Human

Skeleton cranium
skull
mandible

cervical vertebra

clavicle

scapula
sternum
ribs

humerus
thoracic vertebra

lumbar vertebra

sacrum
ulna
innominate
radius

carpals
metacarpals
phalanges

femur

patella

tibia

fibula

tarsals

metatarsals

phalanges
Why Do You Need this New Edition?

1. New chapter titled, Race and Cranial Measurements

2. Bone Biology chapter now includes a section on joint
morphology
3. More information with new illustrations on the bones of
the face
4. Additional illustrations of carpal and tarsal bones to aid
identification
5. Additional illustrations of the pelvis to further clarify
sex differences
6. Updated information on research and methods
7. Updated bibliography
8. Updated and more comprehensive glossary
This page intentionally left blank
FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY TRAINING MANUAL
This page intentionally left blank
FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY TRAINING MANUAL
THIRD EDITION

Karen Ramey Burns

Illustrations by Joanna Wallington

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Burns, Karen Ramey.

 Forensic anthropology training manual / Karen Ramey Burns; illustrations by Joanna Wallington. -- 3rd ed.
      p. cm.
 Includes bibliographical references and index.
 ISBN 978-0-205-02259-5 (pbk.)
1.  Forensic anthropology--Handbooks, manuals, etc.  I. Title.
 GN69.8.B87B87 2013
 614'.17--dc23
                                                           2011050425

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN-10: 0-205-02259-6
ISBN-13: 978-0-205-02259-5
To Lawrence Anthony Burns
This page intentionally left blank
 Brief Contents
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY 1
CHAPTER 2 THE BIOLOGY OF BONE AND JOINTS 9
CHAPTER 3 THE SKULL AND HYOID 25
CHAPTER 4 THE SHOULDER GIRDLE AND THORAX: CLAVICLE, SCAPULA, RIBS, AND STERNUM 56
CHAPTER 5 THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN 73
CHAPTER 6 THE ARM: HUMERUS, RADIUS, AND ULNA 85
CHAPTER 7 THE HAND: CARPALS, METACARPALS, AND PHALANGES 98
CHAPTER 8 THE PELVIC GIRDLE: ILLIUM, ISCHIUM, AND PUBIS 108
CHAPTER 9 THE LEG: FEMUR, TIBIA, FIBULA, AND PATELLA 122
CHAPTER 10 THE FOOT: TARSALS, METATARSALS, AND PHALANGES 139
CHAPTER 11 ODONTOLOGY (TEETH) 153
CHAPTER 12 INTRODUCTION TO THE FORENSIC SCIENCES 180
CHAPTER 13 LABORATORY ANALYSIS 189
CHAPTER 14 RACE AND CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS 222
CHAPTER 15 FIELD METHODS 239
CHAPTER 16 PROFESSIONAL RESULTS 263
CHAPTER 17 LARGE-SCALE APPLICATIONS 276

ix
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 Contents

PREFACE xv

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY 1

Introduction: The Problem of the Unidentified 2
The Discipline of Forensic Anthropology 3
Objectives of an Anthropological Investigation 6
Cause and Manner of Death 7
Stages of an Investigation 7

CHAPTER 2 THE BIOLOGY OF BONE AND JOINTS 9

Introduction 10
Structure and Function of the Skeletal System 10
Classification and Description of Bones 16
Directional and Sectional Terms for the Human Body 17
Joints 18

CHAPTER 3 THE SKULL AND HYOID 25

Introduction 26
Frontal Bone 30
Parietal Bones 32
Occipital Bone 34
Temporal Bones 36
Zygomatic Bones (Zygomas or Malars) 38
Sphenoid 39
Maxillae 40
Palatine Bones 42
Vomer 43
Ethmoid 44
Inferior Nasal Conchae 45
Nasal Bones 46
Lacrimal Bones 47
Mandible 49
The Hyoid 50
Age Changes in the Skull 51
Sex Differences in the Skull 52
Auditory Ossicles 55
xi
xii Contents

CHAPTER 4 THE SHOULDER GIRDLE AND THORAX: CLAVICLE, SCAPULA, RIBS, AND STERNUM 56
Introduction 57
Clavicle: The Collar Bone 57
Scapula: The Shoulder Blade 59
Ribs 64
Sternum: The Breast Bone 69
The Aging Rib Cage 71

CHAPTER 5 THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN 73

Introduction 74
Cervical Vertebrae (Atlas, Axis, and C3–C7) 76
Thoracic Vertebrae (T1–T12) 78
Lumbar Vertebrae (L1–L5) 79
Sacral Vertebrae (S1–S5 or Sacrum) 79
Coccygeal Vertebrae (Coccyx) 81
Reassembling the Vertebral Column, Step by Step 81
The Aging Vertebral Body 82

CHAPTER 6 THE ARM: HUMERUS, RADIUS, AND ULNA 85

Introduction 86
Humerus—The Upper Arm 86
The Forearm 87
Radius 91
Ulna 94

CHAPTER 7 THE HAND: CARPALS, METACARPALS, AND PHALANGES 98

Introduction 100
Carpal Bones: Wrist Bones 100
Metacarpal Bones: The Palm of the Hand 103
Phalanges of the Hand: Finger Bones 106

CHAPTER 8 THE PELVIC GIRDLE: ILLIUM, ISCHIUM, AND PUBIS 108

Introduction 109
Innominate: Ilium, Ischium, and Pubis 109
Sexual Differences 112
Age Changes 116

CHAPTER 9 THE LEG: FEMUR, TIBIA, FIBULA, AND PATELLA 122

Introduction 123
Femur: Upper Leg, Thigh Bone 123
Patella: Kneecap 129
Lower Leg: Tibia and Fibula 130
 Contents xiii

Tibia: Lower Leg, Shin Bone, Medial Ankle Bone 132

Fibula: Lower Leg, Lateral Ankle Bone 135

CHAPTER 10 THE FOOT: TARSALS, METATARSALS, AND PHALANGES 139

Introduction 140
Tarsal Bones: Ankle and Arch of the Foot 142
Metatarsal Bones: Foot Bones 146
Phalanges: Toe Bones 149

CHAPTER 11 ODONTOLOGY (TEETH) 153

Introduction 154
Structure and Function of Teeth and Supporting Tissues 154
Tooth Recognition 159
Tips for Distinguishing Similar Teeth 160
Complete Permanent Dentition 162
Recognizing Racial Traits 164
Dental Aging 165
Dental Anomalies 173
Dentistry and Oral Disease 173

CHAPTER 12 INTRODUCTION TO THE FORENSIC SCIENCES 180

Introduction 181
Evidence 181
Direct and Indirect Evidence 182
Managing and Processing Physical Evidence 182
Forensic Scientists Typically Employed by Crime Laboratories 184
Scientists Typically Consulted by Crime Laboratories in Death Investigation
Cases 186
Choosing the Correct Forensic Specialist in Death Investigation
Cases 187

CHAPTER 13 LABORATORY ANALYSIS 189

Introduction 190
Preparation for Analysis 190
Evidence Management 192
Skeletal Analysis and Description 196
Quality Check for Skeletal Analysis 215
Human Identification (ID) 216

CHAPTER 14 RACE AND CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS 222

Introduction 223
Nonmetric Variation in Skull Morphology 224
Craniometry 228
xiv Contents

Metric Variation in Skull Morphology 236

Postcranial Traits 238

CHAPTER 15 FIELD METHODS 239

Introduction 240
Preplanning for Field Work 240
Antemortem Information 242
Preparation for Excavation and Disinterment 243
Burial Location and Scene Investigation 245
Burial Classification 247
The Excavation/Exhumation 248
Postmortem Interval (Time since Death) and Forensic Taphonomy 255
Immediate Postmortem Changes 255
The Process of Decomposition 255
Quality Check for Field Work 262

CHAPTER 16 PROFESSIONAL RESULTS 263

Introduction 264
Record Keeping 264
Report Writing 265
The Foundation 267
Depositions And Demonstrative Evidence 270
Basic Ethics 271
Final Preparation And Courtroom Testimony 272
Professional Associations 273

CHAPTER 17 LARGE-SCALE APPLICATIONS 276

Introduction 277
Disasters and Mass Fatality Incidents 277
Human Rights Work 284
POW/MIA Repatriation 296

APPENDIX: FORMS AND DIAGRAMS 299

GLOSSARY OF TERMS 317

BIBLIOGRAPHY 333

INDEX 352
 Preface

The Forensic Anthropology Training Manual, third edition, is designed to serve

as an introduction to the discipline of forensic anthropology, a framework for
training, and a practical reference tool. The first chapter informs judges, attor-
neys, law enforcement personnel, and international workers of the range of
information and services available from a professional forensic anthropologist.
The first section (Chapters 2–11) is a training guide to assist in the study of
human skeletal anatomy. The second section (Chapters 12–17) focuses on the
specific work of the forensic anthropologist, beginning with an introduction to
the forensic sciences. Tables and formulae are provided for general use and
reference throughout the book. A variety of forms are available in the appendix
for use in the field or laboratory.
The chapters of the manual are presented in a sequence designed for
effective teaching. Basic human osteology precedes laboratory analysis, and all
of the information on the skeleton is completed before the chapters on field
work and specific applications are presented. The reason for the learning
sequence is simple: people learn to see. We fail to notice many of the things
that are not already part of our life experience. Beginning students, for exam-
ple, fail to recognize 80  percent of the human skeleton and confuse bones of
other animals with human bones. The most effective workers go into the field
equipped with knowledge obtained from previous experience in the classroom
and laboratory.
The organization of the third edition differs from the second edition in
two ways. The section dedicated to joints is now in the chapter on bone biology,
and methods for the determination of race are in a separate chapter. Instructors
may wish to continue to discuss joints using the arm as an example of types of
movement, but hopefully, they will be able to locate the joint section easier
with the other aspects of skeletal biology.
Racial analysis is placed after the end of the osteology section of the book
because it requires a working knowledge of cranial anatomy and experience
with osteometrics. Race can be an overwhelming topic if it is introduced to
students when basic anatomy is still a challenge. I believe the educational
experience is improved if students return to the skull to consider race near the
end of the academic term.
This is not a self-instruction manual. The manual contains the basic
information necessary to successfully collect, process, analyze, and describe skel-
etonized human remains. However, effective education requires professional
guidance and plenty of hands-on experience. Anyone seeking proficiency should
use this manual as one of many steps to knowledge. Be persistent in the pursuit
of information, supplement class work with additional reading, and use every
opportunity available for practical self-testing.

xv
xvi Preface

The Forensic Anthropology Training Manual, third edition, can serve as

a primary text for courses in human osteology and in forensic anthropology
and archaeology, and as a supplementary text for courses in anthropology and
human rights, as described here:
1. Human Osteology: A complete course in human skeletal biology and anatomy,
including recognition of fragmentary material, the range of normal skeletal
variation, sexual and genetic differences, and the basics of age determination
2. Forensic Anthropology and Archaeology: A course in location and exhu-
mation of burials, human identification from skeletal remains, proper
handling of physical evidence for legal purposes, professional report writ-
ing, and expert witness testimony
3. Anthropology and Human Rights: Application of the methods of forensic
anthropology to international human rights missions and the special prob-
lems of mass graves, cultural differences, and lack of antemortem records
Each of these courses can be taught as intensive short courses or as term-length
college courses. Both formats have about the same amount of student-teacher
contact time, but there are advantages and disadvantages to each. The intensive
course is excellent for laboratory and field work, but has little time for reading,
research, and writing. The standard college course has the valuable out-of-class
time, but loses considerable lab and field time to starting and stopping.

WHAT’S NEW IN THIS EDITION

• A new chapter titled Race and Cranial Measurements
• A section on joint morphology in the Bone Biology chapter
• More information with new illustrations on the bones of the face
• Additional illustrations of carpal and tarsal bones to aid identification
• Additional illustrations of the pelvis to further clarify sex differences
• Updated information on research and methods
• Updated bibliography
• Updated and more comprehensive glossary

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The genesis of this work can be traced to Dr. Audrey Chapman, Director of the
Science and Human Rights Program of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science (AAAS). Dr. Chapman encouraged me to put informa-
tion into a format that can be used in the field and translated for areas of the
world trying to recover from war and the ultimate of human rights violations.
The AAAS supplied the initial funding. (This book is now available in a Spanish
edition, Manual de Antropolog¡a Forense [2008], published by Edicions Bellaterra
in Barcelona, Spain.)
My professor and mentor, the late Dr. William R. Maples, contributed to
this work through his no-nonsense attitude and profound knowledge of the
discipline. Dr. Clyde C. Snow shared his unique perspective on the world and
the work of an anthropologist. I’m indebted to them both.
I appreciate the many thoughtful comments and questions from my col-
leagues and students in Guatemala, North Carolina, Georgia, Colombia, and
Utah. I would like to acknowledge the reviewers who provided suggestions for
the new edition: Christina Brooks–Winthrop University; Midori Albert–University
of North Carolina, Wilmington; Monica Faraldo–University of Miami; Margaret
Judd–University of Pittsburgh. I’m also very grateful to Nicole Conforti, Pearson
Project Manager, for her superior organizational abilities and her cheerful perse-
verance. This book would not have been possible without the talent, hard work,
and friendship of Joanna Wallington, the illustrator. And, as always, I’m grateful
to my family for their love, support, and good humor.
 About the Author

Karen Ramey Burns is a practicing forensic anthropologist, teacher, writer, and

human rights worker. She received her graduate education in forensic anthro-
pology under the direction of the late Dr. William R. Maples at the University
of Florida and developed experience in major crime laboratory procedures while
working for the Georgia Bureau of Investigation, Division of Forensic Sciences.
She has testified as an expert witness in local, state, and international cases.
Dr. Burns has devoted much of her professional career to international
work, providing educational and technical assistance in the excavation and
identification of human remains in Latin America, Haiti, the Middle East, and
Africa. She documented war crimes in Iraq after the Gulf War (1991) and pro-
vided testimony in the Raboteau Trial in Gonaïve, Haiti (2000). She is the
author of the “Protocol for Disinterment and Analysis of Skeletal Remains,” in
the Manual for the Effective Prevention and Investigation of Extra-Legal,
Arbitrary, and Summary Executions (1991), a United Nations publication.
Dr. Burns was a 2007 Fulbright Scholar at the University of the Andes in
Bogotá, Colombia. She is also a founding member of EQUITAS (est. 2005), the
Colombian Interdisciplinary Team for Forensic Work and Psychosocial
Assistance, where she now serves on the board of directors.
In times of national emergency, she works for the Disaster Mortuary
Operational Response Team (DMORT), a part of the National Disaster Medical
System, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. She was deployed for
the Katrina/Rita hurricane disasters in 2005; Tri-State Crematory incident in
2002; the World Trade Center terrorist attack in 2001; the Tarboro, North
Carolina, flood in 1999; and the Flint River flood of 1994.
Dr. Burns has contributed to several historic research projects, including
a study of the Phoenician genocide in North Africa (Carthage), the identifica-
tion of the revolutionary war hero Casimir Pulaski, and the search for Amelia
Earhart. Dr. Burns is a coauthor of the award-winning book, Amelia Earhart’s
Shoes, Is the Mystery Solved? (2001), a discourse on the continuing archaeo-
logical investigations on the island of Nikumaroro in the Republic of Kiribati.
Her research interests include microstructure of mineralized tissues, effects
of burning and cremation, and decomposition. She has taught at the Universities
of Georgia, North Carolina at Charlotte, and Utah. She also teaches short cours-
es for the U.S. Department of Justice’s International Criminal Investigative
Training Assistance Program (ICITAP), as well as for law enforcement agencies,
judges, continuing education programs, and human rights organizations.
Dr. Burns is presently teaching human osteology, forensic anthropology methods,
and an introduction to the forensic sciences at the University of Utah.

xvii
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 About the Illustrator

Joanna Wallington, B.F.A., is a freelance professional illustrator and designer

living in Atlanta, Georgia. She is proficient in a wide range of artistic media
from pen and pencil to computer graphics and photography. Ms. Wallington is
a graduate of the University of Georgia’s College of Fine Arts. Her major edu-
cational emphasis was scientific illustration with a minor in anthropology. She
completed a senior thesis in comparative primate anatomy.
Ms. Wallington, a native of Great Britain, has lived in the United States
since 1977. She served in the United States Marine Corps as a firefighter
emergency medical technician.

xix
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CHAPTER 1

Introduction to Forensic Anthropology

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Introduction: The Problem of the Unidentified

Discipline of Forensic Anthropology
Objectives of an Anthropological Investigation
Cause and Manner of Death
Stages of an Investigation

1
2 Chapter 1 Introduction to Forensic Anthropology

INTRODUCTION: THE PROBLEM OF THE UNIDENTIFIED

The body of knowledge known as forensic anthropology offers a unique humani-
tarian service to a world troubled by violence. Clandestine deaths cast a shadow
on everyone. Missing persons and unidentified dead—the “disappeared” of this
world—are too often the result of the worst criminal and political behavior of
humankind. Peace and humanity begin with the effort to identify the dead and
understand their fate.

WHO ARE THE “MISSING, UNIDENTIFIED, AND DISAPPEARED”?

Some unidentified bodies are those of derelicts who simply wandered off and
died. Some are suicides who didn’t want to be found. But many are unresolved
homicides, hidden long enough to assure impunity for the perpetrators. The
unidentified may be teenagers executed by gang members, women raped by
soldiers, or children abused by caretakers. They are sometimes the evidence of
serial killers who walk the streets without fear. In many countries, the missing
and unidentified are known as “the disappeared.” They are the result of geno-
cide and extreme misuse of authority.
The odd thing about an unidentified body is its silence. It may seem
that all dead bodies are silent, but an unidentified body is even more silent. No
one calls and complains when it is forgotten. No one exerts pressure or wields
political or financial power on behalf of an unidentified person. If shipped off
to a morgue and buried as a “John Doe,” it doesn’t even take up space at a
responsible agency.
It appears that no one cares, but this is not true. Those who care suffer in
silence with nowhere to turn for relief. They suffer the agony of not knowing
the fate of their loved ones. They put their lives on hold. They become victims
who are afraid to move to a new location, to remarry, or to rebuild their lives.
They feel that they might show a lack of love by giving up hope and assuming
the person to be dead. After all, what if the person does return and finds his or
her home gone?
Parents of soldiers missing in action say that not knowing is far worse
than being able to grieve. Instead of feeling buoyed by hope, they are paralyzed
by the fear that their child is suffering somewhere.
Families of missing persons say that they experience a sense of relief when
the bodies of loved ones are finally identified. They find a sense of closure and
even empowerment through the process of funeral rituals.

WHY IS IDENTIFICATION SO DIFFICULT?

The general attitude of law enforcement personnel toward unidentified bodies
tends to be defeatist. Standard comments are, “If it is not identified within two
weeks, it won’t be identified,” or “If it is not a local person with a well-publicized
missing person record, forget it.” These are self-fulfilling prophecies. While the
law of diminishing returns is no doubt applicable, the door can be left open for
success. However, leaving the door open is not easy. It requires a thorough
analysis of the remains and maintaining a record of correct information.
Unfortunately, correct information is as useless as incorrect information
if it is not communicated. This may be the Information Age, but the world is
still struggling with the practical and responsible use of information. The tech-
nology is available, but intelligent use of technology is a challenge. Within the
United States, the National Crime Information Center is a good place to store
and search for information, especially when used in combination with NamUs,
a recent web-based system of missing and unidentified persons databases. In
developing countries, similar databases are also being established. This is being
accomplished with slow determination by local activists and numerous inter-
national agencies as well as nongovernmental organizations such as the
 Introduction to Forensic Anthropology Chapter 1 3

American Association for the Advancement of Science, Physicians for Human

Rights, and the Carter Center of Emory University.
When the doors are left open for identification, and an identification is
finally made, the remains must be relocated. Storing human remains (especially
decomposing remains) is not as easy as storing most other types of evidence,
but it can be done. However, the ethics of the situation are controversial. Is it
more important to identify a deceased person, inform the family, and possibly
apprehend a murderer, or is it more important to “honor” the dead with an
anonymous burial?

THE DISCIPLINE OF FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY

Forensic anthropology is best known as the discipline that applies the
scientific knowledge of physical anthropology (and often archaeology) to the col-
lection and analysis of legal evidence. More broadly speaking, it is anthropological
knowledge applied to legal issues. Forensic anthropology began as a subfield of
physical anthropology but has grown into a distinct body of knowledge, over-
lapping other fields of anthropology, biology, and the physical sciences.
Recovery, description, and identification of human skeletal remains are the
standard work of forensic anthropologists. The condition of the evidence varies
greatly, including decomposing, burned, cremated, fragmented, or
disarticulated remains. Typical cases range from recent homicides to illegal
destruction of ancient Native American burials. Forensic anthropologists work indi-
vidual cases, mass disasters, historic cases, and international human rights cases.
Forensic anthropologists are also called to work on cases of living persons
where identity or age is in question. Comparisons of video tapes, photographs,
and radiographs are within the capability and experience of most forensic
anthropologists.

