Photosynthesis

PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations for

Biology
Eighth Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece

Lectures by Chris Romero, updated by Erin Barley with contributions from Joan Sharp
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Overview: The Process That Feeds the Biosphere

• Photosynthesis is the process that converts

solar energy into chemical energy
• Directly or indirectly, photosynthesis nourishes
almost the entire living world

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• Autotrophs sustain themselves without eating
anything derived from other organisms
• Autotrophs are the producers of the biosphere,
producing organic molecules from CO2 and
other inorganic molecules
• Almost all plants are photoautotrophs, using
the energy of sunlight to make organic
molecules from H2O and CO2

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Fig. 10-1
• Photosynthesis occurs in plants, algae, certain
other protists, and some prokaryotes
• These organisms feed not only themselves but
also most of the living world

BioFlix: Photosynthesis

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Fig. 10-2

(a) Plants

(c) Unicellular protist

10 µm

(e) Purple sulfur

1.5 µm
bacteria

(b) Multicellular alga (d) Cyanobacteria

40 µm
Chloroplasts: The Sites of Photosynthesis in Plants

• Leaves are the major locations of

photosynthesis
• Their green color is from chlorophyll, the
green pigment within chloroplasts
• Light energy absorbed by chlorophyll drives the
synthesis of organic molecules in the
chloroplast
• CO2 enters and O2 exits the leaf through
microscopic pores called stomata
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• Chloroplasts are found mainly in cells of the
mesophyll, the interior tissue of the leaf
• A typical mesophyll cell has 30–40 chloroplasts
• The chlorophyll is in the membranes of
thylakoids (connected sacs in the chloroplast);
thylakoids may be stacked in columns called
grana
• Chloroplasts also contain stroma, a dense fluid

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 10-3
Leaf cross section

Vein

Mesophyll

Stomata
CO2 O2

Chloroplast
Mesophyll cell

Outer
membrane
Thylakoid
Intermembrane 5 µm
Stroma Thylakoid space
Granum
space
Inner
membrane

1 µm
Fig. 10-3a
Leaf cross section
Vein

Mesophyll

Stomata
CO2 O2

Chloroplast
Mesophyll cell

5 µm
Tracking Atoms Through Photosynthesis: Scientific
Inquiry

• Photosynthesis can be summarized as the

following equation:

6 CO2 + 12 H2O + Light energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H2O

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The Splitting of Water

• Chloroplasts split H2O into hydrogen and

oxygen, incorporating the electrons of
hydrogen into sugar molecules

• Photosynthesis is a redox process in which

H2O is oxidized and CO2 is reduced

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Fig. 10-4

Reactants: 6 CO2 12 H2O

Products: C6H12O6 6 H2O 6 O2

The Two Stages of Photosynthesis: A Preview

• Photosynthesis consists of the light reactions

(the photo part) and Calvin cycle (the synthesis
part)
• The light reactions (in the thylakoids):
– Split H2O
– Release O2
– Reduce NADP+ to NADPH
– Generate ATP from ADP by
photophosphorylation
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• The Calvin cycle (in the stroma) forms sugar
from CO2, using ATP and NADPH
• The Calvin cycle begins with carbon fixation,
incorporating CO2 into organic molecules

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 10-5-1

H2O

Light

NADP+
ADP
+ P
i

Light
Reactions

Chloroplast
Fig. 10-5-2

H2O

Light

NADP+
ADP
+ P
i

Light
Reactions

ATP

NADPH

Chloroplast

O2
Fig. 10-5-3

H2O CO2

Light

NADP+
ADP
+ P
i
Calvin
Light Cycle
Reactions

ATP

NADPH

Chloroplast

O2
Fig. 10-5-4

H2O CO2

Light

NADP+
ADP
+ P
i
Calvin
Light Cycle
Reactions

ATP

NADPH

Chloroplast

O2 [CH2O]
(sugar)
Concept 10.2: The light reactions convert solar
energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH

• Chloroplasts are solar-powered chemical

factories
• Their thylakoids transform light energy into the
chemical energy of ATP and NADPH

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• Visible light consists of wavelengths (including
those that drive photosynthesis) that produce
colors we can see
• Light also behaves as though it consists of
discrete particles, called photons

