellow spots
(Macrostylus sp.), grayish, light brown or black
(Epicaerus capetilensis Sharp.) or green. Their size Biological Control
varies from 9.0 to 13.0 mm. The snout is fairly well
developed in these insects. It has not been attempted.
 Coffee Pests and their Management
C 995

Chemical Control 5.0 to 7.0 mm. They have about five molts. Pupal
size varies from 3.0 to 4.0 mm. The adult is oval,
When the populations are large, applications of with an arched body, covered by hairs and with a
insecticides to the foliage and then to the soil are length of 2.5–4.5 mm. The head has round promi-
recommended. nent eyes, with a short, wide, curved-downwards
“snout” and the mouthparts distally.

Coffee Bean Weevil, Araecerus

fasciculatus (De Geer) (Coleoptera: Biology and Ecology
Anthribidae)
Adult females lay eggs on the parchment coffee
Distribution grooves, placing one per grain and approximately
three per day. The average number of eggs laid is
Present in all coffee growing countries in America. 52. Larvae create galleries in the seed, and they
pupate there also. The life cycle, from egg to adult,
is 35–40 days. Between 55 and 74% of the descen-
Damage and Economic Importance dants are composed of females. Infestation is more
acute on softened coffee beans. Up to ten genera-
Araecerus fasciculatus attacks stored coffee beans. tions are reported per year.
Coffee beans stored in warehouses, coffee mills and
other places used to gather the harvest will show per-
forations and irregular and relatively large galleries
caused by this weevil. Accumulation of a fine
Natural enemies
yellowish powder is also observed. Highly infested
In Colombia, the following natural enemies of
warehouses will have a large number of little beetles,
A. fasciculatus have been reported: Anisep-
+the walls, roofs and windows. This weevil, which
toromalus calanadrae (Howard) (Hymenoptera:
attacks a wide variety of grain in storage, is considered
Pteromalidae), Cephalonomia gallicola (Ash-
as one of the few economically important pests of
mead) (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae), Cheyletus sp.
stored coffee in the American countries, particularly
(Acari: Cheyletidae) and Monieziella sp. (Acari:
in South America. It creates problems in warehouses
Tyroglyphidae).
that store poorly processed coffee containing more
than 12% humidity. The damage is caused by the
weevil larvae, which live in and feed on the grains.
The attack is also favored when the warehouse tem-
Management
perature is higher than 27°C and relative humidity is
above 60%. In 6 months of infestation, losses of 30%
Sampling
have been estimated. C. arabica apparently is more
Fortnight visits should be made to the storehouses
susceptible than C. canephora. The fruits that remain
to check the presence of weevils, particularly in the
on the plant after harvest may also be attacked.
wet season and in places with very humid weather.

Description
Cultural Control
The larva is without legs, white, with a “C” shaped
body and a relatively wide thorax. The head is Adequate fertilizing, harvesting and pulp extrac-
small, light brown in color. They measure from tion should be conducted. Coffee should be stored
996
C Coffee Pests and their Management