HISTORY OF FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY

The public views forensic anthropology as a young discipline, and it is. However,
it has a long developmental history in the works of physical anthropologists
fascinated by the anatomical collections of museums and universities.
Anthropologists were making observations about skeletal differences and writing
papers for professional societies decades before any legal application for their
knowledge was ever considered. The earliest beginnings of what we call forensic
anthropology can be attributed to a few bright attorneys mired in complicated
legal battles. They searched out the knowledge they needed to win and made
use of it in court. Little by little, over the last 150 years, anthropologists have
responded with goal-driven research. Along the way, they learned about the
work of law enforcement investigators, the capabilities of other forensic scientists,
and the requirements of a courtroom environment.
There is no date for the beginning of the study of human skeletons, but
there is a firm date for the first use of skeletal information in a court of law—the
1850 Webster/Parkman trial. Oliver Wendell Holmes and Jeffries Wyman,
two Harvard anatomists, were called to examine human remains thought to be
those of a missing physician, Dr. George Parkman. A Harvard chemistry profes-
sor, John W. Webster, was accused of the crime of murder. The evidence was
substantial even before the anatomists became involved. Webster owed Parkman
money; a head had been burned in Webster’s furnace; body parts were found in
his lab and privy; and a dentist had identified Parkman’s dentures found in the
furnace. (Forensic dentistry was getting a start, too.) Holmes and Wyman testi-
fied that the remains fit the description of Parkman, and Webster was hanged.
My favorite case took place a few years later (1897) in Chicago. This time, the
expert witness was actually an anthropologist—George A. Dorsey, a curator at
4 Chapter 1 Introduction to Forensic Anthropology

the Field Museum of Natural History. Dorsey was called to examine a few bits
and pieces of bone from the sludge at the bottom of a sausage-rendering vat.
Louisa Luetgert, wife of a sausage factory owner, was missing, and her husband,
Adolph, was accused of murder. Again, the evidence was substantial even
before the anthropologist became involved. Adolph was seeing another
woman; the Luetgert marriage was on the rocks; Adolph had closed down
his plant for several weeks; he had ordered extra potash before closing
the plant; he had given the watchman time off on the night of the disap-
pearance; and, most incriminating of all, Louisa’s rings were found in the
vat. Dorsey had only to prove that the bones were human, not pig, and
he did. Adolph Luetgert was imprisoned for life. By the way, this is a good
case to support the importance of learning to recognize fragments and
all the other tiny “insignificant” bones.
T. Dale Stewart (1901–1997) designated Thomas Dwight (1843–1911)
of Harvard University as the “Father of Forensic Anthropology in the
United States.” This is partially based on the fact that Dwight wrote a
prize-winning essay on the subject of identification from the human skel-
eton in 1878. Dwight may not have been the very first actor in what we
now call forensic anthropology, but he was the first to publish.
Early in the twentieth century, many anthropologists contributed
to the developing discipline, but Wilton Marion Krogman (1902–1987)
was the first to speak directly to law enforcement with his “Guide to
the Identification of Human Skeletal Material,” published by the FBI
Law Enforcement Bulletin in 1939. He followed it with “The Role of the
Figure 1.1 Physical Anthropologist in the Identification of Human Skeletal Remains”
Wilton Marion Krogman (right) examin- (1943). These publications were significant, but not widely read. Most
ing the death mask of a murder victim, investigators still took any human remains straight to the medical doctor.
1957. From University of Pennsylvania I remember J. Lawrence (Larry) Angel (1915–1986), Curator of
Archives. Physical Anthropology at the Smithsonian Museum (1962–1977) telling
me that it had been a big day when the FBI discovered the physical
anthropologists at the Smithsonian. He said, “If they wanted answers,
all they had to do was to walk across the street with a box of bones!”
Forensic anthropology may have dawned early in Washington, D.C.,
but not much was happening in the rest of the country. In the late 1960s,
my mentor, William R. Maples, chose The Human Skeleton in Forensic
Medicine by Wilton Krogman (1962) as a textbook for a human osteology
class. At that time, Maples was still studying baboons and Krogman’s
references to “medicolegal cases” were a curiosity rather than a reality.
Krogman didn’t even use the term forensic anthropology, but he did write
that his purpose was “to acquaint the law enforcement agencies of the
world with what the bones tell and how they tell it.” He kept pushing the
ball along, but it still wasn’t rolling on its own.
Forensic anthropology finally began to evolve as a recognizable
discipline during the 1970s. T. Dale Stewart edited a Smithsonian
publication, Personal Identification in Mass Disasters (1970). Next,
William M. Bass published the first practical textbook, Human
Osteology: A Laboratory and Field Manual (1971). By that time, a few
physical anthropologists had begun to attend meetings of the American
Academy of Forensic Sciences. They realized they could probably pull
together enough colleagues to form a section of physical anthropologists
within the Academy, so they met in a hotel room with a phone and did
just that. Fourteen people formed the Physical Anthropology Section in
1972. Soon after, a few adventurous persons started calling themselves
Figure 1.2 “forensic” anthropologists rather than “physical” anthropologists. By the
T. Dale Stewart. From Human Studies end of the 1970s, T. Dale Stewart published Essentials of Forensic
Film Archives, National Anthropological Anthropology (1979)—the first textbook to actually carry the name
Archives, Smithsonian Institution. “forensic anthropology” in its title.
 Introduction to Forensic Anthropology Chapter 1 5

Even in the 1970s forensic anthropology was not an undergraduate

subject—or even a graduate degree. Future forensic anthropologists
focused on physical anthropology in graduate school and wrote theses
with forensic applications. “Forensic Anthropology” degree titles are a
phenomenon of the late 1980s and 1990s. And the job title “Forensic
Anthropologist” is even newer.
It has been interesting to watch the evolution of forensic anthro-
pology in the nonacademic work force. It began as a few anthropology
departments sending trained forensic anthropologists out into the world
without jobs. The graduates could choose to settle in a university or a
museum like their mentors, but that’s not what they wanted. Only a very
few landed jobs that matched their training. One by one, most accepted
jobs where they would at least be available, if not paid, to handle skeletal
cases. Then slowly, they were hired by other agencies because of their
experience, leaving a void at the original place. The abandoned agency
then had to recognize the contribution of the lost anthropologist and start
paying someone for the work. It has been slow in coming, but today,
forensic anthropologists are employed by state, national, and interna-
tional agencies around the world.
There is much more information available about the history of
Figure 1.3
forensic anthropology in the writings of Stewart (1979), Snow (1982),
William R. Maples. Photo by Gene Bed-
Joyce and Stover (1991), Ubelaker and Scammell (1992), and Maples and
narek, University of Florida News Bureau.
Browning (1994).

EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENTS
Forensic anthropologists usually specialize first in anthropology or biology and
then obtain graduate or postgraduate training in forensic anthropology. Most
are competent in human biology, anatomy, and osteology, and are experienced in
archaeological field techniques. Many have additional training in medical fields,
such as emergency medicine, nursing, anatomy, pathology, and dentistry.
Most forensic anthropologists learn the basics of medical-legal death
investigation through on-the-job training. The education itself is a never-ending
process. It is renewed by reading scientific periodicals, participating in short
courses, and being an active member in professional organizations such as the
American Academy of Forensic Sciences, the International Association for
Identification, and the American Association of Physical Anthropologists. The
American Board of Forensic Examiners also offers continuing educational
opportunities.
A Ph.D. is desirable because it requires competence in research methods,
writing, and teaching. All of these skills are useful to the professional forensic
anthropologist and are important to the role of expert witness. There are, how-
ever, many competent forensic anthropologists with master’s degrees working in
government laboratories and nongovernmental agencies around the world.

HOW IS THE WORK OF AN ANTHROPOLOGIST DIFFERENT FROM

THE WORK OF A PATHOLOGIST OR MEDICAL EXAMINER?
Typically, a medical doctor is called on to examine a fleshed body, and an anthro-
pologist is called on to examine a skeleton. The medical doctor focuses on
information from soft tissues, and the anthropologist focuses on information
from hard tissues. However, since decomposition is a continuous process, the
work of these specialists tends to overlap. A medical doctor may be useful when
mummified tissues are present on the skeleton, and an anthropologist is useful
when decomposition is advanced or when bone trauma is a major element in
the death. Simple visual identification is usually impossible in an anthropological
investigation. Therefore, more time and attention are devoted to a thorough
analysis and description of physical traits.
6 Chapter 1 Introduction to Forensic Anthropology

Legal authority also differs. The medical examiner has the authority to
conduct an autopsy and to state cause and manner of death. The forensic
anthropologist carries out a skeletal analysis and contributes an opinion, but
not a legal statement, regarding cause and manner of death.

OBJECTIVES OF AN ANTHROPOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION

The objectives of anthropological investigation are the same as those of a medical-
legal investigation of a recently deceased person. That is, the anthropologist is
seeking to provide a thorough description, achieve a personal identification, and
estimate the time of death or postmortem interval. The anthropologist is also
expected to collect and document all associated physical evidence and see that
it is transferred to the appropriate analyst.
Anthropologists are often asked to give opinion regarding the circumstances
of death, but the legal responsibility for determination of cause and manner of
death is in the hands of the medical examiner, forensic pathologist, or coroner,
not the anthropologist. (See the section on cause and manner of death.)
In effect, the work of the anthropologist overlaps the work of both the
crime scene investigator and the medical examiner. The specific anthropologist
for the case is dictated by the circumstances of the case and the material to be
examined.

■ An anthropologist with osteological training (usually a physical anthro-

pologist) can maximize the information gained from skeletonized human
remains.
■ An anthropologist with archaeological training can optimize the recovery
of buried evidence from a crime scene.
■ An anthropologist with socio-cultural training may interface more effec-
tively with families and facilitate interviews, particularly in multi-cultural
circumstances. (Socio-cultural anthropologists are more frequently part of
the investigatory team in countries other than the United States.)

QUESTIONS BASIC TO PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION

■ Are the remains human? (Frequently they are not.)
■ Do the remains represent a single individual or several individuals?
■ What did the person look like? (The description should include sex, age,
race, height, physique, and handedness.)
■ Who is it? Are there unique skeletal traits or anomalies that could serve
to provide a tentative or positive identification?

Forensic anthropologists also collect physical evidence that aids in solving

questions about the circumstances of death. This is another area in which
broad-spectrum anthropological training is very useful, particularly in cross-
cultural circumstances.

QUESTIONS REGARDING THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF DEATH

■ When did death occur?
■ Did the person die at the place of burial, or was he or she transported
after death?
 Introduction to Forensic Anthropology Chapter 1 7

■ Was the grave disturbed, or was the person buried more than once?
■ What was the cause of death (e.g., gunshot wound, stabbing, asphyxiation)?
■ What was the manner of death (i.e., homicide, suicide, accident, or
natural)?
■ What is the identity of the perpetrator(s)?

CAUSE AND MANNER OF DEATH

The phrase, “cause and manner of death,” is used so often that it’s easy to think
of “cause” and “manner” as the same thing. However, they are not. The phrase
is a combination of independent medical and legal determinations. Both are
important to the legal consequences of the death.
Cause of death is a medical determination. It includes any condition that
leads to or contributes to death. Typically, cause is listed in simple terms, such
as cancer, heart attack, stroke, gunshot wound, drowning, and so on. However,
cause of death can become complicated when numerous factors are considered
over a period of time. There can be an underlying cause such as a long-term
disease (e.g., lymphoma), an intermediate cause (e.g., chemotherapy), and an
immediate cause (e.g., pneumonia). The choice of terms and wording is up to
the medical doctor in charge of the postmortem.
Manner of death is a legal determination based on evidence and opinion.
It is decided by government-appointed or elected medical examiners and/or
coroners. There are five standard categories of manner of death:

1. Natural: A consequence of natural disease or “old age.”

2. Accidental: Unintended, but unavoidable death; not natural, suicidal, or
homicidal.
3. Suicidal: Self-caused and intentional. (Society does not include self-caused
deaths due to ignorance or general self-destructive behavior.)
4. Homicidal: Death caused by another human.
5. Undetermined: There is not enough evidence on which to make a
decision.

STAGES OF AN INVESTIGATION
There are three major stages of investigation in a typical case: (1) collection of
verbal evidence, (2) collection of physical evidence, and (3) analysis of the evi-
dence. Within the United States, the collection of verbal evidence is usually
carried out by police investigators. There are countries, however, in which the
anthropologist is expected to take the initiative in obtaining verbal evidence as
well as physical evidence. Under such circumstances, forensic anthropologists
become involved in the entire process of interviewing, searching records, and
gathering physical evidence. This is when socio-cultural training becomes
essential. International forensic anthropology teams frequently hire social and
cultural anthropologists to deal with interviews and other verbal evidence. This
practice is helping to expand the definition of “forensic anthropologist” to
include all anthropologists who apply their training to legal issues, not just the
physical anthropologists.
8 Chapter 1 Introduction to Forensic Anthropology

PHYSICAL EVIDENCE VERBAL EVIDENCE

site excavation and

investigation disinterment

collection of interviews of families, collection of

physical evidence witnesses, & suspects written records

analysis of organization of
physical evidence verbal evidence

synthesis and
interpretation of
all evidence

CONCLUSIONS

Figure 1.4
Flowchart of a Forensic Investigation

The accompanying flowchart shows the stages of investigation leading

to a synthesis and interpretation of information. Each box within the flowchart
is a subject unto itself. The flowchart is introduced here to give an overall view
of a forensic investigation. This book will focus on the left side of the chart, but,
in the final analysis, both channels of investigation are essential.
CHAPTER 2

The Biology of Bone and Joints

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Introduction
Structure and Function of the Skeletal System
Classification and Description of Bones
Directional and Sectional Terms for the Human Body
Joints

9
10 Chapter 2 The Biology of Bone and Joints

INTRODUCTION
Osteology is the study of bones. It is the science that explores the development,
structure, function, and variation of bones. Research in human osteology
includes the effects of genetic origin, age, sex, diet, trauma, disease, and
decomposition.

WHY STUDY HUMAN OSTEOLOGY?

The skeleton is more durable than the rest of the human body. It is often the
only surviving record of a life on this earth. A knowledge of human osteology is
prerequisite to reading the physical record of humankind.
Imagine receiving a book written in an obscure language. If you have no
knowledge of the language, you could describe the color and texture of the pages,
but you would not be able to read the information that the writer intended to
communicate.
It is the same with bones. You may describe them, but you will not under-
stand their meaning until you learn their language. And just as you find that a
dictionary is still useful in your own language, you will find it necessary to
continue learning the language of bones as long as you work with them.

WHAT ARE THE PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS?

Depending on the condition of the remains and the availability of antemortem
information, a competent osteologist may be able to provide much of the follow-
ing information from skeletal remains:

■ Description of the living person

■ Evaluation of the health of the person
■ Recognition of habitual activities
■ Identification of the deceased person
■ Recognition of the cause and manner of death
■ Determination of the approximate time since death
■ Information about postmortem events

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

TISSUES: COMMUNITIES OF CELLS WITH A COMMON PURPOSE
A tissue is a group of closely associated cells, similar in structure and perform-
ing related functions. The cells are bound together in matrices of nonliving
extracellular material that varies greatly from one tissue to another. The
body’s organs are built from tissues, and most organs contain the four basic
tissue types. See Table 2.1 for a comparison of tissue types, functions, and
examples of each.

Table 2.1 Basic Tissues Types

BASIC TISSUE TYPES TISSUE FUNCTIONS EXAMPLES

EPITHELIAL TISSUE covering skin, hair, nails
CONNECTIVE TISSUE support, protection, hydration bone, cartilage, fat, ligaments,
fascia, blood
MUSCLE TISSUE movement muscle
NERVOUS TISSUE control nerves
 The Biology of Bone and Joints Chapter 2 11

CONNECTIVE TISSUE: THE MOST DURABLE TISSUE OF THE BODY

There are many forms of connective tissue, but all connective tissues consist
of more or less numerous cells surrounded by an extracellular matrix of fibrous
and ground substance.

CLASSES AND SUBCLASSES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Connective tissue includes connective tissue proper, cartilage, bone, and blood.
Connective tissue proper forms the supporting framework of many large organs
of the body and is classified as either “loose” or “dense.” Collagen fibers make
all the difference. Loose connective tissue contains very little collagen.
Adipose tissue (fat) is one of several types of loose connective tissue. Dense
connective tissue has much more collagen and contributes more directly to
the skeletal system. The dense connective tissues, cartilage, and bone are each
discussed in separate sections.

GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES

(Acronym: “SHAPE”)

■ Support in areas that require durable flexibility

■ Hydration and maintenance of body fluids
■ Attachment of the various body parts to one another
■ Protection for bones and joints during activity
■ Encasement of organs and groups of structures

BASIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE CELL

The basic connective tissue cell is a mesenchymal cell. It is a primitive cell
with the capability to differentiate into other types of cells, including the cells
that actually produce and maintain the connective tissues. Specific cell types
are discussed in their appropriate sections.

DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE: HOLDING EVERYTHING TOGETHER

Dense connective tissue is capable of providing enormous tensile strength.
Bundles of white fibers are sandwiched between rows of connective tissue cells.
The fibers all run in the same direction, parallel to the direction of pull.
Dense connective tissue is subdivided into irregular, regular, and elastic
connective tissues. Irregular dense connective tissue forms the fibrous cap-
sules surrounding kidneys, nerves, bones, and muscles. Regular dense
connective tissue forms ligaments, tendons, aponeuroses, and fascia. Elastic
dense connective tissue combines greater elasticity with strength. It makes
up vocal cords and some of the ligaments connecting adjacent vertebrae.

TYPES AND FUNCTIONS OF DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

■ Ligaments connect bone to bone, to cartilage, and to other structures.
They are bands or sheets of fibrous tissue.
■ Tendons attach muscle to bone. They tend to be narrower and more cord-
like than ligaments.
■ Periosteum encases (covers) the outer surfaces of compact bone. It is a
fibrous sheath that is cellular and vascularized.
■ Endosteum covers the inner surfaces of compact bone. It is a thinner
fibrous sheath than the periosteum.
■ Fascia encases muscles, groups of muscles, and large vessels and nerves.
It is the “plastic wrap” of the body, binding structures together and provid-
ing stability.
12 Chapter 2 The Biology of Bone and Joints

DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE CELLS

Fibroblasts are the cells that produce collagen fibers, the basic organic fibers
of dense connective tissues. Inactive fibroblasts are called fibrocytes.

CARTILAGE: A STRONG BUT FLEXIBLE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Cartilage consists primarily of water (60 to 80 percent by weight). Because of its
high water content, cartilage is very resilient. It is capable of springing back when
compressed, so it makes a good cushion and shock absorber for movable joints.
It is also resistant to tension because of a strong network of collagen fibrils.
It is not, however, resistant to shear forces (twisting and bending). This weak-
ness is the reason for the large number of torn cartilages in sports injuries.
Cartilage contains no blood vessels. Nutrients are passed from the sur-
rounding perichondrium by diffusion, an adequate method because of the high
water content. Cartilage is capable of fast growth because there is no need for
slow vascular formation. However, unlike bone, cartilage has very little capacity
for regeneration in adults.

TYPES OF CARTILAGE
■ Hyaline cartilage caps the ends of bones, shapes the nose, completes the
rib cage, forms the fetal skeleton, and provides a model for growing bone.
■ Elastic cartilage is hyaline cartilage with elastic fibers added. It forms
the epiglottis, the tip of the nose, and the external ear.
■ Fibrocartilage is embedded in dense collagenous tissue. It forms the
vertebral discs, the pubic symphysis, and articular discs in joint
capsules.

CARTILAGE CELLS
In the growing cartilage, chondroblasts build cartilage. They are capable of
Cartilage Function
rapid multiplication when necessary. Chondroclasts break down cartilage and
• support absorb it. Chondrocytes are adult cartilage cells. Unlike cells of most other
• flexibility
• friction reduction tissues, chondrocytes cannot divide. The little healing that does take place in
• model for growing bone cartilage is due to the ability of the surviving chondrocytes to secrete more
extracellular matrix.
Cartilage cells live in an extracellular matrix—a jelly-like ground sub-
stance with collagen fibers and watery tissue fluid. The extracellular matrix is
important for transport of cells and maintenance of the cartilage. (Remember,
there are no blood vessels.)

BONE: THE STRONGEST, LEAST FLEXIBLE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

TYPES AND FUNCTIONS OF BONE
Two basic types of bone exist in the adult skeleton—dense bone and spongy
Definition Note
bone. Unfortunately, several descriptive terms are used for each type of bone.
Bone is a tissue as well as a Dense bone is also known as compact, lamellar, or cortical bone. It consists
unit of the skeleton.
mainly of concentric lamellar osteons and interstitial lamellae that provide
strength and resistance to torsion. Dense bone forms the bone cortex, the main
portion of the shaft surrounding the medullary cavity.
Spongy bone is also called cancellous or trabecular bone. It is character-
ized by thin bony spicules, or trabeculae, creating a latticework filled with bone
marrow or embryonal connective tissue.
Woven bone is a third type of bone. It is not found in the healthy adult
skeleton but is normal in the embryonic skeleton or healing bone. The matrix
is irregular, and there is no osteonal structure.
Support is the primary function of bone, but bone also provides for protec-
tion, movement, blood cell formation, and mineral storage. The armor-like bones
 The Biology of Bone and Joints Chapter 2 13

of the skull and the pelvis and the flexible bones of the rib cage surround and
Bone Function
protect vulnerable organs. Opposing muscle groups use the lever action of one
bone on another to make movement possible. The marrow cavities of bone pro- • support
• protection
duce blood cells, and the bone itself stores minerals when there is an abundance • movement/attachment
in the diet, then provides needed minerals when a dietary shortage occurs. • blood cell formation
Consider the functions of bone and cartilage as you use Table 2.2 to com- • mineral storage
pare the characteristics and the structure of each.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF BONE

Bone has both organic and inorganic components. The organic component is
Definition Note
approximately 35 percent of the bone mass. It is composed of cells, collagen
fibers, and ground substance. Ground substance is amorphous material in Hydroxyapatite
Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2
which structural elements occur. It is composed of protein polysaccharides, tis-
sue fluids, and metabolites. The natural mineral structure
that the crystal lattice of
The inorganic component is approximately 65 percent of the bone mass. It bones and teeth most closely
is composed of mineral salts, primarily calcium phosphate, which form tiny resembles.
crystals and pack tightly into the extracellular matrix of collagen fibers. The
crystalline material is called hydroxyapatite.

BONE CELLS
Three basic types of cells build and maintain healthy bone tissue. Osteoblasts
build the bone matrix. They are found at sites of bone growth, repair, and
remodeling. Osteoclasts are large, multinucleated cells capable of breaking
down bone. They are found at sites of repair and remodeling. Osteocytes are
long-term maintenance cells. They are transformed from osteoblasts that
become lodged in their own bony matrix. Osteocytes occupy the lacunae of
lamellar bone. They extend cellular processes into the canaliculi of the bone.
(See Figure 2.3 for illustration of lacunae and canaliculi.)