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Fig. 10-6

1m
10–5 nm 10–3 nm 1 nm 103 nm 106 nm (109 nm) 103 m

Gamma Micro- Radio

X-rays UV Infrared waves waves
rays

Visible light

380 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 nm

Shorter wavelength Longer wavelength
Higher energy Lower energy
Photosynthetic Pigments: The Light Receptors

• Pigments are substances that absorb visible

light
• Different pigments absorb different
wavelengths
• Wavelengths that are not absorbed are
reflected or transmitted
• Leaves appear green because chlorophyll
reflects and transmits green light

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Fig. 10-7

Light
Reflected
light

Chloroplast

Absorbed Granum
light

Transmitted
light
• Chlorophyll a is the main photosynthetic
pigment
• Accessory pigments, such as chlorophyll b,
broaden the spectrum used for photosynthesis

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Fig. 10-10
CH3 in chlorophyll a
CHO in chlorophyll b

Porphyrin ring:
light-absorbing
“head” of molecule;
note magnesium
atom at center

Hydrocarbon tail:
interacts with hydrophobic
regions of proteins inside
thylakoid membranes of
chloroplasts; H atoms not
shown
A Photosystem: A Reaction-Center Complex
Associated with Light-Harvesting Complexes
• A photosystem consists of a reaction-center
complex (a type of protein complex)
surrounded by light-harvesting complexes
• The light-harvesting complexes (pigment
molecules bound to proteins) funnel the energy
of photons to the reaction center

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• A primary electron acceptor in the reaction
center accepts an excited electron from
chlorophyll a
• Solar-powered transfer of an electron from a
chlorophyll a molecule to the primary electron
acceptor is the first step of the light reactions

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 10-12

Photosystem STROMA
Photon
Light-harvesting Reaction-center Primary
complexes complex electron
acceptor
Thylakoid membrane

e–

Transfer Special pair of Pigment

of energy chlorophyll a molecules
molecules
THYLAKOID SPACE
(INTERIOR OF THYLAKOID)
• There are two types of photosystems in the
thylakoid membrane
• Photosystem II (PS II) functions first (the
numbers reflect order of discovery) and is best at
absorbing a wavelength of 680 nm
• The reaction-center chlorophyll a of PS II is
called P680

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• Photosystem I (PS I) is best at absorbing a
wavelength of 700 nm
• The reaction-center chlorophyll a of PS I is
called P700

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Linear Electron Flow

• During the light reactions, there are two

possible routes for electron flow: cyclic and
linear
• Linear electron flow, the primary pathway,
involves both photosystems and produces ATP
and NADPH using light energy

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Fig. 10-13-5

Primary
Primary 4 acceptor 7
acceptor Fd
Pq e–
2 e– 8
H2O e– e– NADP+
Cytochrome
2 H+ NADP+ + H+
complex
+ reductase
1/ O 3 NADPH
2 2
Pc
e–
e– P700
P680 5 Light

1 Light 6

ATP

Pigment
molecules
Photosystem I
(PS I)
Photosystem II
(PS II)
Cyclic Electron Flow

• Cyclic electron flow uses only photosystem I

and produces ATP, but not NADPH
• Cyclic electron flow generates surplus ATP,
satisfying the higher demand in the Calvin
cycle

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Fig. 10-15

Primary
Primary acceptor
Fd
acceptor Fd

Pq NADP+
NADP+ + H+
reductase
Cytochrome NADPH
complex

Pc

Photosystem I
Photosystem II ATP
Concept 10.3: The Calvin cycle uses ATP and
NADPH to convert CO2 to sugar

• The Calvin cycle, like the citric acid cycle,

regenerates its starting material after
molecules enter and leave the cycle
• The cycle builds sugar from smaller molecules
by using ATP and the reducing power of
electrons carried by NADPH

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• Carbon enters the cycle as CO2 and leaves as
a sugar named glyceraldehyde-3-phospate
(G3P)
• For net synthesis of 1 G3P, the cycle must take
place three times, fixing 3 molecules of CO2
• The Calvin cycle has three phases:
– Carbon fixation (catalyzed by rubisco)
– Reduction
– Regeneration of the CO2 acceptor (RuBP)
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 10-18-3
Input 3 (Entering one
at a time)
CO2