with adequate humidity. Warehouses and storage a magnifying glass, little animals moving on the leave
places should be kept clean. Infested lots should be can be observed, and in general, silky threads which
set aside and placed in the sunlight. retain dust and other residues. The damage, which
consists of the destruction of superficial cells of the
leaf, is caused by immature and adult mites when they
Bilogical Control feed. Spider mites may be especially important in
some areas of tropical American countries during
It is not conducted. abnormally dry weather. In severe attacks the leaf
functions are interrupted and they may drop. Leaf
defoliation and yield decreases may occur when more
Chemical Control than 30 mites per leaf are present, particularly under
dry weather conditions. The economic importance of
In the case of preventive treatments and the treat- some species of mites on coffee, for example, Polyphag-
ment of infested lots, fumigation is recommended. otarsonemus latus (Banks) (Acari: Tarsonemidae) in
After fumigation, spraying of a 3-month residual Brazil, is unknown.
effect pyrethroid with motorized equipment is
recommended. The preventive treatment should
be conducted when there are 1–2 weevils/m2 of Description
sacks. Treatment of the walls, floor and roof of the
warehouse where the coffee is going to be stored is The egg is elliptic or spherical, bright orange, red-
also recommended. dish or red in color, depending on the species. Its
length varies from 0.100 to 0.127 mm. The larva
has three pairs of legs, an almost circular body,
Spider Mites (Acari) and according to the species, orange or yellow col-
ored when hatching, turning green-yellowish as
Distribution they feed. They are from 0.15 to 0.16 mm long.
Nymphs (protonymph and deutonymph) have
At least, six spider mite species have been four pairs of legs, and they are ovoid and about
recorded in coffee in tropical America (Table 17). 0.20 mm long. In the deutonymph, which is larger,
Olygonychus (Acari: Tetranychidae) is the most females (0.20–0.26 mm) can be differentiated from
representative genus. males (0.18–0.23 mm). Adult females are larger
(0.28–0.50 mm) and more oval than the males
(0.25–0.35 mm). Color varies according to the
Damage and Economic Importance species and the sex; however, colors such as red
and orange are blended, and in some cases the
Spider mites attack coffee foliage in all their stages of mites have spots. The broad mite, P. latus, has a
development. Attacked plants present yellowish, white-milky color and it is smaller than the other
brown or copper colored leaves, with more undulated species (0.15–0.20 mm).
edges. Sometimes the attacked leaves may dry up and
fall. Also, the leaves lose their shine and present a dirty
appearance. The symptoms take place in large patches Biology and Ecology
in the coffee plantation, and more frequently in old,
poorly attended coffee plantations, and near the roads. Adult females reproduce sexually and parthenoge-
These symptoms are easily recognized at a distance. netically. The eggs are laid one by one, preferentially
Upon examination of the upper face of the leave with on the upper face of leaves, close to the veins,
 Coffee Pests and their Management
C 997

although P. latus, unlike the others, prefers the determined by making parallel inspection routes
lower side of the leaves. The eggs may be fixed to 25 m apart from each other, and examining 24
the leaf with the silk threads (cobweb) produced by leaves at random from four coffee plants every 25 m.
the mites and which serves for protection and for
moving from one leaf to another. Unlike the Tet-
Cultural Control
ranychidae, Tenuipalpidae (Brivipalpus sp.) do not
produce silky threads. Egg laying, in the case of
Shade trees should be planted in very sunlit areas.
Olygonychus coffeae (Nietner), occurs at a rate of
Weed control should be conducted. Adequate fer-
4–6 eggs/day/female for 2 or 3 weeks. Upon eclo-
tilizing should be applied.
sion, the larvae feed from cells that they puncture
with their ­chelicerae, and in time they become prot-
onymphs and the latter become deutonymphs. At Biological Control
the end of their development, both protonymphs
and deutonymphs go through an inactive stage Not applied.
called “quiescence.” An accumulation of various
residual materials such as dust and the old exuviae
of spider mites can be observed in the cobweb pro- Chemical Control
ducing species. The egg to adult life cycle varies
from 8 to 28 days, according to the temperature. Some pesticides have a selective action, affect-
Females mate with one or more males, and a male ing only mites, and others (non-selective) kill
may fertilize several females. Females, which are mites and insects. In case of a simultaneous
more abundant than males, disperse from one leaf attack by mites and leaf miners, non-selective
to another and from one coffee plant to another, by products are recommended. However, the over-
the use of silk threads. However, the factors that use of this practice can negatively affect the
contribute the most to dispersion are the wind, beneficial parasitoids and predators. Applica-
humans and other animals. Spider mites prefer to tions should be made only to infested areas.
colonize the sunlit coffee plants and the older leaves, Various pesticides are recommended, making
although in severe infestations they also attack the one application and sometimes a second one. A
young leaves. population of 30–40 spider mites per leaf in the
dry season cause defoliation, so this density
must be avoided.
Natural Enemies

Predators such as ladybirds (Coleoptera: Coccinel- References

lidae) and rove beetles (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae)
are reported. However, the literature on coffee pests Barrera JF (ed) (2002) Tres plagas del café en Chiapas. El
is not clear about the predator species present. Colegio de la Frontera Sur. México, 198 pp
Cárdenas-M R, Posada-F FJ (2001) Los insectos y otros habi-
tantes de cafetales y platanales. Comité Departamental
Management de Cafeteros del Quindío. Armenia, Colombia, 250 pp
Castillo-Ponce G, Contreras-J A, Zamarripa-C A, Méndez-L I,
Vázquez-M M, HolguínM F, Fernández-R A (1996) Tec-
Sampling nología para la producción de café en México. Instituto
Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales y Agropecuarias.
México. 88 pp. Primera reimpresión. Folleto Técnico
The plantation should be checked during the
Núm 8
summer or dry periods, preferably on roadsides. Coffee Industry Development Company Ltd (1986) Growing
The infestation of a coffee plantation plot is coffee in Jamaica. Jamaica, 103 pp
998
C Cold Tolerance in Insects