MACROSTRUCTURE (GROSS ANATOMY)

The basic macrostructure of a long bone is defined by its growth and develop-
ment. The primary center of ossification forms the diaphysis. It appears first
and becomes the shaft of the adult bone.
Secondary centers of ossification become epiphyses. They form the ends
of the bone as well as tuberosities, trochanters, epicondyles, and other additions
to the final form of the bone. Some epiphyses are substantial in size; others are
no more than bony flakes. Pressure epiphyses form the ends of bones and
provide a dense, smooth surface for articular cartilage. Traction epiphyses
form attachment areas and provide dense, irregular, pitted surfaces for muscle

Table 2.2 A Comparison of Bone and Cartilage

BONE CARTILAGE
CHARACTERISTICS solid solid
inflexible flexible
vascular avascular
CELLULAR COMPONENT osteocytes chondrocytes
osteoblasts chondroblasts
osteoclasts chondroclasts
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX collagen fibers, ground substance, collagen and/or elastic fibers,
and crystalline lattice of ground substance, and no
hydroxyapatite inorganic component
14 Chapter 2 The Biology of Bone and Joints

epiphysis attachment. Atavistic epiphyses are all the others. They are small and
irregular with no specific function in humans— e.g., costal notch flakes
in the sternum (Scheuer, 2000).
metaphysis A metaphysis (or “growth plate”) is an area of active growth. The
metaphysis is not calcified. It is, therefore, represented by a gap
between the bones in the illustration. In life, the metaphysis is growing
cartilage, calcifying at each bony surface. The bone ceases to lengthen
when the cartilage ceases to grow. The metaphysis then becomes the
site of epiphysis-diaphysis fusion
Some sources will refer to the ends of mature bones as epiphyses
and the shafts as diaphyses. Technically, these terms are are used for
parts of growing bone. The adult form should be referred to as the distal
or proximal end, or by the name of the completed structure, such as the
head of the humerus.
The medullary cavity lies within the shaft of the long bone. It is an
open or less calcified area, sheltering the body’s blood cell factory.
diaphysis
The layers of the long bone shaft can be seen in a cross section. The
periosteum is the outermost layer. It is the fibrous membrane that
encompasses the bone somewhat like plastic shrink wrap. Sharpey’s
fibers hold the periosteum tightly in place. Nutrient foramina pierce
the periosteum and the bone, providing access for nutrient vessels. The
vessels pass through both compact bone and trabecular bone to reach the
center of the medullary cavity (marrow cavity).
The periosteum, Sharpey’s fibers, and nutrient vessels decompose
after death. Therefore, they are not visible on clean, dry bone, but evi-
dence of their presence remains in the texture of the bone surface.

compact bone
metaphysis
trabecular bone

Sharpey’s fibers medullary cavity

epiphysis
periosteum
Figure 2.1
nutrient artery
Juvenile Long Bone Structure
(Radius)

nutrient foramen

Figure 2.2
Layers of a Long Bone Shaft

MICROSTRUCTURE (MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OR HISTOLOGY)

Bone is built by cells called osteoblasts, maintained by osteocytes, broken down
by osteoclasts, and built again. In adult bone, all stages of remodeling can be
viewed in a single thin section of compact bone. It is estimated that 5 percent
of compact (dense) bone and 25 percent of trabecular (spongy) bone is renewed
each year (Martin et al., 1998).
Dense bone is lamellar in structure. Circumferential lamellae
encase the entire bone, and concentric lamellae are wound tightly into
 The Biology of Bone and Joints Chapter 2 15

structures called osteons or lacunae

Haversian systems . Each
lamella of bone is a single layer
of bone matrix in which all of
the collagen fibers run in one
direction. Fibers of adjacent
lamellae run in opposite direc-
tions, and the result is much like
well-made plywood. Together, Haversian
many layers of lamellae can canal
resist torsion.
Osteons are the basic struc-
tural component of dense bone. concentric
They are cylindrically shaped lamella
structures oriented parallel to
the long axis of the bone. Each
osteon is made of a vascular
Haversian canal surrounded canaliculi cement line
by calcified concentric lamellae.
Figure 2.3
Osteons are dynamic structures,
Microstructure of Compact Bone, One Osteon (300 Micron Diameter).
filled with living cells and are
Robert V. Blystone, Ph.D, Trinity University.
continuously changing or remod-
eling. They are nourished by
self-contained blood vessels that travel within the central Haversian canals
of the osteons and interconnect by Volkmann’s canals. Osteocytes, the long-
term bone maintenance cells, occupy tiny spaces called lacunae, which are
interconnected by minute canals called canaliculi.
Spongy bone is much less complex in organization than dense bone.
Spongy bone is made up of trabeculae, each of which has a few layers of
lamellae, but lacks osteons and self-contained blood vessels. It is nourished by
diffusion from capillaries in the surrounding endosteum.

OSTEOGENESIS (BONE FORMATION AND GROWTH)

All bone develops by replacing a pre-existing connective tissue—either a con-
nective tissue membrane or a cartilaginous model. Bone growth that takes place
within a membrane is called intramembranous ossification. It begins early
in fetal development and continues throughout life as bone heals and remodels
beneath the periosteal membrane. The flat bones of the cranial vault and bones
of the face and mandible are all formed by intramembranous ossification. Some,
such as the clavicle and scapula are partially formed by intramembranous
ossification.
Bone growth that takes place within a cartilaginous model is called
endochondral ossification. It takes place after a template for the bone is
formed in cartilage and vascularized. It begins later in fetal development than
intramembranous ossification and, unlike intramembranous ossification, con-
tinues only until the bone reaches its mature size. Endochondral ossification
does not take place in adults. Even though the ends of long bones are the pri-
mary examples of endochondral ossification, much of the compact bone in the
diaphysis of the long bone forms within the periosteal membrane. Short bones,
vertebral bodies, and other bones with significant amounts of trabecular bone
also grow by endochondral ossification.
More complete information about bone formation can be found in text-
books entirely devoted to the subject. Developmental Juvenile Osteology by
Scheuer and Black (2000) is an excellent source. It provides well-illustrated
descriptions for the origin and growth of each individual bone, from first embry-
ological appearance to final adult form.
16 Chapter 2 The Biology of Bone and Joints

BONE ARCHITECTURE AND STRENGTH

In bone, just as in cathedral construction, stress is the key to form. The shape
of each bone is a result of the stresses most commonly placed on it. Bones are
subjected to compression as weight bears down on them and tension as mus-
cles pull on them. Healthy bone is half as strong as steel in resisting compres-
sion and is fully as strong as steel in resisting tension. Because of the inequality
in resistance, bone tends to bend under unequal loading. Bending compresses
one side and stretches the other. Compression and tension are greatest at the
outer parts of the bones and least at the inner parts. Therefore, strong, compact
bone tissue is necessary at the periphery of bones and spongy bone is sufficient
in the internal regions.
The internal regions of bones appear weak because of the porous, spongy
nature. In fact, the trabeculae of spongy bone align along stress lines and pro-
vide lightweight struts that buttress and further strengthen the bone. At the
same time, they provide a well-protected space for essential bone marrow.

WOLFF’S LAW (FORM FOLLOWS FUNCTION)

Form Follows Function
A nineteenth-century German anatomist, Julius Wolff (1836–1902), observed
“Every change in the form and
the function of a bone or in its that the form of bone changes when its use changes. Wolff’s Law is based on
function alone, is followed by the fact that bone grows and thrives under tension whereas it fails and reab-
certain definite changes in its sorbs under long-term compression. Bone is normally under tension because of
internal architecture and sec- the balance of muscle groups—flexors and extensors, adductors and abductors.
ondary alterations in its exter-
However, tension can be altered by changes in activity—both type and amount.
nal conformation” (PDR
Medical Dictionary, 1995). It can also be altered by damage to muscles or the nerves that innervate them.
The result is bone remodeling or bone loss causing change in form.

CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF BONES

The skeletal system can be described and classified by several different systems,
depending on the aspect of the skeleton that is the focus of attention. Bones are
categorized by location, by size and shape, by origin, and by structure.

BY LOCATION
The axial skeleton is the foundation or base to which the appendicular skel-
eton is attached. With the exception of the ribs, the bones of the axial skeleton
are singular (not paired). The axial skeleton is composed of the skull, hyoid,
backbone, sternum, and ribs.
The appendicular skeleton is attached to the axial skeleton. All of the
appendicular bones are paired (i.e., a right and a left version). The appendicu-
lar skeleton is composed of the pectoral girdle, arms, hands, pelvic girdle, legs,
and feet.

BY SIZE AND SHAPE

Most bones are classified as either long bones or flat bones, but some are clas-
sified as short or irregular. Long and flat bones are easier to recognize and agree
on. Short and irregular classifications can be inconsistent.
Long bones are much longer than wide. Bones of the arms, legs, fingers,
and toes are long bones. (Bones of the fingers and toes may seem short, but
they are longer than they are wide. Therefore, they are long bones.) Flat
bones are, as you might expect, flat. Bones of the skull, pelvis, and shoulder
blade are flat bones.
 The Biology of Bone and Joints Chapter 2 17

Short bones are small rounded bones. The carpal bones of the wrist and
the tarsal bones of the ankle are short bones. Sesamoid bones are also consid-
ered to be short bones.
Irregular bones include the bones of the spine and the hyoid. Many other
bones may seem irregular, but few are called irregular.

BY ORIGIN
Bones form by intramembranous or endochondral ossification. See “Osteogenesis”
on page 15.

BY STRUCTURE
Normal adult bone is either dense or spongy. See “Types and Functions of
Bone” on page 12 and “Microstructure (Microscopic Anatomy or Histology)” on
page 14.

Figure 2.4
Description of a Single Bone
How many ways can you describe this bone? Think about name, condition, location,
shape, origin, and structure.

Answer: This is a parietal bone

with two sawed edges. It is one of
the paired bones of the skull. It is a
flat bone, and it is part of the axial
skeleton. It is intramembranous in
origin. The outer and inner tables
of the parietal are compact bone.
The internal (sandwiched) layer is
spongy bone.

DIRECTIONAL AND SECTIONAL TERMS FOR THE HUMAN BODY

Correct terminology is essential. The terms shown in Table 2.3 must be under-
stood and employed to find your way around the human body and communicate
with others who are trying to do the same. Begin by talking with your labora-
tory partners. Communicate using the terms and names rather than simply
pointing at structures. Directional terms are consistent for most of the body.
The only areas requiring unique terms are the hands, feet, and mouth. The
terms for the mouth will be covered in Chapter 11. Note that the hands have a
palmar (or volar) surface, and the feet have a plantar (or volar) surface.
18 Chapter 2 The Biology of Bone and Joints

Table 2.3 Directional Terms for the Human Body

TERM DEFINITION OPPOSITE

ANTERIOR toward the front of the body posterior
AXILLARY in the armpit area
CAUDAL in the area of the tail (the coccyx in human) cranial
CRANIAL in the area of the head or toward the head caudal
DISTAL away from the body (used with limbs) proximal
DORSAL toward the back of the body, the back of the hand, ventral, palmar,
or the top of the foot plantar, or volar
EXTERNAL outside the body internal
FRONTAL toward the front dorsal, occipital
INFERIOR below superior
INTERNAL inside the body external
LATERAL toward the side medial
MEDIAL toward the midline lateral
POSTERIOR toward the back anterior
PALMAR toward the palm of the hand dorsal
PLANTAR toward the sole of the foot dorsal
PROFUNDUS deep inside the body superficial
PROXIMAL toward the body (used with limbs) distal
RADIAL toward the radius; the lateral side of the arm ulnar
SUPERFICIAL toward the surface of the body profundus
SUPERIOR above inferior
ULNAR toward the ulna; the medial side of the arm radial
VENTRAL toward the abdomen dorsal
VOLAR palm of the hand, sole of the foot dorsal

JOINTS
Knowledge of joints is extremely important to forensic anthropologists or anyone
trying to learn about the life of a person from the condition of their bones. Joints
provide information about how the individual used his or her body. This goes
beyond simple age, sex, and stature. Evidence of age shows up throughout the
skeleton, but information about the life of the individual appears in specific
areas—usually in the joints of the back, knees, shoulders, and elbows. The likeli-
hood of trauma in specific areas is associated with types of activities. For instance,
the dominant side of the body can be recognized in an active person by comparing
the joints of the arms. Certain types of athletes may be recognized by the trauma
to the joints of the knees or elbows. Manual laborers may be distinguished from
office workers by changes in the joints of the shoulder, back, and wrist.
A joint is defined as an articulation or a place of union between two or
more bones. It is normally more or less moveable. The word, arthrosis, is a
less-used synonym for joint. It is worth remembering because it appears in
many compound words referring to joints, for example, pseudarthrosis (false
joint), or diarthrosis (synovial joint).
As with the rest of the body, it is important to recognize what is normal
before trying to distinguish the unusual. Begin by analyzing each
 The Biology of Bone and Joints Chapter 2 19

superior

lateral: medial:
toward the side toward the center

proximal:
toward the body

distal:
away from the body

inferior
Figure 2.5a
Directional Terms, Frontal View
20 Chapter 2 The Biology of Bone and Joints

superior

anterior:
toward the front posterior:
toward the back

proximal:
toward the body

distal:
away from the body

inferior
Figure 2.5b
Directional Terms, Lateral View
 The Biology of Bone and Joints Chapter 2 21

vertical plane:
any plane set at
90° to the floor

frontal plane:
a midline plane
from side to side
( This ia called a
coronal plane
in the skull. )

transverse plane:
any plane parallel
to the floor (in a
biped)

sagittal plane:
a midline plane
that divides the
body into two
equal halves,
left and right

Figure 2.5c
Planes or Sections of the Body

joint according to the requirements for both movement and stability at that
particular area of the body. Consider the normal direction of movement and the
perils of slipping into the wrong direction.

STRUCTURE, FUNCTION, AND MOVEMENT OF JOINTS

Joints are classified by structure, function, and direction of movement. The
structural classification depends on the type of connective tissue holding the
joint together and the presence or absence of an articular capsule and a fluid-
filled (synovial) cavity. Fibrous joints (synarthroses) have no articular
22 Chapter 2 The Biology of Bone and Joints

capsule and no synovial cavity. They are held tightly together by fibrous con-
nective tissue and hence, have no significant movement. Cartilaginous
joints (amphiarthroses) also have no articular capsule or synovial cavity.
They are held together by fibrocartilage or hyaline cartilage and have very
restricted movement. The majority of joints in the body are synovial joints
(diarthroses). They have a layered articular capsule with a synovial cavity
and a wide range of movement.

FIBROUS JOINTS
Fibrous joints are virtually immovable. They allow for growth and some shock
absorption, but in adulthood, some fibrous joints fuse without functional
consequence.
Examples of fibrous joints, based on structure, are as follows:

1. Sutures—The union of two bones formed in membrane. The fibrous con-

nective material is continuous with the periosteal membrane and is called
a sutural ligament. These joints are tightly bound and the fibrous tissue
is minimal (example: the cranium).
2. Syndesmoses—(Desmosis means “ligament” in Greek.) The opposing sur-
faces are united by fibrous connective tissue creating a strong, ligamen-
tous union. The amount of movement depends on the length of the
ligaments (examples: parts of the wrist and ankle, the tibia and fibula).
3. Gomphoses—A peg-in-socket articulation. Teeth are the only example of
this type of articulation. The connection is formed by the fine fibers of the
periodontal ligament. (See Chapter 11 for more about the periodontal
ligament.)

CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS
Cartilaginous joints show very minimal movement. They allow for growth and
shock absorption. Most cartilaginous joints occur at the growth plates (metaph-
yses) in juveniles. The cartilage holds the diaphysis and epiphysis together and
allows for the proliferation of bone cells. A few cartilaginous joints remain into
adulthood in areas of significant stress.
Examples of cartilaginous joints, based on structure, as as follows:

1. Synchondroses—Hyaline cartilage unites two adult bones or two centers

of ossification in a juvenile bone (examples: ribs to sternum and epiphyseal
plates).
2. Symphyses—Fibrocartilage unites the bones resulting in strength with
a small amount of flexibility. Symphyses are useful for shock absorption
(examples: intervertebral disks and pubic symphysis).

SYNOVIAL JOINTS
Synovial joints are the most common joints in the body. They are freely movable
and are classified according to type of movement.
Synovial joints are much more structurally complex than other types
of joints. The adjacent surfaces of the bones are covered with articular
cartilage (hyaline cartilage), and a joint cavity separates the bones. The
joint cavity is a narrow space filled with lubricating synovial fluid . An
articular capsule encloses the entire joint. It is built of two layers—an outer
fibrous layer and an inner synovial membrane of loose connective tissue.
(See Figure 2.6 .) Some joint cavities also contain an articular disc or
meniscus—a pad of fibrocartilage dividing the joint cavity into compart-
ments and stabilizing the joint. (Articular discs are found in the jaw, knee,
sternoclavicular, and radioulnar joints.)
 The Biology of Bone and Joints Chapter 2 23

Examples of synovial joints, based on movement, are as follows:

Synovial joints are distinguished by types of movement, and they are
affected and modified by amount of use, specific activities, and trauma during
the life of the individual.

1. Uniaxial joints allow angular movement (flexion and extension) or rota-

tion around a long axis.
• hinge—the elbow, ankle, and phalanges
• pivot—the proximal radioulnar joint (the head of the radius pivots on
the ulna) and the dens of the axis

articular cartilage

periosteum

fibrous layer

synovial fluid articular capsule

in joint cavity

synovial membrane

cortical bone

trabecular bone

Figure 2.6
Structure of a Synovial Joint
(metacarpophalangeal joint)

2. Biaxial joints allow limited rotation around a point. They allow abduc-
tion and adduction as well as flexion and extension, but not smooth, com-
plete circular rotation.
• saddle shaped—the first carpometacarpal joint (the thumb)
• condyloid (egg shaped)—the occipital, distal radius, and proximal
ends of proximal phalanges
3. Multiaxial joints allow complete rotation around a point.
• ball and socket (universal joint)—the shoulder and hip
4. Nonaxial joints allow limited slipping in all directions.
• plane or gliding (flat surfaces)—the intertarsal joints, intercarpal
joints, claviculoscapular joints, and intervertebral joints.

COMMON OSTEOLOGICAL TERMS

Table 2.4 Terms for General Communication about Bone

FUNCTION NAME DEFINITION

articular surface any joint surface normally covered by articular
ARTICULATION cartilage
WITH OTHER
BONES articular facet a small, smooth area; a small joint surface normally
covered by articular cartilage
attachment area any area of tendon or ligament attachment (enthesis)
ATTACHMENTS
attachment site a circumscribed area of attachment
PROTECTION fossa any depression
PASSAGE aperture any hole
24 Chapter 2 The Biology of Bone and Joints

Table 2.5 Terms to Describe Form and Function of Bony Structures

FORM FUNCTION NAME DEFINITION EXAMPLE

PROJECTION articulation with capitulum a small, ball-shaped surface capitulum of humerus (for articulation
other bones with the head of the radius)
condyle a rounded, hinge-like projection mandibular condyle
head a rounded, smooth, articular eminence femoral head
on long bone
process any kind of projection, including superior articular process of vertebrae
articular
trochlea a pulley-like structure trochlea of the distal humerus
attachment or ala wing-like structure ala of sacrum
support
apophysis a process formed from a separate temporal apophysis (mastoid)
center of ossification
conoid cone-shaped process conoid tubercle of clavicle
coronoid shaped like a crow’s beak coronoid process of ulna
crest sharp border or ridge interosseous crest
epicondyle above a condyle medial epiphysis
line narrow ridge, less prominent than temporal line
a crest
promontory a projecting part sacral promontory
ridge an elongated, rough, narrow elevation supraorbital ridge
spine a long, sharp prominence scapular spine
styloid resembling a stylus; a long, thin, styloid process of the radius
pointed projection
tubercle small tuberosity rib tubercle
tuberosity rounded eminence—larger than a deltoid tuberosity
tubercle
trochanter large prominence for rotator m. greater trochanter of the femur
attachment
DEPRESSION articulation with cavity hollow space or sinus glenoid cavity
OR HOLE another bone
fossa an indentation in a structure mandibular fossa
notch an indentation at the edge of a ulnar notch
structure
pit a small hole or pocket costal pit on vertebral body
passage for canal a narrow passage or channel auditory canal of the temporal bone
vessels, nerves and
fissure a narrow slit-like opening superior orbital fissure
tendons; also
enclosures foramen a hole occipital foramen
fovea a pit or cup-like depression fovea capitus in the head of the femur
groove a narrow depression extending for intertubercular groove of the humerus
some distance
incisure a notch or indentation at the edge of incisure mastoidea of the
a structure temporal bone
meatus a canal-like passageway external auditory meatus
sinus hollow space or cavity frontal sinus
sulcus a groove preauricular sulcus
CHAPTER 3

The Skull and Hyoid

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Introduction
Frontal Bone
Parietal Bones
Occipital Bone
Temporal Bones
Zygomatic Bone (Malar)
Sphenoid
Maxillae
Palatine Bones
Vomer
Ethmoid
Inferior Nasal Conchae
Nasal Bones
Lacrimal Bones
Mandible
Hyoid
Age Changes in the Skull
Sex Differences in the Skull

25
26 Chapter 3 The Skull and Hyoid

INTRODUCTION
The skull is made up of twenty-two separate bones, not including the six ear
ossicles and miscellaneous sutural bones. Eight of the skull bones are paired
and six are unpaired. The skull as a whole is subdivided into regions. The
cranium is the skull without the mandible; the neurocranium is the cranium
without the face (the cranial vault); the viscerocranium is the bones of the
face including the mandible. The neurocranium can be further divided into a
calvaria (skull cap or calotte) and a cranial base (floor of the cranial vault).
The skull can be further divided into functional units such as, orbital
bones, nasal bones, ear bones, basilar structures, and so on. As you examine
each bone of the skull, think about its contribution to the overall architecture
of the skull. Mentally place each bone in its proper location and consider its
function. In order to better visualize relationships between individual skull
bones, study disarticulated skulls or casts of natural bone. To gain familiarity
with details of bone structure, study bone fragments out of context.
In spite of the number of bones contributing to the skull, mobile synovial
joints are present only at the occipital condyles and the mandibular condyles.
Most of the bones of the skull are connected by relatively immobile fibrous joints
(sutures). Some of these joints become wholly immobile as sutures fuse with
advancing age.

LEFT/RIGHT SIDING
All of the bones of the skull can be oriented according to anatomical position.
The paired bones of the skull can be distinguished by side, and all of the bones,
including the unpaired bones, can be oriented according to anterior/posterior,
superior/inferior, and medial/lateral surfaces. Even the smallest bones such as
nasal and lacrimal bones have sufficient distinguishing characteristics to sepa-
rate left from right. The orientation of each skull bone is discussed separately,
where necessary, in the following sections.