Phase 1: Carbon fixation

Rubisco

3 P P
Short-lived
intermediate
3P P 6 P
Ribulose bisphosphate 3-Phosphoglycerate
(RuBP) 6 ATP

6 ADP

3 ADP Calvin
Cycle
3 6 P P
ATP
1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate
6 NADPH
Phase 3:
Regeneration of 6 NADP+
the CO2 acceptor 6 Pi
(RuBP)
5 P
G3P
6 P
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate Phase 2:
(G3P) Reduction

1 P Glucose and
Output G3P other organic
(a sugar) compounds
Concept 10.4: Alternative mechanisms of carbon
fixation have evolved in hot, arid climates

• Dehydration is a problem for plants, sometimes

requiring trade-offs with other metabolic
processes, especially photosynthesis
• On hot, dry days, plants close stomata, which
conserves H2O but also limits photosynthesis
• The closing of stomata reduces access to CO2
and causes O2 to build up
• These conditions favor a seemingly wasteful
process called photorespiration
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Photorespiration: An Evolutionary Relic?

• In most plants (C3 plants), initial fixation of

CO2, via rubisco, forms a three-carbon
compound
• In photorespiration, rubisco adds O2 instead
of CO2 in the Calvin cycle
• Photorespiration consumes O2 and organic fuel
and releases CO2 without producing ATP or
sugar

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C4 Plants

• C4 plants minimize the cost of photorespiration by

incorporating CO2 into four-carbon compounds in
mesophyll cells
• This step requires the enzyme PEP carboxylase
• PEP carboxylase has a higher affinity for CO2 than
rubisco does; it can fix CO2 even when CO2
concentrations are low
• These four-carbon compounds are exported to
bundle-sheath cells, where they release CO2 that
is then used in the Calvin cycle
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Fig. 10-19

C4 leaf anatomy The C4 pathway

Mesophyll
Mesophyll cell cell CO2
Photosynthetic PEP carboxylase
cells of C4 Bundle-
plant leaf sheath
cell
Oxaloacetate (4C) PEP (3C)
Vein ADP
(vascular tissue)
Malate (4C) ATP

Pyruvate (3C)
Bundle-
Stoma sheath CO2
cell

Calvin
Cycle

Sugar

Vascular
tissue
Fig. 10-19a

C4 leaf anatomy

Mesophyll cell
Photosynthetic
cells of C4 Bundle-
plant leaf sheath
cell

Vein
(vascular tissue)

Stoma
Fig. 10-19b
The C4 Mesophyll
pathway cell CO2
PEP carboxylase

Oxaloacetate (4C) PEP (3C)

ADP
Malate (4C) ATP

Pyruvate (3C)
Bundle-
sheath CO2
cell

Calvin
Cycle

Sugar

Vascular
tissue
CAM Plants

• Some plants, including succulents, use

crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) to fix
carbon
• CAM plants open their stomata at night,
incorporating CO2 into organic acids
• Stomata close during the day, and CO2 is
released from organic acids and used in the
Calvin cycle

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Fig. 10-20

Sugarcane Pineapple
C4 CAM
CO2 CO2
Mesophyll 1 CO2 incorporated Night
cell Organic acid into four-carbon Organic acid
organic acids
(carbon fixation)

Bundle- CO2 CO2 Day

sheath
cell
2 Organic acids
Calvin release CO2 to Calvin
Cycle Calvin cycle Cycle

Sugar Sugar

(a) Spatial separation of steps (b) Temporal separation of steps

The Importance of Photosynthesis: A Review

• The energy entering chloroplasts as sunlight gets

stored as chemical energy in organic compounds
• Sugar made in the chloroplasts supplies chemical
energy and carbon skeletons to synthesize the
organic molecules of cells
• Plants store excess sugar as starch in structures
such as roots, tubers, seeds, and fruits
• In addition to food production, photosynthesis
produces the O2 in our atmosphere
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Fig. 10-21
H2O CO2

Light
NADP+
ADP
+ P
i
Light RuBP
Reactions: 3-Phosphoglycerate
Photosystem II Calvin
Electron transport chain Cycle
Photosystem I
Electron transport chain
ATP G3P
Starch
NADPH (storage)

Chloroplast

O2 Sucrose (export)
Fig. 10-UN1
H2O CO2

Primary
acceptor
Primary
acceptor Fd
H2O NADP+
Pq NADP+ + H+
reductase
O2 Cytochrome NADPH
complex

Pc

Photosystem I
ATP
Photosystem II

O2