García-G A, Campos-A O, Barrera-S CA, Meoño-R JE (1998)

Manual de caficultura. Tercera edición. Asociación
Classification of Cold Tolerance
Nacional del Café, Guatemala, 218 pp
Le Pelley RH (1973) Las plagas del café. Editorial Labor, SA, Insect cold tolerance classifications have tradition-
Barcelona, 693 pp ally been divided into freezing tolerance and freeze
Matiello JB (1991) O café. Do cultivo ao consumo. Publica-
ções Globo Rural. Coleção do Agricultor. Grãos. Editora
intolerant strategies. This division has been criti-
Globo, SA, Brasil, 320 pp cized in recent years by a number of investigators.
Muñoz-H R (2001) Plagas insectiles del cafeto. In: Manual de The arguments for the classification scheme have
caficultura. Instituto Hondureño del Café, Honduras, pp depended on the definitions applied to the two
115–142
Páliz-S V, Mendoza-M J (1993) Plagas del cafeto. In: Manual terms, and it is how freezing tolerant and freeze
de caficultura. Estación Experimental Pichilingue. GTZ, intolerant species have been defined that evokes the
FUNDAGRO, Quevedo, Ecuador, pp 144–166 controversy. For example, in freeze tolerance, these
insects are said to be capable of withstanding ice
formation in some or nearly all parts of the body
Cold Tolerance in Insects and associated fluids. Most insects in this grouping
usually freeze at temperatures between −5 and
David Rivers −10°C, though others require lower temperatures.
Loyola College in Maryland, Baltimore, MD, USA Once frozen, these species can tolerate cooling to
much lower temperatures, and upon thawing, the
Exposure to low temperatures is among the most insects recover and apparently resume normal
important abiotic factors limiting the range of development and behaviors. Some experts, how-
insects in temperate climates. The relationship ever, have contended that this example of freeze tol-
between insects and cold is dynamic, particularly erance is at the extreme end of cold tolerance and
when considering the actual temperature at the only represents insects which are most suited to
surface of the integument versus internal and/or survive low temperatures. An examination of some
ambient conditions, the length of exposure to low 60–70 species of insects classified as freezing toler-
temperature, and the degree of temperature fluc- ant has led to the suggestion that there are distinct
tuation over a defined period of time (e.g., day, freeze tolerance strategies that allow insects to be
week or winter season). These issues make it chal- grouped based on supercooling points (SCPs) and
lenging to categorize insect tolerance to a specific lower lethal temperature (LLT): (i) partially freeze
set of temperatures, particularly in terms of sur- tolerant species that survive a small portion of their
vival. As poikilotherms, although some are hetero- body water converted to ice; (ii) moderately freeze
thermic under specific conditions, insects have tolerant species, if the exposure is sufficiently long,
adapted to cold environments resulting in exten- die at temperatures <10° below their SCP; (iii)
sion of locomotor and/or reproductive activity strongly freezing tolerant insect species display LLT
during low temperature exposure, enhancement of twenty degrees or more below their SCP; and (iv)
metabolic rate, and maintenance of a positive freezing tolerant species possess very low SCPs and
energy balance. The implications to many of these freeze at extremely low temperatures. Insects in this
insects are a lengthening of the life cycle and a latter group are capable of surviving at tempera-
requirement for individuals to overwinter one or tures a few degrees below their SCP.
more times. The actual mechanisms associated Insects that are not tolerant of any ice forma-
with these adaptations have received extensive tion in their bodies are generally termed freeze
study in recent years, including attempts to deci- intolerant species. The natural tendency has been
pher the underlying genetic basis of individual to assume that these insects will die if tissues or
and population responses to low temperatures and body fluids freeze, and presumably if they avoid
seasonal change. the frozen state, these insects will survive. Such