INDIVIDUALIZATION
Definition Note The skull is so complex that there is tremendous opportunity for discovery of
Key characters identify identifiable individual characters, such as unusual suture patterns, extra
the bone. sutures, extra bones, unique sinus shapes, and extra foramina. Specific exam-
Individual characters ples are found with the discussions of each cranial bone.
help to identify the person.
Learn to recognize the differ- ORIGIN AND GROWTH
ence by comparing as many
individuals as possible. Skull formation begins very early in fetal development (seven to eight weeks).
Each skull bone grows from its own center(s) of ossification. The process begins
in the base of the skull during the second fetal month and proceeds anteriorly.
In general, the facial bones are the last to ossify. Details are included in the
sections that discuss specific bones.
Sutural details are developmentally determined, not genetic. If ante-
mortem radiographs are available, sutural detail may provide positive
identification.
In the following pages, the skull is presented from six standard perspec-
tives (Figures 3.1 to 3.6). Refer to these illustrations as you study the individual
bones separately. Also compare the skull in the illustrations with as many sam-
ple skulls as possible. Look for patterns of similarity between skulls and details
of difference.
 The Skull and Hyoid Chapter 3 27

parietal

frontal

temporal

sphenoid

nasal

zygoma
inferior nasal concha

maxilla

mandible

Figure 3.1
Skull, Frontal View, Major Bones and Sutures

squamosal
suture

frontal

parietal

sphenoid

nasal

temporal

zygoma

maxilla

occipital

mandible

Figure 3.2
Skull, Lateral View, Major Bones and Sutures
28 Chapter 3 The Skull and Hyoid

nasal bones

frontal

coronal
suture

parietal

sagittal
suture

lambdoidal
suture

occipital
Figure 3.3
Cranium, Coronal View, Major Bones and Sutures
maxillary suture
maxilla

palatine suture
zygoma

palatine
zygomatic
arch
sphenoid

vomer

occipital: basilar suture

basilar portion

temporal

lamdoidal
suture
occipital:
squamous
protion

Figure 3.4
Cranium, Basilar View, Major Bones and Sutures
 The Skull and Hyoid Chapter 3 29

ethmoid: crista galli

frontal: in cribriform plate
frontal crest

sphenoid:
sella turcica and
pituitary fossa sphenoid:
lesser wing

sphenoid: foramen
foramen lacerum
ovale
temporal:
petrous portion
sphenoid:
foramen
rotundum

occipital:
jugular foramen basilar portion

occipital:
squamous portion

Figure 3.5
Cranial Base, Cerebral View

sagittal suture

parietal bone

lambdoidal
suture

occipital bone
temporal
bone

temporal:
mastoid temporal:
process styloid process

occipital:
superior
nuchal line
Figure 3.6
Cranium, Posterior View, Major Bones and Sutures
30 Chapter 3 The Skull and Hyoid

FRONTAL BONE
DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION
The adult frontal bone is usually unpaired, forming the broad curvature of the
forehead and the anterior wall of the neurocranium (brain case or cranial vault).
It shapes the brow, the roof of the orbits, and the insertion for the bridge of the
nose. Sinuses exist within the central portion of the supraorbital region.
The frontal articulates with the parietals, the greater wings of the sphe-
noid, the zygomas, the frontal processes of the maxillae, the nasals, lacrimals,
and the cribriform plate of the ethmoid.

INDIVIDUALIZATION
Occasionally, the halves of the frontal bone fail to fuse, resulting in a retained
midline suture and paired frontal bones in the adult. The midline frontal suture
is called a metopic suture.
The frontal sinuses are located within the anterior portion of the frontal
bone (the lower part of the forehead). Configuration of the frontal sinuses is
developmentally determined and therefore highly individual, even between fam-
ily members (Cameriere et al., 2008). Anteroposterior (A-P) skull radiographs
provide good visualization of the frontal sinuses and an excellent method for
positive identification. Unfortunately, an effective numerical method has not been
devised; therefore frontal sinus patterns cannot be searched like fingerprints.
Only superimposition pattern matching is effective (Besana & Tracy 2010).

Figure 3.7
Frontal Sinus Radiograph

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

The frontal bone ossifies from two centers—right and left. At birth, the frontal
bone is in two halves, separated by the metopic suture. The two halves of the
frontal and the two parietal bones come together around the anterior fontanelle,
the large “soft spot” at the top of the baby’s head. The anterior fontanelle usually
closes at one to two years of age. The two halves of the frontal usually fuse at 2 to
4 years of age.
 The Skull and Hyoid Chapter 3 31

Figure 3.8
frontal
Frontal Bone, External eminence (boss)
View, Structures and
parietal margin
Margins

temporal
line
sphenoid margin

zygomatic
process of
frontal
supraorbital
supraorbital margin
granular pit ridge
supraorbital
notch or
nasal
foramen
bone
margin
parietal margin

meningeal grooves
(shallower than on
parietal)
Figure 3.9
Frontal Bone, Cerebral
View, Structures and
Margins

spenoid frontal crest

margin

zygomatic
margin
supraorbital
margin frontal
superior orbital sinuses
surface supraorbital
ridge
superior orbital
surface
supraorbital
margin

zygomatic
margin

sphenoid
margin

Figure 3.10
Frontal Bone, Inferior View,
Structures and Margins superior surface of
Note that the frontal sinuses are complex ethmoid ethmoid sinuses
and asymmetrical. notch (on ethmoid margin)
32 Chapter 3 The Skull and Hyoid

PARIETAL BONES
DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION
The parietal bones are paired bones forming the superolateral walls of the
neurocranium. They are fairly rectangular in outline and are the least compli-
cated of the cranial bones. The major distinguishing characteristics are the
parietal foramina on either side of the sagittal suture, the temporal lines
curving anteroposteriorly, and the strong vascular (meningeal) grooves on the
inner surface. The meningeal grooves tend to spread outward from the ante-
rior inferior margin.
Each parietal articulates with the other parietal medially (sagittal suture),
the frontal anteriorly (coronal suture), and the occipital posteriorly (lambdoid
suture). These three sutures are serrated and interdigitated. The lambdoid
suture (occipital margin) is the most deeply serrated. The parietal articulates
with the temporal at the lateral (temporal) margin, but the suture is different
from the other three. The margin is sharp when compared to the others and it
is plainly beveled externally. The squamous portion of the temporal bone over-
lays the parietal. The narrow articulation with the sphenoid varies in form and
is mentioned in the section on individualization.

LEFT/RIGHT SIDING
The left parietal can be distinguished from the right by first locating the sharp,
beveled, lateral margin for the temporal bone articulation. Then place the thin-
ner end of the temporal margin anterior and the thicker end posterior. The
near-90 degree angle (where the parietal meets the frontal) should be anterior
and the more obtuse angle (where the parietal meets the occipital) should be
posterior.

INDIVIDUALIZATION
Usually, the anterolateral angle of the parietal reaches out and articulates with
the greater wing of the sphenoid, but occasionally the lateral area is reconfig-
ured so that the frontal meets the temporal and the parietal is separated from
the sphenoid. Another anomaly is the formation of a separate bone at the junc-
tion of the parietal, frontal, sphenoid, and temporal (the pterion region of the
skull). It is called a pterion ossicle. Both anomalies aid identification from
cranial radiographs.

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

At the time of birth, the parietal is quadrangular and recognized by the parietal
eminence, a prominent thickening at the center of the thin, convex bone. In
childhood, the parietal eminence slowly disappears as the bone takes on the
relatively uniform thickness of the adult form. The parietal does not fuse with
any other bones during development. Most fusion of cranial sutures results from
the aging process rather than growth and development. Even in advanced age,
the parietal does not normally fuse with the temporal bone.
 The Skull and Hyoid Chapter 3 33

parietal margin
note Anatomic Note
right All the bones surrounding the
angle brain are formed of spongy
bone (diploë) sandwiched
parietal foramen between an inner and outer
table of dense, lamellar bone.

frontal margin

parietal eminence

temporal lines

occipital margin

note
projection
temporal margin
(note bevel at this edge)

Figure 3.11
Left Parietal, External View, Structures and Margins

parietal margin

parietal foramen

frontal margin

occipital
margin
meningeal
(vascular)
grooves

temporal margin
Figure 3.12
Left Parietal, Cerebral View, Structures and Margins
34 Chapter 3 The Skull and Hyoid

OCCIPITAL BONE
DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION
The occipital bone is an unpaired bone forming the posterior-most wall and part
of the base of the neurocranium. It is fairly ovoid in outline and is more concave
and thicker than the other walls of the neurocranium. The adult bone is easily
recognized by the foramen magnum, the opening through which the spinal
cord reaches the brain.
The occipital consists of four parts: a squamous portion, two lateral por-
tions, and a basilar portion (the basioccipital). The inner surface of the squa-
mous portion is recognized by a cruciform buttress with a thick center, the
internal occipital protuberance. The outer surface is ridged horizontally
with a thick center, the external occipital protuberance.
The occipital articulates with the parietals superolaterally, the petrous
portions of the temporals inferolaterally, and the sphenoid anteriorly (at the
base of the brain). It essentially tucks under the brain and completes the bony
encasement by attaching to posterior, lateral, and anterior cranial bones. The
occipital also articulates with the atlas of the vertebral column at the moveable
(synovial) joints of the occipital condyles.

LEFT/RIGHT SIDING
The occipital bone can be oriented by placing the foramen magnum inferior with
Forensic Note the basilar portion anterior and the squamous portion extending posteriorly
The unfused basilar portion of and superiorly.
the occipital and the petrous
portion of the temporal often
persist in a grave when the
INDIVIDUALIZATION
rest of the immature skeleton The squamous part of occipital is sometimes divided horizontally, isolating a
has decomposed. It is impor-
larger-than-usual sutural bone, called an Inca bone. It is either triangular or
tant to be able to recognize
the immature form. quadrangular, as illustrated in Chapter 14, Figure 14.7, and is more common
among Native Americans than any other group.

basilar suture ORIGIN AND GROWTH

(sphenoid articulation)
At the time of birth, the occipital is composed of
four separate components—a squamous portion,
two lateral portions (pars lateralis), and a basi-
lar portion (the basioccipital or pars basilaris). The
squamous portion is the large, flat, concave part
that stretches up to meet the temporals and pari-
etals. The lateral portions form the sides of the
foramen magnum and bear the occipital condyles.
The basilar portion, or basioccipital, forms the
anterior-most margin of the foramen magnum.
The lateral portions fuse with the squamous por-
foramen magnum,
anterior margin tion at one to three years. The basioccipital fuses
to the larger part of the occipital at five to seven
Figure 3.13 years. It does not fuse with the sphenoid until ages
Basioccipital, External View, Juvenile (3 years old) eleven to sixteen in females and thirteen to eigh-
with Adult Comparison teen in males.
 The Skull and Hyoid Chapter 3 35

The juvenile basioccipital is illustrated in Figure 3.15 because it tends to

survive burial conditions and it is easy to recognize in the remains of an
immature skeleton.
Sex Note
The external occipital protu-
berance is usually more pro-
parietal margin nounced in male skulls. The
superior and inferior nuchal
external
occipital lines are also clearer. Both of
superior nuchal line
protuberance these characteristics are con-
sistent with larger neck and
back musculature.
inferior nuchal line

temporal margin

foramen magnum

occipital
condyle hypoglossal canal

basioccipital
Figure 3.14
Occipital External View, Structures and Margins

internal occipital
parietal margin protuberance

posterior
cranial fossa

temporal
margin foramen
magnum

sphenoid margin,
basilar suture
Figure 3.15
Occipital, Cerebral View, Structures and Margins
36 Chapter 3 The Skull and Hyoid

TEMPORAL BONES
DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION
The temporal bones are paired bones forming the lateral-most walls and part
of the base of the neurocranium. The temporal bone is more complicated than
the frontal, parietal, or occipital bone(s) because it houses the auditory
ossicles (ear bones) and the auditory canal. Each temporal bone articulates
with the occipital, parietal, zygoma, and sphenoid. It also articulates with the
mandible at the temporomandibular joint.
Each temporal bone is composed of several major parts—the squamous
portion, the mastoid process, the petrous portion, the styloid process, and the
zygomatic process. These parts can all be described in relation to the external
auditory meatus, the outer opening of the ear canal.

■ The squamous portion is the thin wall that extends upward and out-
ward from the ear. It articulates with the parietal, the greater wing of the
sphenoid, and the squamous part of the occipital.
■ The mastoid process is the large conical projection directly posterior to
the ear. It is between the external auditory meatus and the occipital.
■ The styloid process is the thin process that extends downward from
the inferior margin of the external auditory meatus. It points slightly
anteriorly and medially. The styloid process is fragile and unprotected in
skeletal remains, so it frequently breaks off.
■ The petrous portion extends anteriorly and medially between the lateral
portions of the occipital and the sphenoid. It houses the auditory canal.
(See Figures 3.4 and 3.5.)
■ The zygomatic process of the temporal extends anteriorly from the
external auditory meatus. It articulates with the temporal process of the
zygoma and forms the zygomatic arch. The temporomandibular joint lies
inferior to the base of the zygomatic process, immediately anterior to the
external auditory meatus.

LEFT/RIGHT SIDING
Left and right temporal bones can be separated and recognized by pointing the
petrous portion medially and the zygomatic process anteriorly and by remem-
bering that the mastoid process is posterior to the external auditory meatus.

INDIVIDUALIZATION
The temporal is usually separated from the frontal bone by the juncture of the
greater wing of the sphenoid and the parietal. Occasionally, the sutural pattern
is altered and the temporal shares a suture with the frontal. This configuration
may be useful in the identification process if radiographs are available.
The mastoid process tends to be larger in males than females. The mastoid
provides the attachment site for one of the major muscles of the neck (the
sternocleidomastoid). The sexual difference in mastoid process size is consistent
with the enlarged neck musculature of a mature male. It can also be an indica-
tion of the overall robustness of the person.
 The Skull and Hyoid Chapter 3 37

parietal margin
(sharp edge)

suprameatal
crest

parietal notch
squamous
portion

zygomatic
process
occipital
margin

temporomandibular Sex Note

mastoid
fossa notch A bony ridge, the
suprameatal crest, forms
styloid process mastoid process at the root of the zygomatic
process. Usually, the crest
external
auditory ends at the external auditory
meatus meatus in females but extends
beyond the external auditory
Figure 3.16
meatus in males.
Left Temporal, External View, Structures and Margins

parietal margin
(beveled surface)

squamous
portion
parietal
notch

zygomatic
process

petrous
portion

styloid internal
sigmoid process auditory
sulcus meatus

Figure 3.17
Left Temporal, Cerebral View, Structures and Margins

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

The temporal is formed from three parts—the petrous portion, the squamosal por-
tion, and the tympanic ring (the fetal bone that provides the structural framework
for the external auditory meatus). By the time of birth, the tympanic ring has fused
with the squamous portion and two major parts are present—the petromastoid and
the squamotympanic. During the first year, the two parts fuse, and by age five, the
architecture of the ear is complete. The mastoid process continues to enlarge
through childhood, and the male mastoid is not fully developed until adulthood.
38 Chapter 3 The Skull and Hyoid

ZYGOMATIC BONES (ZYGOMAS OR MALARS)

Anatomic Note
DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION
The temporal process of The zygomatic bones are paired facial bones. They complete the lateral margin
the zygoma meets the and wall of the orbit and support the curvature of the cheek. Each zygomatic
zygomatic process of the bone is characterized by three processes—the maxillary process, frontal
temporal to form the process, and temporal process. The processes are named for the connecting
zygomatic arch. In other
words, the zygomatic arch is
bone, just as roads leaving a city are often named for the city they head toward.
formed from parts of two For example, the frontal process of the zygoma extends toward the frontal bone
different bones. and connects with the zygomatic process of the frontal.
The zygoma articulates with the maxilla, the greater wing of the sphenoid,
and the zygomatic processes of both the temporal bone and the frontal bone.

LEFT/RIGHT SIDING
The zygomatic bone can be sided by recognizing the smoothly curved orbital
margin and placing it anteromedially. On the correct side, the frontal process
(with orbital margin) points superiorly and the temporal process (without
orbital margin) points posteriorly.

INDIVIDUALIZATION
The zygomaxillary suture pattern is loosely characteristic of the racial group.
It may also provide an individual characteristic if antemortem radiographs are
available. Occasionally a zygoma is divided into two or three separate bones.
This is called bipartite or tripartite zygoma or an os japonicum and is more
common in Asian populations. There may also be multiple zygomaticofacial
foramina.

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

The zygomatic bone develops from a single center of ossification. At the time of
birth, the bone is a thin, Y-shaped bone with a notched inferior border and
tapered processes. By two to three years of age, the adult proportions are
recognizable and the ends of the processes develop a serrated sutural form.

frontal process
orbital margin
frontal
process
orbital surface

maxillary temporal temporal

process process process

maxillary
zygomaticofacial process
foramen
Figure 3.18 Figure 3.19
Left Zygoma, External View, Structures and Left Zygoma, Internal View, Structures
Margins and Margins
Note that each process extends toward the bone that
it is named for.
 The Skull and Hyoid Chapter 3 39

SPHENOID
DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION
The sphenoid is an unpaired, butterfly-shaped bone. It lies between the brain and
Anatomic Note
the bones of the face and forms the anterior wall of the neurocranium and the
Visualize the sphenoid by
posterior wall of the orbits. In this central position, the sphenoid articulates with
mentally breaking off the
most of the bones of the skull—the occipital, temporal (both petrous and squa- face—the whole front of the
mous portions), parietals, frontal, zygomatics, ethmoid, palatines, and vomer. sphenoid is exposed.

lesser
wing sella
turcica
frontal margin

greater wing
optic canal

superior orbital fissure

foramen rotundum
temporal
margin
foramen ovale

foramen spinosum

Figure 3.20
Sphenoid, Superior View, Structures and Margins

parietal
margin

greater wing

lesser wing
superior orbital fissure

temporal
margin
body

fragment of vomer

pterygoid
process
lateral pterygoid plate

medial pterygoid plate

Figure 3.21
Sphenoid, Posterior View, Structures and Margins
40 Chapter 3 The Skull and Hyoid

The sphenoid is composed of several major parts—the body, lesser wings,

greater wings, medial pterygoid plates, and lateral pterygoid plates. (The wings
are also called “ala.”)

■ The body is a central core-like structure that articulates with the basilar
part of the occipital posteriorly and the ethmoid anteriorly.
■ The lesser wings extend out horizontally from the superior surface of
the body.
■ The greater wings extend out laterally and superiorly from the body.
They can be seen on the outer and inner lateral walls of the skull, between
the squamous temporal and the frontal.
■ The pterygoid plates (both lateral and medial) extend inferiorly from
the lateral surfaces of body.

LEFT/RIGHT SIDING
The sphenoid can be oriented by placing the greater wings superior and the
pterygoid process inferior. The body of the sphenoid should be posterior and the
face of the sphenooccipital synchondrosis should be visible.

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

The sphenoid ossifies from a large number of centers. At the time of birth, the
centers have fused into three parts—the body fuses with the lesser wings, and
the two separate greater wings with attached pterygoid plates. During the first
year, the greater wings fuse with the body.

MAXILLAE
DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION
The maxillae are paired facial bones. They make up a large part of the middle/
lower face and contribute to the lateral surfaces of the nose, the nasal cavity,
the roof of the oral cavity, the orbital floors, and the inferior orbital margins.
Two major processes extend from the body of each maxilla—the frontal
process articulates with the frontal bone and the zygomatic process articu-
lates with the zygoma. All of the upper teeth are supported by the alveolar
ridges of the maxillae. (Also called alveolar processes.) Much of the lateral por-
tion of each maxilla encloses the large nasal sinus.
The maxillae articulate with the zygomatic bones, frontal, nasals, lacri-
mals, nasal conchae, ethmoid, and palatine bones.

LEFT/RIGHT SIDING
The left maxilla can be distinguished from the right by orienting the nasal cav-
ity medial, the alveolar process anterolateral, and the palate inferior. The fron-
tal process should be superior.

INDIVIDUALIZATION
The maxillae are essential to the overall appearance of the face. Both racial
identification and individual identification may be based on maxillary shape.
The maxillae determine the shape of the dental arch, the width of the nasal
aperture, the projection of the nose, and the prominence of the mouth. See
Chapter 14 for information on racial differences in the skull.
 The Skull and Hyoid Chapter 3 41

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

At the time of birth, the maxilla is very small in relation to the overall size of
the skull, but all of the major parts are present. The most prominent part is the
alveolar ridge, filled by dental crypts for the development of the deciduous
teeth and the first permanent molar. The crowns of the deciduous teeth are
present and the first adult molar (M1) has begun to calcify. The maxillary bone
is so fragile that usually only the tooth buds are recovered from the facial area
of an infant burial.

frontal margin

frontal process lacrimal groove

ethinoid margin
nasal margin
palatine margin
orbital surface

infraorbital foramen
margin of
nasal aperture

nasal spine zygomatic process

and margin

alveolar process
Figure 3.22
Left Maxilla, Lateral View, Structures and Margins

frontal process

ethinoid margin

nasal sinus

nasal spine

median palatal
palatine suture
margin
palatine
process

alveolar process
Figure 3.23
Left Maxilla, Medial View, Structures and Margins
42 Chapter 3 The Skull and Hyoid

PALATINE BONES
DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION
The palatine bones are paired facial bones. They are small, thin L-shaped bones
located immediately posterior to the maxilla and anterior to the pterygoid process
of the sphenoid. The palatine is easy to overlook, but it contributes to many inter-
nal facial structures, including the oral cavity, the nasal passage and the eye orbit.
The horizontal plate of the palatine bone articulates with the palatine
process of the maxillae, forming the posterior part of the hard palate (the roof
of the mouth). The perpendicular plate is posterior and slightly lateral to the
inferior nasal concha and forms part of the lateral wall of the nose. The perpen-
dicular plate ends in two processes. The lateral orbital process forms a small
part of the floor of the orbit and the inferior orbital fissure. The medial
sphenoidal process articulates with the medial pterygoid plate of the sphe-
noid and the vomer. Another short process, the pyramidal process extends
posteriolaterally from the angle of the two palatine plates and sits between the
inferior tips of the two pterygoid plates.

LEFT/RIGHT SIDING
The left palatine can be distinguished from the right by orienting the longer
perpendicular plate superolateral and the short horizontal plate inferomedial.
In the correct orientation, the pyramidal process extends posteriolaterally.

INDIVIDUALIZATION
The palatine bones contribute to the shape of the transverse palatine suture
which is considered to be useful in racial identification. See Chapter 14,
Figures 14.4, 14.5, and 14.6. The most common anomaly is lack of fusion of the
two horizontal plates, resulting in a cleft palate.

Figure 3.24 palatine process incisive foramen

Maxilla, Palatal View of maxilla
(with Associated Bones)

palatine bone

pterygoid plates basioccipital vomer inferior nasal concha

of sphenoid
 The Skull and Hyoid Chapter 3 43

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

Each palatine grows from two membranous centers of ossification. The palatine
bone is recognizable in isolation at the time of birth.

VOMER
DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION
The vomer is a singular (unpaired) facial bone located in the midline of the
nasal cavity. It is thin and plow-shaped. (The word vomer means “plowshare” in
Latin.) It forms the posterior part of the nasal septum together with the
perpendicular plate of the ethmoid. (See Figure 3.25.)
The vomer attaches firmly to the body of the sphenoid between the ptery-
goid plates. (See Figure 3.24.) Other, more delicate, articulations are with
the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid, the palatine bones, and the maxilla.
(See Figure 3.27.)

LEFT/RIGHT SIDING
The vomer can be oriented by placing the flat, thicker end superior and poste-
rior, and the thin pointed end anterior and inferior.

INDIVIDUALIZATION
Variations in the vomer can contribute to a deviated septum. A perforated sep-
tum may be the result of incomplete ossification, trauma or chronic inflamma-
tion in the vomer.

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

The vomer develops primarily in membrane from two centers of ossification, but
also has a cartilaginous component to its growth. It is ossified by the time of birth.
frontal bone Figure 3.25
Central Face,
Anterior View

superior orbital fissure

nasal bone

optic canal
lacrimal groove

inferior orbital fissure

maxilla: infraorbital
foramen
ethmoid:
perpendicular
plate maxilla

ethmoid: middle inferior nasal

nasal concha concha
44 Chapter 3 The Skull and Hyoid

frontal

frontal sinus

nasal bone
maxilla
ethmoid: perpendicular plate
lacrimal
sella tursica
nasal bone

ethmoid
lacrimal
Figure 3.26 sphenoid
Medial Orbital Wall, Lateral View maxilla: frontal process sinus

Note the cribriform plate and crista galli are

best seen from a superior (cerebral) view inferior nasal concha
such as in Figure 3.5.
vomer

palatine
maxilla: bone
alveolar process

Figure 3.27
Nasal Septum (Ethmoid and Vomer), Sagittal View

Caution Note ETHMOID

Never pick up a cranium by
the orbits. DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION
All of the bones of the medial The ethmoid is a singular (unpaired) facial bone located between the orbits of
orbital wall are thin and frag-the eyes and within the ethmoid notch of the frontal bone. When removed intact,
ile. They are easily broken by
it is has the (loose) appearance of a rectangular box with dangling and curling
careless handling.
pieces of paper attached inside. The top is full of tiny holes and the bottom is
not there. In reality, the ethmoid is composed of a horizontal cribriform plate, a
midline perpendicular plate, and two lateral labyrinths.
The cribriform plate is pierced with foramina through which pass the
vessels and nerves associated with the sense of smell.
The superior portion of the perpen-
dicular plate forms the crista galli
cribriform which emerges from the anterior portion of
plate the cribriform plate into the neurocra-
crista galli (visible in cerebral view of cranial base) nium. The inferior portion of the perpen-
dicular plate articulates with the vomer to
form the bony part of the nasal septum.
medial orbital wall The labyrinths are composed of the
labyrinths (ethmoidal cells) medial orbital plates, the superior
nasal conchae, and the middle nasal
concha. The labyrinths also contain the
middle basal concha
ethmoidal cells.
The ethmoid articulates anteriorly
perpendicular plate (part of the nasal with the lacrimals, superiorly with the
septum, articulates with vomer)
frontal, and inferiorly with the maxilla
Figure 3.28 and palatine. The perpendicular plate
Ethmoid, Frontal View articulates medially with the vomer.
 The Skull and Hyoid Chapter 3 45

LEFT/RIGHT SIDING
The ethmoid can be oriented by locating the flat, smooth medial orbital plates
and orienting them laterally. Then orient the perpendicular plate so that the
crista galli are superior and anterior. (The crista galli is named for a cock’s comb
and, like the comb, it juts upward from above the “beak.”)

INDIVIDUALIZATION
The cribriform plate of the ethmoid has been shown to change with age (Kalmey
et al., 1998). The foramina decrease in size and may contribute to the lessening
of olfactory function in older persons.
Anomalies in the position of the perpendicular plate may contribute to a
deviated septum. The septum may also become perforated as a result of chronic
infection and various forms of trauma including cocaine abuse.

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

The ethmoid forms in membrane from several centers of ossification. At the
time of birth, only the labyrinths are ossified. The cribriform and perpendicular
plates are cartilaginous.

INFERIOR NASAL CONCHAE

DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION
The inferior nasal conchae are paired facial bones inferior to the ethmoid laby-
rinth and attached to the lateral walls of the nasal cavity. They can be viewed
from both the anterior or posterior openings to the nasal cavity.
The inferior nasal conchae are larger but similar in appearance to the
superior and middle nasal conchae which are part of the labyrinth of the eth-
moid bone. The bone is thin, slightly curled, and wrinkled-looking. (The conchae
are covered with mucous membrane in life.)
Anteriorly, the inferior nasal concha articulates with the maxilla and a
short inferior process of the lacrimal. Laterally, it attaches to the maxilla, and
posteriorly, it attaches to the perpendicular plate of the palatine. It articulates
slightly with part of the ethmoidal labyrinth also.

LEFT/RIGHT SIDING
The left inferior nasal concha can be distinguished from the right by first noting
that the bone curls lengthwise and the concave surface is lateral. Also, note that
the sheet of bone on one side of the curvature is longer than the other and has
a thickened inferior border. The longer sheet of bone is medial. A short, hook-
like process is on the anterior end and a longer, tapered point is posterior.

INDIVIDUALIZATION
Anomalies occur, but little is known that can be used for individualization or
personal identification.

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

Unlike most of the face, the inferior nasal conchae develop endochondrally. At
the time of birth, the nasal conchae are recognizable but extremely fragile. They
often fuse to the maxilla in midlife, which explains why they are often seen
within the nasal cavity of well-preserved crania.
46 Chapter 3 The Skull and Hyoid

NASAL BONES
DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION
The nasal bones are small, thin, paired facial bones. They are located between
the eye orbits where they form the bridge of the nose and the superior margin
of the nasal aperture. Each bone is perforated near the mid-center by a nutrient
foramen. The medial and lateral margins of the individual nasal bone are some-
what parallel. The superior margin is thicker and jagged where it joins the
frontonasal suture. The inferior margin is sharp where it forms part of the
border of the nasal aperture. The inferolateral angle is longer than the infero-
medial angle and a notch usually exists between the angles.
The nasal bones articulate superiorly with the frontal bone and laterally
with the frontal processes of the maxillae.

LEFT/RIGHT SIDING
The left nasal bone can be distinguished from the right by orienting the short,
thick edge superior and the short, thin edge inferior. The longer long edge is the
lateral edge, and the smoother surface is anterior.

INDIVIDUALIZATION
The nasal bones contribute to the appearance of the face, and particularly, the
shape of the nose. Irregularities due to trauma (such as a broken nose) can
sometimes be seen in photographs as well as radiographs.

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

Each nasal bone grows from a single membranous ossification center and is
present and recognizable by the time of birth. The newborn nasal bone is more
triangular-shaped than the adult form. Like the other small bones of the face,
it is unlikely that it would be found in skeletonized remains of infants because
of its size and fragility.

frontal
margin

midline
maxillary
nasal foramen margin midline

maxillary
margin
nasal aperture
margin
Figure 3.29 Figure 3.30
Left Nasal Bone, Lateral Left Nasal Bone, Medial
(External) View (Internal) View
 The Skull and Hyoid Chapter 3 47

LACRIMAL BONES
DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION
The lacrimal bones are small, very thin, paired facial bones. The shape is
somewhat rectangular and characterized by the lacrimal groove (nasolacri-
mal canal) which occupies most of the anterior margin of the bone and extends
over the margin into the posterior margin of the frontal process of the maxilla.
(See Figure 3.25.)
The lacrimal bone is located in the anterior medial orbital wall and articu-
lates anteriorly and inferiorly with the maxilla, superiorly with the frontal, and
posteriorly with the ethmoid. (See Figure 3.26.) A small part of the medial sur-
face articulates with the inferior nasal conchae. (See Figure 3.27.)

LEFT/RIGHT SIDING
The left lacrimal can be distinguished from the right by orienting the edge with
the lacrimal groove anterior and lateral. The groove is narrow at the superior
edge and widens as it progresses inferiorly.

INDIVIDUALIZATION
The lacrimal bones vary in shape and are susceptible to several anomalies. They
may even be absent, but the adjacent bones fill in the space and function.
According to Post (1969), restricted lacrimal canal openings and longer canals
are associated with dacrocystitis (inflammation of the nasolacrimal canal).

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

Each lacrimal grows from a single membranous ossification center. At the time
of birth, the lacrimals are recognizable but extremely fragile.
48 Chapter 3 The Skull and Hyoid

frontal

parietal

sphenoid

temporal

zygoma nasal

maxilla
lacrimal

ethmoid

mandible

Figure 3.31
Disarticulated Skull
This is also known as a Beauchene Exploded Skull after the French anatomist who first constructed the type of presentation. The
individual bones have been disarticulated and mounted so each bone is in correct position relative to the others. (Wires are omitted
from this illustration.) Note that the lacrimal bones appear medial to the nasal bones in this view. They are actually posterior—deeper
into the orbit. See Figure 3.26.
 The Skull and Hyoid Chapter 3 49

MANDIBLE
DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION
The mandible is a singular U-shaped bone, forming the lower part of the face,
the chin, and the angle of the jaw. The mandible is much more massive than the
maxilla. It provides attachment for the muscles of mastication, the tongue, and
the floor of the mouth. All of the lower teeth are supported by the mandibular
alveolar ridge. The mandible is more likely to endure than is the maxilla.
The mandible articulates only with the temporal bone. The moveable
mandibular
articulation (synovial joint) is between the mandibular condyles and condyle
mandibular
notch

coronoid process

ascending
alveolar process ramus

mental
protuberance
(chin)

mandibular
condyle mental foramen body

Figure 3.32
Left Mandible,
mandibular coronoid process Lateral View
notch

ascending
ramus
lingula of
mandibular alveolar process
foramen

mylohyoid
groove

gonial angle
inferior border

body mandibular symphysis

Figure 3.33
Left Mandible, Medial View
50 Chapter 3 The Skull and Hyoid

the  mandibular fossae of the temporal bones. This joint is called the
temporomandibular joint or TMJ.

INDIVIDUALIZATION
Because the mandible is the major bone of the lower face, it is useful in indi-
vidual facial identification. Take note of the shape and projection of the chin as
well as the overall outline and angle of the jaw (gonial angle).

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

The mandible grows from two centers of ossification—one for each half. At the
time of birth, each half is well defined and the dental crypts (rounded compart-
ments) are formed for all the deciduous teeth as well as the first permanent
molar (M1). The crowns of the deciduous teeth are present and M1 has begun
to calcify.
The mandibular halves fuse at the midline mandibular symphysis dur-
ing the first year of life. Fusion is usually complete by six to eight months of age.

Forensic Note THE HYOID

Strangulation may or may not
cause fracture of the hyoid, de- DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION
pending on the area of con-
striction. In skeletal cases, the
The hyoid is a small U-shaped bone in the upper part of the neck, tucked
hyoid is so fragile that it is nec- between the mandible and the larynx. It is the only bone in the body that does
essary to clearly demonstrate a not articulate with another bone
“greenstick fracture” before The hyoid is composed of a central body, two greater horns, and two lesser
considering strangulation. horns. The body is slightly cup-shaped, with a curvature that fits the tip of a
digit. The greater horns are spatulate at the medial end and taper into small
tubercles at the lateral end. The lesser horns are small conical projections point-
ing superiorly and attaching at the intersection of the body and greater horns.
The hyoid serves as an important attachment site for several muscles and
ligaments of the head and neck. Delicate stylohyoid ligaments attach the lesser
horns of the hyoid to the styloid processes of the temporal bone. Other ligaments
attach the hyoid to the larynx (voice box) and raise and lower the larynx during
swallowing. Muscles of the floor of the mouth also attach to the hyoid, providing
a movable base for the tongue.

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

The hyoid grows from three centers of ossification. The center for the body
appears in the first few months after birth and the centers for the greater horns
appear in the medial ends after 6 months. Ossification is completed by puberty
in the body and greater horns of the hyoid, but the lesser horns may remain
cartilaginous throughout life (Scheuer & Black, 2000).
The horns frequently fuse to the body of the hyoid, but sometimes on only
one side. The timing of fusion is highly irregular and seems to occur more fre-
quently in men than women (O’Halloran & Lundy, 1987).
 The Skull and Hyoid Chapter 3 51

lesser horn
greater horn

body

Figure 3.34
Hyoid, Body Fused with Greater and Lesser
Horns, 3/4 View

greater horn greater horn

body

Figure 3.35
Hyoid, Unfused Body and Greater Horns, Juvenile,
Posterior View

AGE CHANGES IN THE SKULL

During the aging process, the bones of the skull, particularly the brain case,
tend to fuse with one another. Fusion begins at the posterior extreme of the
sagittal suture and progresses anteriorly. The coronal suture usually fuses next
and the lambdoidal suture last. The squamous suture seldom fuses. Many
attempts have been made to quantify the rate of cranial suture closure for use
in age estimation. Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994: 32–38) synthesize and describe
the methods, but most anthropologists agree that suture closure provides a
rough estimate, at best (Hershkovitz et al., 1997).
Even when sutures do not fuse, they do change, and cranial sutures still
can be examined as part of the total age assessment. With age, the bone along
the edges of sutures tends to round and bulge. Todd and Lyon (1924) called this
condition “lapsed union” and classified lapsed union as if the suture was closed.
Another characteristic of an aging cranium is an increasing number of
granular pits, also called pacchionian depressions. They occur on the inner
surface of the skull, mainly along the midline. During life, the pits contain arach-
noid granulations, which tend to calcify with advanced age. (See Figure 3.8).
52 Chapter 3 The Skull and Hyoid

Sex Note SEX DIFFERENCES IN THE SKULL

The terms sex and gender are
commonly confused. Sex is When learning to distinguish male and female skulls, begin with one skull of
biologically defined; gender is each sex. Compare them for each of the characteristics listed in this section and
culturally defined. The two Table 3.1. Then test yourself with as large a sample as possible. Remember that
may be inconsistent due to a these are nonmetric traits and the expression of each trait is continuous, not
number of factors, including
discrete. There is substantial overlap between male and female forms.
ambiguous genitalia, psycho-
logical orientation, or surgery.
The “simple” task of separat- 1. First note the differences in overall size, shape, and rugosity.
ing males from females is not 2. Then compare the foreheads. Run your fingertips over the frontal bones.
always so simple.
• How large is the supraorbital ridge?
• How sharp is the orbital rim?
• Are there bumps on the frontal? One, two, or maybe three?
3. Now, turn the skull and compare the facial profiles.
• What is the shape and contour of the forehead?
• Does the brow ridge protrude?
4. Next, look at the area of the skull where the ear once was.
• How large is the mastoid process?
• Where does the zygomatic arch end in relation to the ear opening?
5. Compare the cranial bases.
• Are the nuchal ridges rough or smooth? Is there a line along
the ridge?
• Is there a bony projection in the middle of the occipital?
6. Finally, compare the mandibles.
• Is the chin squared or oval?
• How sharp is the angle of the mandible? Is it flared?

double
frontal
boss

sharp
orbital
margin

supra-orbital
ridge

flared mandible

squared chin oval chin

Figure 3.36a Figure 3.36b
Comparison of Male and Female Skulls, Frontal View
 The Skull and Hyoid Chapter 3 53

suprameatal crest mastoid

process

angle and flare

of mandible
Figure 3.37a Figure 3.37b
Comparison of Male and Female Skulls, Lateral View

strong nuchal lines external occipital

protuberance slight nuchal lines

Figure 3.38a Figure 3.38b

Comparison of Male and Female Skulls, Basilar View
54 Chapter 3 The Skull and Hyoid

Table 3.1 Nonmetric Sexual Cranial Traits and Trends

BONE ELEMENTS OF DIFFERENCE MALE FEMALE

FRONTAL supraorbital ridge prominent absent
upper orbital margin rounded sharp

frontal bossing double boss single central boss

TEMPORAL mastoid process large small
zygomatic process length extends beyond the ends by the external
external auditory meatus auditory meatus
OCCIPITAL nuchal lines strong muscle slight muscle
attachment sites attachment sites
external occipital heavier and more less prominent or absent
protuberance prominent
MANDIBLE ramus wide, sharply narrow, less angled
angled, flared
chin shape square, protuberant rounded or pointed

Table 3.2 Skull Vocabulary

TERM DEFINITION EXAMPLE

ALA a wing-like structure ala of sphenoid
ARCH any vaulted or arch-like structure zygomatic a.; dental a.
BONE 1. A unit of osseous tissue of definite shape and size, forming a The temporal is a bone. The mastoid process
part of the adult skeleton. Distinguish the bone itself from a is a structure located on the temporal bone.
structure or component of the bone.
2. A hard tissue consisting of cells in a matrix of ground substance
and collagen fibers.The fibers are impregnated with mineral
substance, chiefly calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate.
Adult bone is about 35 percent organic matter by weight.
BOSS a rounded eminence frontal boss
CALVARIA skullcap, the upper dome-like portion of the skull the calvaria is superior to the brain
CRANIUM The bones of the head without the jaw The skull is composed of a cranium and a
mandible.
FORAMEN any aperture or perforation through bone or membranous structure occipital foramen
LINE a thin mark distinguished by texture or elevation—often the outer temporal line on the parietal bones
edge of a muscle or ligament attachment
MARGIN an edge, a border orbital m., parietal margin
PROCESS any bony projection styloid p. of temporal bone
RIDGE a crest, a long narrow elevation alveolar ridge
SKULL the bones of the head as a unit, including
the jaw
SUTURE a fibrous joint between bones of the skull coronal suture
 The Skull and Hyoid Chapter 3 55

AUDITORY OSSICLES: MALLEUS, INCUS, AND STAPES

DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, AND ARTICULATION
The auditory ossicles (also called middle ear bones or ear ossicles) are the small-
est bones in the human body and seldom recovered from skeletonized remains.
They are located within the tympanic cavity (middle ear) of the auditory canal
of the temporal bone. During life, the three ossicles are held in place by sur-
rounding soft tissues, but after death and decay, they tend to fall out unnoticed.
Occasionally they are found when well-packed burial dirt is removed carefully
from the external auditory meatus and sifted with a fine mesh screen.
The largest of the three ossicles is the malleus, commonly characterized
as a hammer. The malleus is comprised of a long tapered process (the handle
or manubrium) with a prominent ball-shaped head set at a slight angle from
the manubrium. A small spur-like process juts out at the junction between the
manubrium and the neck-like area of the head. In life, the full extent of the
manubrium is attached to the tympanic membrane. The head articulates with
a depression in the body of the incus. The greatest length of the malleus is
approximately 7–8 mm.
The incus is V-shaped and characterized as an anvil. It lies between the
malleus and the stapes. One side (crura) of the V is a shorter and thicker. The
other side is longer, more slender, and slightly hooked at the tip. This longer
process articulates at the tip with the third and smallest ossicle, the stapes. The
greatest length of the incus is approximately 5–6 mm.
The stapes looks like a tiny stirrup. A tiny process at
the top of the stirrup articulates with the incus and the flat
base of the stirrup attaches to the membrane of the oval
window (fenestra ovalis), leading to the vestibule of the
inner ear. The greatest length of the stapes is approxi-
mately 3–4 mm.
incus
INDIVIDUALIZATION
Individual variation exists in auditory ossicles, but the extent
of variation is infrequently studied except for clinical pur-
poses. Occasionally the ossicles fuse, creating the condition malleus
called otosclerosis and causing hearing loss. If greater effort
were devoted to recovering the auditory ossicles, evidence stapes
related to hearing may occasionally be discovered.

LEFT/RIGHT RECOGNITION
It is possible to separate right from left auditory ossicles, but
magnification and comparative bones may be necessary.
Figure 3.39
ORIGIN AND GROWTH Auditory Ossicles, Right Side
These tiny bones are located in the auditory canal of
The structures of the ear develop early. By the second half of the temporal bone. They are shown at approximately
prenatal life, the auditory ossicles have achieved adult mor- 300% natural size. The photo is courtesy of Bone
phology and size. Clones Inc.
 CHAPTER 4

The Shoulder Girdle and Thorax:

Clavicle, Scapula, Ribs, and Sternum
CHAPTER OUTLINE

Introduction
Clavicle: The Collar Bone
Scapula: The Shoulder Blade
Ribs
Sternum: The Breast Bone
The Aging Rib Cage

56
 The Shoulder Girdle and Thorax: Clavicle, Scapula, Ribs, and Sternum Chapter 4 57

INTRODUCTION
The shoulder girdle and the thorax, together with the thoracic vertebrae, com-
prise the upper part of the trunk. They are packaged together, but the shoulder
girdle is part of the appendicular skeleton, and the thorax is part of the axial
skeleton. The shoulder girdle consists of clavicles and scapulae, and the thorax
consists of the ribs and sternum.
The bones of the shoulder girdle almost encircle the top of the barrel-
shaped thorax and articulate with the sternum anteriorly. The shoulder girdle
does not connect with any bone posteriorly. This arrangement allows far greater
flexibility in the shoulder girdle than exists in the pelvic girdle.
The articulation between the arm and the shoulder girdle is at the glenoid
fossa of the scapula—a very slightly concave articular surface. When compared
with the deep acetabulum of the hip joint, the shoulder is obviously less stable.
The benefit is greater mobility. The shoulder joint cannot withstand the degree
of stress that the hip joint can, but it provides a far greater range of motion.
The ribs and the sternum of the thorax make up the rib cage. All of the
ribs articulate with the thoracic vertebrae posteriorly, and the upper ten ribs
connect with the sternum via costal cartilage anteriorly. The structure of the
thorax provides resilient protection for the internal organs of the chest.

vertebrae

scapula

clavicle

humerus head

ribs

sternum
Figure 4.1
Superior View of the Articulated Shoulder Girdle
Note the barrel shape of the rib cage and the placement of the shoulder girdle. It articulates
only at the sternal manubrium and is open at the vertebral column.

CLAVICLE: THE COLLAR BONE

DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION
The clavicle is commonly known as the “collar bone.” It is an S-shaped long bone,
and is the one horizontal long bone in the human body. The medial end is cir-
cular in cross section and articulates with the manubrium of the sternum. The
58 Chapter 4 The Shoulder Girdle and Thorax: Clavicle, Scapula, Ribs, and Sternum

lateral end is compressed and spatulate in shape. It articulates with the

acromion process of the scapula, forming a small oval facet. Beginning at the
medial end, the clavicle curves anteriorly before it curves posteriorly. The
roughened surface is internal and the smoother surface is external.

medial
articular surface

deltoid trapezius
attachment attachment
Figure 4.2
Superior View of the Left Clavicle (90% Natural Size)
Note the superior side of the clavicle is without pits or tubercles.

conoid
tubercle
medial articular
surface

acromial
facet trapezoid costal impression (pit)
line or ridge

subclavian
groove
Figure 4.3
Inferior View of the Left Clavicle (90% Natural Size)
Note the inferior side of the clavicle has a long groove and a prominent pit.

LEFT/RIGHT RECOGNITION
The S-shape of the clavicle causes some confusion in side determination. This
can be resolved by locating the costal pit on the inferior side of the medial end
and the conoid tubercle on the inferior side of the flattened lateral end. The
superior surface of the clavicle is smoother than the inferior surface.

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

The clavicle is the first bone to begin ossifying in the fetus and the last bone to
finish ossifying in the young adult. It begins formation through intramembra-
nous ossification at the lateral end. It then develops two centers of endochondral
ossification. The two centers fuse into one shaft by the time of birth.
A secondary center of ossification forms the medial clavicular epiphysis.
There is no lateral epiphysis and most of the growth in length takes place at the
sternal (medial) end. The medial clavicular epiphysis is usually the last to fuse
in the human body. Fusion usually takes place in the mid-twenties. The widest
 The Shoulder Girdle and Thorax: Clavicle, Scapula, Ribs, and Sternum Chapter 4 59

reported age range is 15 to 32, but extremes outside of the twenties are unusual.
Figure 4.4 shows a medial view of the epiphyseal surface of a clavicle before,
during, and after fusion. The epiphysis appears as an irregular “flake” in the
center of the undulating metaphyseal surface of the diaphysis. (This is an exam-
ple of an atavistic epiphysis.) The epiphysis slowly expands to cover the entire
surface. The last evidence of the epiphysis is a line of fusion around the circum-
ference of the smooth articular surface. In older adults, the articular surface
becomes porous and sometimes develops pits. Do not confuse the porous, pitted
surface of the elder adult with the dense, undulating surface of the young adult.
Neither is smooth.

wavy epiphyseal “flake” smooth articular surface

surface

open early complete

metaphyseal epiphysial epiphysial
surface fusion fusion
Figure 4.4
Medial Clavicular Surface in Three Stages of Development (Natural Size)
Note the epiphysis begins as an irregular flake near the center of the medial surface.

Table 4.1 Clavicle Vocabulary

TERM DEFINITION ARTICULATIONS AND ATTACHMENTS

ACROMIAL FACET the small oval articular surface articulates with the acromial process
on the anterolateral surface of the scapula
CONOID TUBERCLE the small rounded elevation on attachment for the conoid ligament
the posterior surface of the
lateral end
COSTAL PIT OR the fossa on the inferior surface attachment for the costoclavicular
IMPRESSION of the medial end ligament
MEDIAL EPIPHYSIS the epiphysis on the sternal end articulates with the clavicular notch
(the clavicle has no lateral on the manubrium
epiphysis)

SCAPULA: THE SHOULDER BLADE

DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION
The scapulae are flat bones that cover the upper part of the back. In common
language, they are “shoulder blades.” The major part of the scapula is the
body, the large triangular part. The flat side of the body is anterior, adjacent
to the ribs. The spine of the scapula traverses the posterior surface and
terminates in the acromion process. The glenoid fossa is the large, ovoid
articular surface. The coracoid process curls out at the superior edge of
the glenoid fossa. It is close to the anterosuperior part of the upper arm and
serves as attachment for a number of muscles, ligaments, and fascial sheets
60 Chapter 4 The Shoulder Girdle and Thorax: Clavicle, Scapula, Ribs, and Sternum

necessary for the functioning of the shoulder joint. The acromion process
is recognized in a living person as the “shoulder bone.” It curves higher and
wider than the coracoid and serves as attachment for both the trapezius and
the deltoideus muscles.
Much of the scapula is described by borders and angles—the axillary
border, the inferior angle, the vertebral border, the superior angle, and
the superior border.
The scapula articulates with the humerus at the glenoid fossa and with
the clavicle at the anterior edge of the acromion process.

superior angle
clavicular
facet

suprascapular acromial
notch process

coracoid
process

glenoid
fossa

vertebral
border
body
scapular neck

oblique lines

axillary
border

inferior
angle
Figure 4.5
Left Scapula, Costal (Anterior) View (70% Natural Size)
Note the thickness of the axillary border compared with the other borders.
 The Shoulder Girdle and Thorax: Clavicle, Scapula, Ribs, and Sternum Chapter 4 61

acromion process

supraspinous
coracoid superior fossa
process border

glenoid infraspina
fossa fossa
scapular
spine

vertebral
border

axillary
border

Figure 4.6 Figure 4.7

Left Scapula, Lateral View (70% Natural Size) Left Scapula, Posterior View (70% Natural Size)
Note the anterior curvature of the processes. They appear to Note the spatulate shape of the acromion process.
rotate up and over the shoulder.

LEFT/RIGHT RECOGNITION
The scapula is easy to orient because superior and inferior are obvious. It is only
necessary to be sure that the spine is dorsal (posterior) and the glenoid fossa is
lateral for articulation with the humerus. The two scapular processes—the
smaller coracoid and larger acromion—rotate upward and forward over the
shoulder.

INDIVIDUALIZATION: HANDEDNESS, LEFT/RIGHT DOMINANCE

The scapula can be useful for determination of left/right dominance, or “handed-
ness.” Most people use their dominant arm more frequently, and over a wider
range of motion. Use is apparent in the size and rugosity of muscle attachment
areas on the arm and development of degenerative changes in the joints. Range
of motion is demonstrated in the form of the glenoid fossa.
62 Chapter 4 The Shoulder Girdle and Thorax: Clavicle, Scapula, Ribs, and Sternum

In an adult, the area immediately posterior to the dorsal rim is more likely
to be beveled on the dominant side. The sharp rim is the result of simple osteo-
arthritic changes (osteoarthritic lipping). The beveled rim may be a result of
repeated extension and hyperextension of the arm. Both beveling and lipping
are progressive age changes; therefore, handedness is more apparent on the
scapulae of older adults and physical laborers.
T. Dale Stewart recommends a simple method for evaluating the glenoid
bevel in his textbook, Essentials of Forensic Anthropology (1979: 239–244).
Begin by making the rim of the glenoid fossa more clearly visible by drawing
the side of a long piece of chalk across the surface. (A piece of lead from a
mechanical pencil works well also.) The chalk will leave a line of color on the
protruding parts of the glenoid fossa. Next, hold the right scapula in your right
hand and the left scapula in your left hand while looking at the two glenoid
fossae. Compare the dorsal rims of the left and right glenoid fossa, and evaluate
the amount of bone posterior to the glenoid fossa. If one rim is beveled and the
other is not, the person probably used the arm on the beveled side more. The
arm showing more use is usually the dominant arm and, by inference, the domi-
nant hand. (See Chapter 13 for more on handedness.)

no bevel bevel
outside outside
of rim of rim

Figure 4.8
Scapulae of Right-Handed Adult, Rim of Glenoid Fossa Highlighted
Note a small amount of bone visible posterior to the rim of the right glenoid fossa. The rim is
sometimes beveled or more rounded on the dominant side of older adults and physical laborers.
 The Shoulder Girdle and Thorax: Clavicle, Scapula, Ribs, and Sternum Chapter 4 63

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

The scapula grows by a combination of endochondral and intramembranous
ossification. The primary center of ossification is located near the upper center
of the scapula. Endochondral growth takes place laterally to include the glenoid
fossa and medially to the vertebral border. Intramembranous growth fills in
most of the “blade” of the scapula.
The coracoid process is formed from a separate center of ossification. It
appears during the first year of life and fuses in the mid-teens (15 to 17 years).
A number of secondary centers of ossification develop around the edges of
the scapula. They are not major articular epiphyses, so they take on the appear-
ance of flakes and fill-ins. In all, secondary centers occur at the vertebral border,
the inferior angle, the acromion process, the coracoid process, and the glenoid
fossa. The scapula is complete by the early twenties.

acromial epiphysis
(separate)

coracoid
process

incomplete
acromion process

incomplete
glenoid fossa

Basic Ages of Fusion

Coracoid process 15–17 yrs.
Glenoid epiphyses 17–18 yrs.
Acromial epiphyses by 20 yrs.
Inferior angle and by 23 yrs.
medial border

incomplete
inferior angle
Figure 4.9
Juvenile Scapula (Age 12), Left Side, Lateral View
Note the coracoid process is a significant and identifiable epiphysis
whereas the acromion epiphysis is flake-like and variable in form.
64 Chapter 4 The Shoulder Girdle and Thorax: Clavicle, Scapula, Ribs, and Sternum

Table 4.2 Scapula Vocabulary

TERM DEFINITION ARTICULATIONS AND ATTACHMENTS

ACROMION PROCESS the larger, more posterior and superior of the two articulates with the lateral end of the clavicle and
scapular processes attachment for the trapezius and the deltoid
BODY OF SCAPULA the main part of the shoulder blade; a large, thin
triangular plate of bone
CORACOID PROCESS the smaller, more anterior of the two scapular attachment for the short head of the biceps
processes brachii, coracobrachialis, and pector alis minor
BORDER, AXILLARY the lateral border of the scapula attachment for the teres major
BORDER, SUPERIOR the uppermost border of the scapula
BORDER, VERTEBRAL the medial border of the scapula attachment for the levator scapulae and the
rhomboids
COSTAL SURFACE the anterior (rib) surface covered by the subscapularis
DORSAL SURFACE the posterior (back) surface covered by the supraspinatus, the infraspinatus,
and the teres minor
GLENOID FOSSA the large ovoid articular surface on the superior-lateral articulates with the head of the humerus
corner of the scapula
NECK the slight constriction separating the glenoid fossa and
coracoid process from the remainder of the scapula
SUPRA-GLENOID the small projection at the superior edge of the attachment for the long head of the biceps brachii
TUBERCLE glenoid fossa
SUPRASCAPULAR the notch on the superior border of the scapula
NOTCH

SPINE the long, thin elevation on the dorsal surface of the attachment for the trapezius (superior edge) and
scapula that ends laterally as the acromion process the deltoid (inferior edge)

RIBS
Ribs are sometimes disregarded simply because they are fragile, broken, and
hard to sort. However, ribs are important in skeletal analysis because they
house the organs essential to life. A careful examination of the ribs may provide
evidence for cause or manner of death. Evidence of gunshot wounds, knife
wounds, and perimortem fractures can be used to draw inferences about events
leading to death and the condition of underlying organs at the time of death. Of
course, the value of the evidence is lost if the ribs are not on the correct side or
in the correct order.

DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION

The adult skeleton usually has twelve pairs of ribs. They articulate with the
thoracic vertebrae on the back, circle the chest cavity, and terminate in exten-
sions of hyaline cartilage (costal cartilage) in the front.
The upper six ribs attach directly to the sternum, and the costal margins
are wider than the margins of the lower ribs. Rib #7 is variable. Ribs #8 through
#10 articulate with the sternum via a common cartilaginous connection and the
sternal ends are somewhat tapered. The last two pairs do not articulate with
the sternum and the sternal ends are flat and completely tapered.
The typical rib consists of a head with a single or double articular facet,
a slightly more slender neck, a tubercle with a single articular facet, and a
shaft or body. The shaft extends outward from the tubercle and turns forward,
forming the angle of the rib.
 The Shoulder Girdle and Thorax: Clavicle, Scapula, Ribs, and Sternum Chapter 4 65

Forensic Note
Perimortem damage to
underlying organs may be
revealed through careful
analysis of rib trauma.

True ribs (usually #1–7) attach to

the sternum by separate
cartilaginous connections.

False ribs (usually #8–10) attach

to the sternum through a common
cartilaginous connection.

Costal cartilage connects Floating ribs (#11&12) do not

the ribs to the sternum. attach to the sternum.
Figure 4.10
Thorax, Frontal View
Note how each set of ribs articulates (or not) with the sternum.

The rib head articulates with the lateral surface of the vertebral body, near
the base of the vertebral arch. A second articulation occurs between the rib
tubercle and the transverse process of the vertebra. The second articulation is
present only on the upper nine or ten ribs. The lower ribs articulate only with
the bodies of the vertebrae.

RIB SORTING: LEFT/RIGHT AND SUPERIOR/INFERIOR RECOGNITION

With practice, it is possible to sort all of the ribs correctly and determine which
may be missing or damaged. Start with the following guidelines:

1. Before beginning to sort the ribs, look at the curvature of an intact rib cage.
It is shaped like a barrel, not a pyramid. The inner surfaces of the uppermost
ribs face downward; the inner surfaces of the central ribs face medially; and
the inner surfaces of the lowest ribs, the floating ribs, face slightly upward.
You will see this change in orientation as you lay out the ribs from top to
bottom on a flat surface. Almost everyone confuses the right and left twelfth
ribs until they can visualize the top-to-bottom change in orientation.
2. Now, locate the first ribs. They are short, tightly curved, and almost flat.
They also have relatively long necks. (The neck is the extension of bone
between the two vertebral facets.) Place the first ribs on a flat surface. If
the head is angled downward and touching the surface, the dorsal (supe-
rior) surface is up.
3. Next, find the floating ribs (#11 and #12) and separate them out. They
have fan-shaped heads, no neck, and well-tapered sternal ends. (The ster-
nal end is not cup shaped.) The inner surface is superior, not inferior
as is the case with the first rib.
4. Sort the other nine pairs of ribs into groups of right ribs and left ribs. The
head is posterior, the sternal end is anterior, and the sharp edge is inferior.
66 Chapter 4 The Shoulder Girdle and Thorax: Clavicle, Scapula, Ribs, and Sternum

tubercle

inferior
rim

superior
border

internal
surface
(medial)

external
surface
(lateral)
internal external
surface surface
(inferior) (superior)
costal
groove

inferior rim
internal
external surface
surface

Figure 4.11
Left Ribs #1, #7 and #12, Inferior and Superior Views (70% Natural Size)
Note the inferior view of the first rib faces downward, but the inferior view of the last rib faces somewhat upward.
 The Shoulder Girdle and Thorax: Clavicle, Scapula, Ribs, and Sternum Chapter 4 67

articular facets for vertebral bodies

head
#2
neck #6 #9

tubercle

articular facets for transverse processes

Figure 4.12
Rib Heads #2, #6, and #9
Note the changes in the shape of the head and the length of the neck from the upper
ribs to the lower ribs.

5. With rib #1 as a starting point, sort one side from top to bottom, then the
other. The shape of the heads change gradually from long and narrow to
fan-shaped (see Figure 4.12). The length of the necks gradually shortens.
The curvature of the ribs changes as the ribs conform to the outer surface
of the barrel-shaped chest. The inner surface of the upper ribs faces toward
the table surface; the inner surface of the lower ribs faces away from
the table surface.
6. Check the arrangement of ribs from first to last. The head of rib #7 or #8
is usually the highest from the surface of the table. Each rib conforms
to the curvature of the adjacent ribs. If the curvature is not consistent
with the curvature of the adjacent ribs it is in the wrong place. Recheck
the shape of the head and the length of the neck.
7. End by comparing each rib with the rib from the opposite side for consis-
tency in overall shape and length.

rib #1

rib #12

longer neck double-faceted head wider head no neck no tubercle

Figure 4.13
Comparison of Rib Heads, from #1 to #12
Note the progression of head size, neck length, and tubercles from upper to lower ribs.
68 Chapter 4 The Shoulder Girdle and Thorax: Clavicle, Scapula, Ribs, and Sternum

INDIVIDUALIZATION: COSTO-VERTEBRAL
ARTICULATIONS AND ABNORMALITIES
costal pit
articulation Rib abnormalities are not unusual. There can be more
or less than twelve pairs. Sometimes the last pair of
ribs is extremely reduced or missing. Ribs also fuse,
rib
rib flare, bridge, or bifurcate. It is easy to distinguish con-
genital anomalies from irregularities due to trauma
by the presence or absence of callus formation. Rib
abnormalities are usually asymptomatic, so they are
useful for individual identification only if comparative
radiographs are available.
Considerable individual variation exists in costo-
transverse
process
vertebral articulations. The configuration described
articulation here is standard, but in some individuals, the whole
rib cage is shifted cerebrally (toward the head). In
others, the rib cage is shifted caudally (toward the
lower back). This results in rib facets on lower cervical
vertebrae or on upper lumbar vertebrae without the
presence of actual cervical or lumbar ribs.

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

rib rib The primary centers of ossification are all present at
birth. Three epiphyses develop at the vertebral end of
costal pit the rib and none at the sternal end. The flake-like
articulation epiphyses are located at the head and both the articu-
lar and non-articular regions of the tubercle. The
Figure 4.14 epiphyses of the tubercle fuse in the mid-teens and the
epiphysis of the head fuses at 17 to 25 years of age.
Rib Articulations, Anterior View and Lateral View
Ribs #2 through #10 usually articulate with two adjacent vertebral
bodies as well as the intervertebral disk. Look for double facets on
the rib heads, one facet for each half-pit on the superior and infe-
rior edges of the vertebral bodies.

Table 4.3 Rib Vocabulary

TERM DEFINITION AND EXAMPLES

GROOVE, COSTAL the groove on the inferior edge of the inner surface of the rib
BODY OF RIB the main part of the rib
RIB HEAD the vertebral end of the rib
RIB NECK the constricted part below the rib head on upper ribs (not obvious on lower ribs)
RIB TUBERCLE the center of ossification between the neck and the body; part of the tubercle articulates
with the vertebral transverse process
RIB, STERNAL END the end of the rib that connects to the sternal cartilage; useful for aging purposes.
Floating ribs have tapered sternal end, also called a floating end.
TRUE RIB #1–#7, attach directly to the sternum via cartilage
FALSE RIB #8–#10, join the sternum via the seventh rib cartilage
FLOATING RIB #11–#12, do not attach to the sternum
STERNAL-END OSSIFICATION osteophytic growth from the rib end into the sternal cartilage; cartilaginous calcification
increases with age and varies with sex
 The Shoulder Girdle and Thorax: Clavicle, Scapula, Ribs, and Sternum Chapter 4 69

STERNUM: THE BREAST BONE

DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION
The adult sternum is commonly called a “breastbone.” It is comprised of three
elements: the manubrium, the body of the sternum, and the xiphoid process.
The manubrium is superior. It forms the jugular notch at the base of the throat,
between the two clavicles, and is clearly visible on the living person.
The body of the sternum articulates superiorly with the manubrium at a
cartilaginous joint. The two bones are not in the same plane; therefore, the joint
is palpable at the sternal angle, a couple of inches below the jugular notch. The
angle of the joint provides for the outward curvature of the upper chest. The
body sometimes fuses with the manubrium, particularly in older individuals.
(This fusion is too variable to aid in age estimation.)
The body of the sternum articulates inferiorly with the xiphoid process.
The joint is also cartilaginous and usually ossifies, fusing the body of the ster-
num with the xiphoid process by middle age.
The xiphoid is flat dorsoventrally but highly irregular in other dimensions.
It can be narrow, wide, pointed, bifid, and/or perforated. The xiphoid process
may appear insignificant, but it serves as the attachment point for much of the
musculature of the abdomen.
The upper ten ribs attach to the sternum by cartilaginous extensions
called “costal cartilage.” The costal cartilage of the first rib attaches to the
manubrium. The cartilage of the second rib attaches at the junction of the
manubrium and the sternal body. Ribs #3 to #7 attach only to the body. Ribs #8
to #10 form a single cartilaginous connection and join with #7 at the inferior
border of the sternal body.

INDIVIDUALIZATION Forensic Note

Rib attachments vary in number, the body varies in width, and the xiphoid A perforated sternum may
process varies in shape. The body may be solid or perforated by a sternal foramen. look like a gunshot wound.
The sternum is one more location to examine for possible radiographic Beware of confusion.
identification.

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

The sternum is comprised of six primary centers of ossification. The manu-
brium and the upper three segments of the body are present at birth. The
fourth segment of the body appears in the first year and the xiphoid begins to
form after age 3. The sternal segments then fuse with each other in sequence
from bottom to top.
70 Chapter 4 The Shoulder Girdle and Thorax: Clavicle, Scapula, Ribs, and Sternum

jugular notch
clavicular notch

1st costal notch

manubrium

2nd costal notch manubrium

3rd costal notch 1st sternal

segment
body

4th costal notch 2nd sternal

segment

5th costal notch

3rd & 4th sternal
segments, fused
6th & 7th costal
notches

Figure 4.16
Juvenile Sternum (age 4),
xiphoid process
Anterior View (Natural Size)
Figure 4.15 Note the 3rd and 4th segments have
Adult Sternum, Anterior View (60% Natural Size) fused and the xiphoid is not present.
Note the three basic parts of the adult sternum—manubrium, The age of appearance of the xiphoid
body, and xiphoid process. Further fusion is highly variable. is between 3–6 years.

Anatomic Note Basic Ages of Fusion

The xiphoid can exhibit a variety of shapes—wide, nar- segments 3 and 4 4–10 years
row, rounded, pointed, bifid, perforated, and so on. It segment 2 with 3–4 11–16 years
commonly fuses with the sternal body in adults.
segment 1 with 2–3–4 15–20 years
xiphoid to body 40+ years

Table 4.4 Sternum Vocabulary

DEFINITION ARTICULATIONS AND ATTACHMENTS

BODY OF STERNUM the main part of the sternum, the corpus sterni, fused from the four central centers of ossification
CLAVICULAR NOTCH the articular facets for the clavicles, located on either side of the jugular notch of the manubrium
COSTAL NOTCH the seven pairs of notches for joining of the costal cartilage with the sternum
JUGULAR NOTCH the medial, superior notch on the manubrium
MANUBRIUM the superior-most section of the sternum
STERNAL FORAMEN an anomalous foramen in the sternal body
XIPHOID PROCESS the inferior projection or tip of the sternum
 The Shoulder Girdle and Thorax: Clavicle, Scapula, Ribs, and Sternum Chapter 4 71

THE AGING RIB CAGE

AGE CHANGES IN STERNAL RIB ENDS OF MALES
Ribs, like the rest of the skeleton, change with advancing age. The sternal end
of the rib is connected to the sternum by cartilage. As the bone–cartilage inter-
face is subjected to the normal stresses of life, the bone responds by steadily
remodeling and gradually ossifying the cartilage.

wavy surface Stage 0: Child (Less than Midteens)

stage 0 ■ A fairly flat rib end (no concavity)

■ Smoothly rounded edges

■ A slightly wavy or undulating surface
smooth edges

V-shape surface Stages 1–2: Teenager+ (Midteens to Early 20s)

■ Beginnings of a V-shaped concavity
stage 1 stage 2
■ Slightly sharper, scalloped edges

■ A less wavy surface

scalloped edge

center of edge Stages 3–4: Young Adult (Mid-20s to Early 30s)

■ Deepening V-shaped concavity

■ Less regular edges

stage 3 stage 4
■ Centers of the flat edges project more than the
superior and inferior rib edges
superior inferior
edge edge ■ Total loss of wavy surface

cup-shape surface Stages 5–6: Older Adult (Mid-30s to Mid-50s)

■ V-shaped concavity expands into a cup-shaped
stage 5 stage 6
concavity
■ Sharper edges

■ Superior and inferior edges project as far as

centers of edges

porous surface Stages 7–8: Elderly Adult (Older than Mid-50s)

stage 7 stage 8
■ A deep, porous and irregular concavity

■ Sharp, thin edges, increasingly ragged-looking

ragged ■ Superior and inferior edges project more than

edge the centers of the flat edges
■ Development of “crab-claw” appearance
Figure 4.17
Sternal Rib End Aging, Stages 0–8, with Abbreviated Descriptions
Isçan and colleagues (1985) describe rib age changes by nine stages (beginning with Stage 0). The series of ribs illustrated here is
simplified from the Isçan examples. It provides an overview of the basic changes in rib ends of males. For more detail, refer to the origi-
nal publication and practice with casts of the original material available through France Casting. See page 300 for further information.
72 Chapter 4 The Shoulder Girdle and Thorax: Clavicle, Scapula, Ribs, and Sternum

SEX DIFFERENCES IN AGING RIBS

Before applying the basic Isçan model to all ribs, note that the pattern of change
in rib ends tends to differ between the sexes. Males are more likely to ossify
along the margins of the rib cartilage, and females are more likely to ossify
outward from the rib end and through the center of the rib cartilage. The crab-
claw appearance is more characteristic of elderly males than females
(McCormick & Stewart, 1988).

marginal
central ossification
ossification

female male
pattern pattern
Figure 4.18
Sex Differences in Aging Sternal Rib Ends
Note that costal cartilage ossifies differently in male and female rib ends.
CHAPTER 5

The Vertebral Column

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Introduction
Cervical Vertebrae (Atlas, Axis, and C3–C7)
Thoracic Vertebrae (T1–T12)
Lumbar Vertebrae (L1–L5)
Sacral Vertebrae (S1–S5 or Sacrum)
Coccygeal Vertebrae (Coccyx)
Reassembling the Vertebral Column, Step-by-Step
The Aging Vertebral Body

73
74 Chapter 5 The Vertebral Column

INTRODUCTION
The vertebral column, or backbone, is composed of a sequence of irregular bones
providing support and flexibility to the trunk of the body. The vertebral column
defines the midline of the back from the base of the skull to the coccyx, a rudi-
mentary internal tail. The number of vertebrae vary, but normally there are
thirty-three, divided into five sections—seven cervical, twelve thoracic, five
lumbar, five sacral, and four coccygeal.

DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION

The vertebrae of the adult backbone are characterized by an anterior vertebral
body, a posterior vertebral arch, and numerous processes for ligament attach-
ment and bony articulation. The body and the arch encircle the vertebral
foramen. Each vertebra forms a segment of the vertebral canal, which pro-
vides protection for the spinal nerve cord.
The arch has several distinct areas (See Figure 5.2):

■ Two pedicles attach the arch to the body. They are pillar-like in form.
■ Two transverse processes stretch out laterally. They articulate with the
tubercles of the ribs in the thoracic vertebrae.
■ Four articular processes (two superior and two inferior) reach out to
articulate with adjacent vertebrae. C1 also articulates with the occipital
bone, and the alae (wings) of the sacrum articulate with the ilium.
■ Two lamina (flat surfaces) form the posterior surface of the arch. They
are the walls of the arch, connecting the transverse processes with the
spinous process.
■ One spinous process projects posteriorly and inferiorly. (You can see and
feel the tips of the spinous processes up and down the middle of the back.)

SUPERIOR/INFERIOR RECOGNITION
Begin by placing the spinous process toward you and the vertebral body away.
Then look at the articular facets to determine the anatomical position of the
vertebra. The superior facets face posteriorly and the inferior facets face ante-
riorly. In other words, the superior facets face the spinous process side and the
inferior facets face the spinal canal and vertebral body.

INDIVIDUALIZATION
Vertebral columns carry a wide variety of unusual features which are charac-
teristic of the individual, easy to visualize in antemortem radiographs, and
serve to identify persons. The most obvious is the vertebral degeneration which
advances with age and trauma. Vertebral bodies compress, osteophytes develop,
Schmorl’s nodes form.
Some developmental differences are less obvious. These include shifts in
articulations between vertebrae and ribs. The rib cage may be shifted superiorly
or inferiorly, resulting in articular facets on the seventh cervical or the first
lumbar vertebra. Borders between sections of vertebra may shift also. The fifth
lumbar vertebra may fuse with the first sacral vertebra and become integrated
into the sacrum, or the first sacral vertebra may remain separate from the
sacrum and appear to be a lumbar vertebra.
Other anomalies include spina bifida occulta, supernumary vertebrae,
fused (block) vertebral bodies, and butterfly vertebrae. See paleopathology text-
books for plenty of examples (Aulderheide, 1998; Barnes, 1994; Waldron, 2009).
 The Vertebral Column Chapter 5 75

cervical #1, the atlas

cervical #2, the axis

cervical #5 of 7

thoracic #9 of 12

lumbar #3 of 5

sacrum #1–#5, fused

coccyx, first segment

Figure 5.1
Vertebral Column, Lateral View with Examples: Superior Views of C1, C2, C5, T9, L3,
and Sacrum, Dorsal View of Coccyx
Note each example is either unique, as C1 and C2 or characteristic of a specific section of the column,
that is cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal.
76 Chapter 5 The Vertebral Column

spinous
process
transverse lamina
process
vertebral
arch

superior pedicle
articular
facet

vertebral
foramen
pedicle

vertebral
body centrum
Figure 5.2 Figure 5.3
Typical Adult Vertebra (T6), Superior View Typical Immature Vertebra (2–5 years old),
(Natural Size) Superior View (Natural Size)
Note the absence of secondary centers of ossification.

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

A typical vertebra develops from three primary centers of ossification—a
centrum and two halves of the vertebral arch. The thoracic vertebral arches
begin fusing in the second half of the first postnatal year. The arches of the
cervical vertebrae may still be open at the beginning of the second year and the
lower lumbar arches may be open as late as the fifth year.
The pedicles of the vertebral arch fuse to the centrum of the body between
2 and 5 years of age. The ends of the pedicles actually become part of the adult
vertebral body, making the overall shape of the body more oval.
The mature vertebra is distinguished from the immature form by the addi-
tion of five epiphyses, or secondary centers of ossification: the tips of the trans-
verse processes, the tip of the spinous process, and the superior and inferior
edges of the vertebral bodies (known as epiphyseal rings).
The secondary centers appear at the beginning of puberty (12 to 16 years
of age) and fuse by the end of puberty (18 to 24 years of age). See Figure 5.10,
Age Changes in Vertebral Bodies.
Development of the sacrum is more complex than other vertebrae. It grows
from approximately twenty-one primary centers of ossification. Each sacral
segment begins with the same three centers as the other vertebrae, but, in addi-
tion, there are separate centers of ossification lateral to the upper sacral bodies.
The extra centers fuse with the bodies and pedicles to form the alae (wings) of
the sacrum.

CERVICAL VERTEBRAE (ATLAS, AXIS, AND C3–C7)

Seven cervical vertebrae make up the neck. All cervical vertebrae are character-
ized by transverse foramina, one on each side of the vertebral body, in the
base of the transverse process. Occasionally, C7 has a half rib facet at the infe-
rior edge, but it can still be recognized by the transverse foramina.
 The Vertebral Column Chapter 5 77

transverse
foramen

articular
surface for dens
Figure 5.4a
Atlas, Superior View (80% Natural Size)
Note the absence of a vertebral body.

spinous
process

superior
inferior
articular
articular
facet
facet

dens
Figure 5.4b Figure 5.4c
Axis, Lateral View Axis, Superior View
(80% Natural Size) (80% Natural Size)
Note the presence of the dens. Note the slightly bifid spinous process.

slightly bifid
spinous process

spinous process superior articular

surface
superior
articular inferior
facet articular
facet transverse
foramen

lateral edge of
vertebral body
Figure 5.4d Figure 5.4e
C5, Lateral View (80% Natural Size) C5, Superior View (80% Natural Size)
Note the key characteristic of all cervical vertebrae: transverse
foramina.
 78 Chapter 5 The Vertebral Column

The occipital condyles of the cranium articulate with the first cervical
vertebra, which is appropriately called the atlas. The atlas is a ring-like bone
with no vertebral body. It rotates on the dens of the second cervical vertebra,
the axis. (The dens is sometimes called an odontoid process because of its
tooth-like appearance.) The dens extends upward from the body of the axis, and
it is, in fact, the “misplaced” centrum of the atlas. During fetal development, the
center of ossification that appears in the position of the first centrum proceeds
to fuse with the second centrum, becoming part of the axis instead of the atlas.
The atlas and the axis, by their curious arrangement of parts, aid in providing
both stability and mobility for the head.
The subsequent five cervical vertebrae (C3–C7) are less distinctive in
appearance and do not have individual names. The spinous processes are fre-
quently bifid and the vertebral bodies are laterally elongated or squared in
shape. It is not unusual for the lateral edges of the vertebral body to lip upward.

THORACIC VERTEBRAE (T1–T12)

The thoracic vertebrae connect with the rib cage; therefore, each thoracic ver-
tebra is characterized by the presence of rib facets, also known as costal pits.
(See Figure 4.14, Rib Articulations.) T1 through T10 have rib facets on each side
of the vertebral bodies and on the anterior surface of the transverse processes.
T11 and T12 have facets only on the vertebral bodies, not on the transverse
processes.
There is variation in the way that ribs articulate with vertebrae, but the
following is a typical pattern, as viewed from the side (lateral view):

■ T1 has one complete facet, a half facet, and a facet for the rib tubercle on
the transverse process.
■ T2 through T9 have two half facets—at the superior and inferior edges of
the centrum—and a facet on the transverse process.
■ T10 has one complete facet and a facet on the transverse process.
■ T11 has one complete facet and no facet on the transverse process.
■ T12 has one complete facet, no facet on the transverse process, and a wid-
ened inferior surface of the body, matching the lumbar pattern.

long
spinous
process
rib facet
rib facet
transverse process

superior anticular superior articular facet

facet inferior anticular
facet
rib facet
rib facet
rib facet
(half)

Figure 5.5a Figure 5.5b

T9, Lateral View (80% Natural Size) T9, Superior View (80% Natural Size)
Note the key characteristic of all thoracic vertebrae: Note the angle of the transverse processes and the flat articular facets.
rib facets.
 The Vertebral Column Chapter 5 79

LUMBAR VERTEBRAE (L1–L5)

broad superior
spinous process articular
facet
inferior
articular transverse
facet process

Figure 5.6a Figure 5.6b

L3, Lateral View (80% Natural Size) L3, Superior View (80% Natural Size)
Note the key characteristic of lumbar Note the horizontal transverse processes and the curved
vertebrae: no rib facets. articular facets.

The lumbar vertebrae are the bones of the lower back. The key characteristic
of lumbar vertebrae is not what you see, but rather what you don’t see. Lumbar
vertebrae have neither transverse foramina nor rib facets. They are large ver-
tebrae with short, wide spinous processes and flattened transverse processes.
L1 is easily confused with T12, but T12 usually has a clear costal facet whereas
L1 normally has none, although there are occasional exceptions in which L1 has
a half facet at the superior margin.
The superior and inferior articular facets gradually change in both curva-
ture and angle from the cervical to the lumbar vertebrae. The facets of the upper
vertebrae are flat; those of the lumbar vertebrae are U-shaped. The lumbar
region is most likely to sustain damage from strenuous activity, but the articu-
lar facets help counter this tendency by limiting the range of movement and
Anatomic Note
providing some stability in the lower back.
L5 is sometimes incorporated
The lumbar spinous processes tend to be flat and rather squared instead
into the sacrum.
of pointed as in thoracic vertebrae.

SACRAL VERTEBRAE (S1–S5 OR SACRUM)

The sacrum is the large, wedge-shaped bone that makes up the curved pos-
terior wall of the pelvic girdle. It is formed from fusion of the five sacral
vertebrae and their lateral extensions, the alae (wings). The sacral bodies
are large and the spinous processes are greatly reduced. The sacrum connects
laterally, at the auricular surfaces with the innominates. (The word, auric-
ular, refers to the ear-like shape of the surface.) The most anterior point of
the sacrum is the promontory, located at the center of the superior border
of the first sacral body.
80 Chapter 5 The Vertebral Column

spinal superior
canal articular facet

Sex Note
The sacrum tends to be
more curved in males
and flatter in females;
however, this is difficult
to assess except in
extreme cases.
promontory
ala

Age Note
The transverse line
between S1 and S2 fuses
in the midtwenties or later.

transverse
lines
of fusion anterior
sacral
foramina

Figure 5.7
Sacrum, Superior and Anterior Views (70% Natural Size)

superior
spinal articular facet
canal promontory

auricular
surface
spinous
processes

posterior
sacral
foramina

Figure 5.8
Sacrum, Posterior and Lateral Views (70% Natural Size)
 The Vertebral Column Chapter 5 81

COCCYGEAL VERTEBRAE (COCCYX) cornu

The coccygeal vertebrae make up the “tail bone.” As a group they are transverse
process
called the coccyx. The number of segments varies from three to five (usu-
ally four). The first section, the cornua (horns), is distinctive in that it has
rudimentary transverse processes and superior articular processes without
articular surfaces. The other coccygeal segments are very small and vari-
able in shape. They can be mistaken for medial and distal toe phalanges.
It is not unusual for all of the coccygeal bones to fuse with each other
or for the coccyx to fuse with the sacrum. If not fused, these tiny bones are
frequently lost or go completely unnoticed. Figure 5.9
Coccyx, Posterior View
(Natural Size)
REASSEMBLING THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN, STEP BY STEP Note the shape of the smaller
segments. They are sometimes
The process of reassembling a vertebral column in correct order need not be confused with medial and distal
difficult. Approach it methodically and the bones will usually go together toe phalanges.
quickly and easily. Remember to sort first. Then begin at the top and work
downward using the steps described here.
The assembled column is easier to examine and photograph if it is placed
on a towel or paper that is rolled from two sides to make a long central groove.
Rubber bands work well to secure the ends of the towel and keep the apparatus
from unrolling. The vertebrae can be placed on the groove with the dorsal spines
down, the transverse processes down, or the vertebral bodies down.

SORT FIRST
1. Sort the vertebrae by section in three rows—cervical, thoracic, and
lumbar.
2. Place each vertebra on the table with the dorsal spine pointed away.
3. Turn each vertebra so that the superior surface is up and the inferior
surface is on the table.

BEGIN AT THE TOP

4. Fit the atlas and axis together.
5. Look at the inferior surface of the axis—then look for the cervical with a
superior surface that closely resembles the inferior surface of the axis.
6. When you find C3 and fit it to the axis, look at the inferior surface of C3
and search the remaining cervicals for a matching superior surface.
7. Continue matching the surfaces of adjacent vertebral bodies one by one
from top to bottom.

STOP AND VIEW THE RESULTS

Look at the completed assemblage from all sides. Compare each element of each
vertebra—vertebral bodies, spinous processes, transverse processes, articular
surfaces. There should be consistency in the flow from one vertebra to another
with no sudden changes in size or shape. All of the articular surfaces should
approximate neatly.
82 Chapter 5 The Vertebral Column

Table 5.1 Vertebral Vocabulary

TERM DEFINITION
ARCH, VERTEBRAL the neural arch—formed from two halves which fuse between the
ages of 1 and 3 years
ARTICULAR FACET any bony surface that articulates with another bony surface
(superior articular facet of the vertebra)
AURICULAR SURFACE the lateral ear-shaped surface of the sacrum that articulates with the
innominate; the surface of the sacroiliac joint
CENTRUM the body of the vertebra, especially the body without epiphyseal rings
COCCYX the tailbone, the inferior segment of the vertebral column,
composed of 3–5 separate vertebrae, often fused together and
sometime fused to the sacrum
COSTAL PIT articular surface for rib on the thoracic vertebral body and
transverse processes (rib facet)
DENS a tooth-like projection; odontoid process of atlas (dens
epistropheus)
EPIPHYSEAL RING the secondary centers of ossification that fuse to the superior and
inferior surfaces of the vertebral centrum
FORAMEN, TRANSVERSE the aperture in the transverse process of the cervical vertebrae
FORAMEN, VERTEBRAL the aperture between the vertebral arch and the vertebral body
encircling the spinal cord
PROCESS, TRANSVERSE lateral vertebral processes, some of which articulate with ribs
PROCESS, SUPERIOR vertebral processes that articulate with the inferior articular
ARTICULAR processes of the next higher vertebra
PROCESS, INFERIOR vertebral processes that articulate with the superior articular
ARTICULAR processes of the next lower vertebra
PROCESS, SPINOUS the process that projects toward the dorsal surface of the back
PROCESS, ARTICULAR any projection that serves to articulate
PROMONTORY; a raised place; the most ventral prominent median point of the
PROMONTORIUM lumbosacral symphysis; the most anterosuperior point on the sacrum
VERTEBRA a single segment of the spinal column. There are seven cervical
(PL.VERTEBRAE) vertebrae, twelve thoracic vertebra, five lumbar, five sacral (fused
to form the sacrum), and four coccygeal (often fused together and
sometimes fused to the sacrum)
VERTEBRAL CANAL the channel formed by the vertebrae and encircling the spinal cord
VERTEBRAL BODY the centrum and its epiphyseal rings; the arch and the body fuse
between the ages of 3 and 7 years

THE AGING VERTEBRAL BODY

The vertebral body changes with advancing age, just as the rest of the skeleton.
Albert and Maples (1995) showed that the advancement of epiphyseal ring
fusion can be used to age persons between 16 and 30 years of age. Further
analysis can be accomplished by assessing the development of osteoarthritic
lipping at the edges of vertebral bodies, but after age 30, vertebral age assess-
ment is less accurate.
 The Vertebral Column Chapter 5 83

AGE CHANGES IN VERTEBRAL BODIES, SUPERIOR AND LATERAL VIEWS

STAGE 1: CHILD (LESS THAN 16 YEARS)

■ The epiphyseal ring is absent.
■ Regular undulations are present on edges of
vertebral body.

undulations

STAGE 2: LATE TEENAGER (16–20 YEARS)

■ The epiphyseal ring is in the process of fusing.
■ The line of fusion is clear.
■ The epiphyseal ring chips off easily.

epiphyseal ring line of fusion

STAGE 3: YOUNG ADULT (20–29 YEARS)

■ The epiphyseal ring is completely fused.
■ The line of fusion is not visible.
■ No osteoarthritis is visible.
■ The bone is smooth and solid.

complete fusion

STAGE 4: OLDER ADULT (OVER 30 YEARS)

■ The epiphyseal ring is obliterated.
■ Osteophytic growth is progressing on the edges
of the vertebral bodies.
■ The bone (particularly the intervertebral sur-
face) is increasingly porous.

osteophytes
Figure 5.10
Vertebral Aging in Four Stages with Abbreviated Descriptions
These illustrations are adapted from the Albert and Maples (1995) examples. They provide an
overview of the basic age-related changes in vertebral bodies. For more detail, refer to the origi-
nal publication and practice with casts of the original material available through Bone Clones.
See page 300 in the section, “Sources for Casts, Instruments, and Tools” for more information.
84 Chapter 5 The Vertebral Column

AGE CHANGES IN OLDER VERTEBRAL BODIES: OSTEOPHYTIC GROWTH

Vertebral osteoarthritis has been used for age estimation by an elaborate
method of scoring osteophytes in both the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae
(Snodgrass, 2004; Stewart, 1958). There is no question about the progression of
osteophytic growth with age, but it is greatly affected by level and type of activ-
ity. I’m not going to present the full method here, but it is available in the litera-
ture. Right now, the important thing is to recognize osteophytes and notice the
difference between individual trauma-induced osteophytes in a young back and
generalized osteophytic growth in an older back.

“clean”
vertebral
edges
an osteophyte

osteoarthritic
“lipping”

Figure 5.11a Figure 5.11b

A Young-Looking Back An Elderly or a “Hard-Working” Back
The lumbar vertebrae shown here are typical of a young per- The lumbar vertebrae shown here are typical of
son who has experienced no unusual back trauma. The either an elderly person or a person with a
edges of the vertebral bodies are smooth and regular in history of heavy labor (or both). The edges of the vertebral
shape. The auricular surface of the sacrum is smooth and bodies are sharp and irregular. Bony outgrowths (osteo-
dense, but not sharply lipped. phytes) are present. The auricular surface of the sacrum is
rough and porous with sharply defined edges.
CHAPTER 6

The Arm: Humerus, Radius, and Ulna

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Introduction
Humerus—The Upper Arm
The Forearm
Radius
Ulna

85
86 Chapter 6 The Arm: Humerus, Radius, and Ulna

INTRODUCTION
Three bones are present between the shoulder and the wrist—one in the upper
arm, two in the forearm. The upper arm bone is the humerus; the forearm bones
are the radius and the ulna. Together, they form a versatile mechanical system
capable of flexion, extension, and rotation—three major types of joint
movement.

HUMERUS—THE UPPER ARM

DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION
The humerus is one of the major long bones of the skeleton. It can be quickly
recognized by the head, a half-ball-shaped structure at the proximal end. The
head articulates with the scapula at the shoulder. The entire head is an articu-
lar surface that moves on the small, ovoid articular surface of the scapula, the
glenoid fossa. The range of movement is enormous in this type of joint. (The
probability of dislocation is also significant.)
Two tubercles are present on the anterior surface of the proximal humerus.
The greater tubercle is larger and protrudes anterolaterally. The lesser
tubercle protrudes anteriorly.
The mid-shaft is fairly circular in cross section. It is differentiated from
the other long bone shafts by the lack of full-length ridges. (The radius, ulna,
tibia, and fibula display interosseous crests, and the posterior femur has a long
muscular insertion site, the linea aspera.)
The distal humerus articulates with the radius and ulna at the elbow. The
distal articular surface of the humerus is irregular, but it can be divided into
two distinct parts. The trochlea is the larger, spool-like surface that serves as
a bidirectional surface for the olecranon process of the ulna. The capitulum is
a smaller, rounded surface lateral to the trochlea on the anterior side. It serves
as a rotational surface for the head of the radius. Two distinct types of move-
ment are possible at this one joint—flexion and extension at the trochlea, rota-
tion at the capitulum.
Fossae (depressions) are present on both the anterior and posterior sur-
faces of the distal humerus. On the posterior surface, the olecranon fossa
receives the olecranon process of the ulna during extension. On the anterior
surface, the smaller coronoid fossa receives the coronoid process of the ulna
during maximum flexion.

LEFT/RIGHT RECOGNITION
Epicondyles bulge laterally and medially above the condyles of the distal
humerus. The medial epicondyle is larger than the lateral epicondyle and
serves as a good clue for distinguishing right from left. If the olecranon fossa is
posterior and distal, the medial epicondyle points toward the body.
If only the shaft is available, locate the spiral groove and move your thumb
along the groove and away from your body. The shaft twists away from the side
of origin. It doesn’t matter which end of the bone is up.

HANDEDNESS
The deltoid tuberosity (the attachment area for the deltoideus muscle) tends
to be slightly larger and sometimes more rugged on the dominant side. Compare
the two humeri for differences.
 The Arm: Humerus, Radius, and Ulna Chapter 6 87

SEXUAL DIFFERENCES
The humerus is particularly useful for physical description because the deltoid
tuberosity provides one of the more obvious indicators of the degree of upper-
body muscular development. The deltoideus, one of the major abductor muscles
of the arm, attaches at the deltoid tuberosity. As muscle size increases, the
attachment area enlarges by increasing in rugosity and bulging outward. It is
typical for attachment areas to change in contour more than diameter.
(Suggestion: Gain experience by lining up a series of adult humeri and compar-
ing the size, shape, and rugosity of the deltoid tuberosities.)
It is not uncommon for an olecranon foramen or septal aperture (a small
hole) to appear within the thin bony plate of the olecranon fossa. This is more
common in gracile individuals, and females are more likely to have an olecranon
foramen than males. Females are also more likely to be capable of hyperexten-
sion at the elbow joint.
According to Stewart (1979), sex can be estimated by the vertical diameter
of the humeral head. As with all other methods, consider the population and
only make decisions after considering multiple variables.

Table 6.1 Sex Estimation from the Vertical Diameter of the

Humeral Head

FEMALES INDETERMINANT MALES

<43 mm 43–47 mm >47 mm

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

The humerus develops from no less than eight centers of ossification—the shaft,
head, greater tubercle, lesser tubercle, capitulum, trochlea, lateral epicondyle,
and medial epicondyle. The major centers, most likely to be found with skeleton-
ized juvenile remains, are actually composite epiphyses. The proximal epiphysis
is composed of the ossification centers for the head and both tubercles. The three
centers are evident in the Y-shaped groove on the metaphyseal surface of the
proximal epiphysis. The distal epiphysis is composed of the ossification centers
for the trochlea and capitulum.

THE FOREARM
Two bones, the radius and ulna, make up the forearm. They lie parallel to each
other between the elbow and the wrist. The unique design of the elbow joint
makes pronation of the hand possible without a change in upper arm
position.
Think of each articular surface in terms of function. In the forearm, the
radius takes care of rotation, and the ulna controls flexion and extension.
The cylinder of the radial head rotates in the radial notch of the ulna and on
the capitulum of the humerus. In the same joint, the semilunar notch of the
olecranon process moves bidirectionally on the trochlea of the humerus. The
result is joint stability together with a wide range of motion.
Note that the head of the radius is proximal and the head of the ulna is
distal. Also examine the nutrient foramina of the radius and ulna. Both
foramina enter the shafts toward the elbow, just as the foramen of the humerus
enters toward the elbow.
88 Chapter 6 The Arm: Humerus, Radius, and Ulna

greater
head tubercle

intertubercle
groove
lesser
tubercle

neck

spiral groove

deltoid tuberosity
nutrient Mnemonic Note
foramen
Nutrient foramina enter
the arm bones toward the
elbow. (TEAK = Toward
Elbow, Away from Knee)

shaft

coronoid
fossa

olecranon
fossa

medial lateral
lateral epicondyle epicondyle
epicondyle

capitulum,
for radial
trochlea trochlea, articulation
for ulnar
articulation
Figure 6.1
Left Humerus, Posterior View and Anterior View (60% Natural Size)
Note that the tubercles are anterior and the olecranon fossa is posterior.
 The Arm: Humerus, Radius, and Ulna Chapter 6 89

epiphysis of head,
anterior view epiphysis of head,
superior view

Basic Ages of Fusion

distal epiphysis ♀11–15 years ♂12–17
medial epicondyle ♀13–15 years ♂12–17
proximal epiphysis ♀13–17 years ♂16–20

diaphysis

distal capitulum epiphysis,

inferior view

distal capitulum epiphysis,

anterior view
Figure 6.2
Juvenile Left Humerus with Proximal Epiphysis and Distal
Capitulum Epiphysis, Anterior View; Proximal Epiphysis, Proximal View;
Distal Capitulum Epiphysis, Distal View
Note three additional distal epiphyses are not pictured here.
90 Chapter 6 The Arm: Humerus, Radius, and Ulna

Take time to look at the the cross-sectional shape of the radius and ulna.
They are both teardrop-shaped. The ridges point toward each other, providing
attachment for the single interosseus membrane holding the two bones together.
The only bones of similar diameter are the clavicle and the fibula, but the clavicle
is round in cross section and the fibula is triangular in cross section.

olecranon process

semilunar notch
humerus
coronoid process head of radius
olecranon
fossa

lateral olecranon
epicondyle process

radius nutrient foramina

ulna

interosseus crests

Figure 6.3
Elbow Joint
Note the ulna moves in only two directions. It is the radius
that rotates.

head of ulna

Figure 6.4
Left Radius and Ulna Articulated, Anterior View
(60% Natural Size)
Note the interosseus crests point toward each other.
 The Arm: Humerus, Radius, and Ulna Chapter 6 91

RADIUS
DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION
The radius is the long bone lateral to the ulna, on the same side of the forearm
as the thumb. It is easily recognized by the round, button-like head. The head of
the radius is at the proximal end of the shaft and articulates with the capitulum
of the humerus and the radial notch of the ulna.
The flared part of the radius is distal. The lateral side of the distal end
articulates with the head of the ulna, and the distal surface articulates with the
scaphoid and lunate carpal bones. The distal surface of the radius is
double-faceted.

LEFT/RIGHT RECOGNITION
With the radius, distinguishing left from right seems to be more difficult than
it should be. The problem is usually anatomical orientation of the forearm, not
the radius itself. If the anterior surface of the radius is presented, the distal
portion is smooth (no tubercles) and the radial tuberosity is visible on the
proximal shaft. The styloid process at the distal end of the radius is lateral
and indicates the direction of the thumb and, therefore, the side of origin.

HANDEDNESS
The radial tuberosity (attachment area for the biceps muscle) may be slightly
larger on the dominant side.

SEXUAL DIFFERENCES
The head of the radius shows sexual dimorphism, just as the rest of the body.
Berrizbeitia (1989) measured the radii of the Terry Collection at the Smithsonian
Institution and found that sex could be predicted for both blacks and whites
using the sectioning criteria shown in Table 6.2. As with all other methods,
consider the population and only make decisions with multiple variables.

Table 6.2 Sex Estimation from Maximum Diameter of the Radial Head

FEMALES INDETERMINANT MALES

≤21 mm 22–23 mm ≥24 mm
92 Chapter 6 The Arm: Humerus, Radius, and Ulna

head

neck

radial
tuberosity

POSTERIOR VIEW ANTERIOR VIEW

nutrient
foramen

interosseus
crest

shaft

dorsal ulnar notch

tubercle
styloid process

Figure 6.5
Left Radius, Posterior View and Anterior View (60% Natural Size)
Note the distal end: the tubercles are posterior and the smooth surface is anterior.

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

The radius develops from three centers of ossification—the shaft, the head, and
the distal end. The superior surface of the proximal epiphysis (the head) is a
smooth disk with a slightly convex surface. (The proximal epiphysis is occasion-
ally found in archaeological work and puzzled over as a “button without holes.”)
The inferior surface of the distal epiphysis is somewhat D-shaped, with a
notch for the articulation of the ulna on part of the curve.
 The Arm: Humerus, Radius, and Ulna Chapter 6 93

epiphysis of head,
superior view

epiphysis of head,
anterior view

Basic Ages of Fusion

proximal epiphysis ♀ 11–13 years ♂ 14–17

distal epiphysis ♀ 14–17 years ♂ 16–20

diaphysis

distal epiphysis,
anterior view

styloid process
distal epiphysis,
of radius
inferior view

Figure 6.6
Left Juvenile Radius with Proximal and Distal Epiphyses, Anterior View; Proximal Epiphysis,
Proximal View; Distal Epiphysis, Distal View
Note the double facet on the distal surface of the distal epiphysis. Both the scaphoid and the lunate carpal bones
articulate here.
94 Chapter 6 The Arm: Humerus, Radius, and Ulna

ULNA
DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION
The ulna is the long bone medial to the radius. It is easily recognized by the
hook-shaped olecranon process at the proximal end. The bulb-like part of
the olecranon process is commonly referred to as the “elbow bone.” Unlike the
humerus and the radius, the small head of the ulna is distal, not proximal.
The diminutive styloid process on the head extends toward the fifth finger
on the posterior surface of the ulna and the extensor carpi ulnaris groove
is lateral and slightly anterior to the styloid process.

olecranon
semilunar notch process

coronoid process radial

notch

ANTERIOR POSTERIOR

nutrient
foramen

interosseus
crest

shaft

head extensor carpi

ulnaris groove

styloid
process
Figure 6.7
Left Ulna, Posterior View and Anterior View (60% Natural Size)
 The Arm: Humerus, Radius, and Ulna Chapter 6 95

epiphysis of head,
superior view

epiphysis of head,
anterior view

Basic Ages of Fusion

proximal epiphysis ♀ 12–14 years ♂ 13–16
distal epiphysis ♀ 15–17 years ♂ 17–20

diaphysis

distal epiphysis,
anterior view

extensor carpi
distal epiphysis, ulnaris groove
inferior view
styloid process

Figure 6.8
Juvenile Left Ulna with Proximal and Distal Epiphyses, Anterior View; Proximal Epiphysis, Proximal
View; Distal Epiphysis, Distal View
Note the positions of the extensor carpi ulnaris groove and the styloid process on the inferior view of the distal epiphysis. They are
useful for siding the distal ulna.
96 Chapter 6 The Arm: Humerus, Radius, and Ulna

Proximally, the ulna articulates with the trochanter of the humerus and
the head of the radius. Distally, the ulna articulates at the ulnar notch of the
radius. The head of the ulna appears to also articulate with the lunate, but it is
separated from the carpals by an articular disc.

LEFT/RIGHT RECOGNITION
The ulna can be sided by looking at the anterior side (with the olecranon process
proximal) and locating the radial notch on the lateral margin of the coronoid
process. The radius is lateral to the ulna so its articular surface (the radial
notch) is on the side of origin.
If only the distal end of the ulna is available, locate the styloid process and
the adjacent extensor carpi ulnaris groove. Looking at the distal surface with
the styloid process upward, the groove is on the side of origin.

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

The ulna develops from three centers of ossification—the shaft, the proximal
olecranon process, and the distal head. The proximal epiphysis includes only
the beak-like tip of the full process and its features are somewhat indistinct.
The distal epiphysis is comma shaped with a clear nub forming the styloid
process.

Table 6.3 Arm Vocabulary

BONE TERM DEFINITION

HUMERUS capitulum the articular surface for the head of the radius at the distal end of the humerus
coronoid fossa the depression on the anterior surface of the distal humerus for the coronoid process of the
ulna in flexion
deltoid tuberosity the attachment area for the deltoid on the lateral part of the anterior surface of the humeral
shaft; a roughened, somewhat bulging surface
greater tubercle the larger of the two tubercles on the anterior side of the proximal end—lateral to the lesser
tubercle
head the proximal articular surface—hemispherical in shape (a half ball)
intertubercular groove the deep groove between greater and lesser tubercles—for the tendon of the long head of the
biceps muscle
lateral epicondyle the bulbous area on the lateral side above the distal condyle; the origin of the extensor
muscles of the hand
lesser tubercle the smaller of the two tubercles on the anterior side of the proximal end—medial to the
greater tubercle
medial epicondyle the bulbous area on the medial side above the distal condyle; the origin of the flexor muscles
of the hand
neck the area immediately distal to the head of the humerus; a common fracture site (the surgical neck)
nutrient foramen the major vascular opening on the shaft of the humerus; it enters the shaft pointing toward the
distal end
olecranon foramen a hole in the olecranon fossa—infrequent appearance, more common in females; also called
septal aperture
olecranon fossa the large depression on the posterior surface of the distal humerus for the olecranon process
of the ulna in extension
radial nerve groove the diagonal groove on the posterior and lateral surface of the shaft—more a spiraling
surface than a groove
shaft the diaphysis of the humerus
trochlea the spool-shaped articular surface for the ulna on the distal end of the humerus
 The Arm: Humerus, Radius, and Ulna Chapter 6 97

BONE TERM DEFINITION

RADIUS distal articular surface the broad triangular end that articulates with both the scaphoid and lunate carpal bones
dorsal tubercles the bumps on the dorsal surface of the distal end, providing slots for tendons of the hand
head the proximal end of the radius; it articulates with the capitulum of the humerus and the radial
notch of the ulna
interosseous crest the somewhat sharp edge on the shaft directed toward the ulna for attachment of the
interosseus ligament
neck the area of the shaft immediately distal to the head of the radius
nutrient foramen the major vascular opening on the shaft of the radius; enters the shaft pointing toward the
proximal end
radial tuberosity the large bump distal to the neck of the radius, one insertion of the biceps muscle; also called
bicipital tuberosity
shaft the diaphysis of the radius
styloid process the point on the lateral edge of the distal end of the radius; the brachio-radialis muscle inserts
on the styloid
ulnar notch the facet for the ulna on the medial side of the distal end of the radius
ULNA coronoid process the smaller of the two processes at the proximal end of the ulna forming the semilunar notch
head the distal end of the ulna, articulating laterally with the ulnar notch of the radius
interosseous crest the somewhat sharp edge on the shaft directed toward the radius for attachment of the
interosseous ligament
nutrient foramen the major vascular opening on the shaft of the ulna. It enters the shaft pointing toward the
proximal end
olecranon process the larger process at the proximal end of the ulna; forming the semilunar notch and the elbow
radial notch the concavity for the radius on the lateral side of the proximal end of the ulna
semilunar notch the articular surface for the trochlea of the humerus; formed by the olecranon and coronoid
processes
shaft the diaphysis of the ulna
styloid process the small process extending from the head of the ulna and pointing toward the fifth finger
 CHAPTER 7

The Hand: Carpals, Metacarpals,

and Phalanges
CHAPTER OUTLINE

Introduction
Carpal Bones: Wrist Bones
Metacarpal Bones: The Palm of the Hand
Phalanges of the Hand: Finger Bones

98
 The Hand: Carpals, Metacarpals, and Phalanges Chapter 7 99

Anatomic Note
terminal phalanx The thumb is radial (the
lateral part of the hand);
the little finger is ulnar (the
internediate phalanx medial part of the hand).

proximal phalanx

MEDIAL LATERAL

5th metacarpal

1st metacarpal

hamate
triquetral lesser multangular

pisiform greater multangular

lunate scaphoid
Figure 7.1a
Left Hand and Wrist, Dorsal View
capitate (65% Natural Size)

terminal phalanx

internediate phalanx

proximal
phalanx

LATERAL MEDIAL

1st metacarpal 5th metacarpal

hamate
greater multangular
pisiform

triquetral
lesser multangular
lunate
scaphoid
Figure 7.1b
Left Hand and Wrist, Palmar View
capitate (65% Natural Size)
100 Chapter 7 The Hand: Carpals, Metacarpals, and Phalanges

INTRODUCTION
Approximately half of the bones in the adult human body are found in the hands
and feet—a total of 106 bones! Each hand contains twenty-seven bones. There
are eight carpal bones (wrist bones), five metacarpal bones (the bones of the
palm), and fourteen phalanges (finger bones).
Orientation is the first challenge in working with the hand. Standard ana-
tomical position is used just as with any other part of the body. In anatomical
position, the thumb points away from the body. The back of the hand is posterior
and the surface is called dorsal; the palm of the hand is anterior and the surface
is called palmar. The thumb is lateral (radial); the little finger is medial (ulnar).
Each carpal and metacarpal can be recognized, and the right can be dis-
tinguished from the left. The phalanges are more difficult. Proximal, intermedi-
ate, and terminal phalanges can be distinguished, but right and left cannot be
separated with certainty. Therefore, it is very important to bag the hands
separately during collection or disinterment. Any finger that may contribute to
identification because of trauma or anomaly should be separated and labeled
by digit number (i.e., “fourth finger, left hand”).

CARPAL BONES: WRIST BONES

DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION
The carpal bones are eight pebble-like bones between the bones of the forearm and
the bones of the palm. They serve to increase the overall flexibility of the hand.
These little bones are frequently lost or ignored, but they are not unimportant.

Left Greater Multangular (Trapezium) (Natural Size)

The greater multangular has a prominent saddle-shaped facet for articulation a. b.
with the base of the first metacarpal. A ridge extends down from one side
of the major facet and points toward the side of origin.
Figure 7.2a Dorsomedial View, Lesser Multangular and
Scaphoid Facets
Figure 7.2b Palmar View, First Metacarpal Facet L

Left Lesser Multangular (Trapezoid) (Natural Size)

The lesser multangular fits within the V-shaped indentation at the base of
the second metacarpal. It is shaped like a tiny boot. One side of the
“boot” has a Y-shaped ridge. From this side, the toe of the boot points
toward the side of origin.
Figure 7.3a Medial View, Second Metacarpal and
Capitate Facets L
Figure 7.3b Lateral View, Gr. Multangular and Second
Metacarpal Facets

Left Capitate (Natural Size)

The capitate is the largest carpal bone. It has a knob-like head that
articulates in the center of the wrist with the scaphoid and lunate. The
base articulates with the third metacarpal. One side has a long, curved
facet that points toward the side of origin.
Figure 7.4a Lateral View, Hamate Facet L
Figure 7.4b Medial View, Lesser Multangular Facet
 The Hand: Carpals, Metacarpals, and Phalanges Chapter 7 101

Left Hamate (Natural Size) a. b.

The hamate is the only carpal with a long curved non-articular process,
L
the hamulus (an attachment point for the flexor retinaculum). If the hamu-
lus is pointed up and curving toward you, it is on the side of origin. (Both
the fourth and fifth metacarpals articulate with the hamate.)
Figure 7.5a Medial View, Triquetral Facet
Figure 7.5b Lateral View, Capitate Facet

Left Scaphoid (Natural Size)

The scaphoid is sometimes described as “S-shaped.” It also looks like a
flattened oval, pinched at each end and twisted 90 degrees. Look at L
the concave surface of the flatter end. If it is oriented so the other end
curves downward, it points toward the side of origin.
Figure 7.6a Proximal View, Radial Facet
Figure 7.6b Distal View with Capitate Facet

Left Lunate (Natural Size)

The lunate is shaped like the crescent of a new moon. If the crescent is L
downward and the large rounded facet is away, a single facet is visible,
leaning toward the side of origin.
Figure 7.7a Proximal View, Radial Facet
Figure 7.7b Mediodistal View, Triquetral Facet

Left Triquetral (Natural Size)

The triquetral is somewhat triangular. It has a round facet for the pisi-
form and two facets adjoining at a right angle for the lunate and the L
hamate. With the point upward, the largest facet curves toward the side
of origin.
Figure 7.8a Dorsal View
Figure 7.8b Lateral View, Hamate Facet

Left Pisiform (Natural Size)

The pisiform is a little pea-shaped sesamoid bone that forms within the
tendon of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle. It can be felt at the base of the
medial palmar surface (the hypothenar eminence).The pisiform has one
round facet for the triquetral. One side of the pisiform bulges out slightly
more than the other. Turn the bulging side away with the facet down-
ward. The “toe” points toward the side of origin, as in the illustration. L

Figure 7.9a Dorsal View, Triquetral Facet

Figure 7.9b Palmar View
102 Chapter 7 The Hand: Carpals, Metacarpals, and Phalanges

The carpals can be divided into two rows. The distal carpals (lateral to
medial) are the greater multangular and lesser multangular, capitate, and
hamate. All of the distal carpals articulate with metacarpals. The proximal
carpals (lateral to medial) are the scaphoid, lunate, triquetral, and pisiform.
Of the proximal carpals, the scaphoid and the lunate articulate directly with
the radius. The lunate and the triquetral come close to the ulna, but a thick,
fibrocartilaginous articular disk inhibits direct articulation.

LEFT/RIGHT RECOGNITION
It takes time and practice to be able to recognize each carpal bone and tell right
from left, but it is possible. The words in the illustrations are clues from other stu-
dents to help you get started. Use your own imagination to carry you further.

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

Each carpal grows from a single center of ossification. The capitate is the first
to appear (2 to 4 months postnatal) and the pisiform is last (8 to 10 years). The
sequence has been studied by several investigators, and a summary was pub-
lished by Scheuer and Black (2000). Carpals (and the hand as a whole) are a
good guide for age determination in infants and children.

Table 7.1 Carpal Articulations

CARPALS ALTERNATE TERMS ARTICULATIONS

SCAPHOID navicular radius, lunate, capitate, greater and lesser
multangulars
LUNATE semilunar scaphoid, capitate, triquetral
TRIQUETRAL triquetrium lunate, hamate, pisiform
PISIFORM triquetral
GREATER MULTAN- trapezium metacarpal #1, scaphoid, lesser multangular
GULAR

LESSER trapezoid metacarpal #2, greater multangular, scaphoid,

MULTANGULAR capitate
CAPITATE metacarpal #3, lesser multangular, scaphoid,
lunate, hamate
HAMATE metacarpals #4 & #5, triquetral, capitate
 The Hand: Carpals, Metacarpals, and Phalanges Chapter 7 103

METACARPAL BONES: THE PALM OF THE HAND

DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION
Metacarpal bones are the long bones that support the palm of the hand. There
are five metacarpals in each hand. They articulate proximally with the carpal
bones and distally with the phalanges. Students often confuse metacarpals with
finger bones (phalanges). This may be the result of studying articulated skeletal
hands without using a fleshed hand for comparison. The solution is your own
hand. Identify the knuckles on both the fleshed hand and the skeletal hand.
Remember that the metacarpal heads are the large rounded knuckles at the
bases of the fingers.

LEFT/RIGHT RECOGNITION
The entire proximal end of each metacarpal is the key to determining both side
Forensic Note
and metacarpal number. In the illustrations, each metacarpal is pictured in
three views—lateral, medial, and proximal. The lateral view is on the left and Hands are often the site of
defense wounds.
the medial view is on the right so that the palmar surfaces face each other.
Examine the length, width, and curvature of the shaft of each metacarpal; then
compare the characteristics of each base. Look for the articular facets on each
side of the base and compare adjacent facets.

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

Each metacarpal develops from two (not three) centers of ossification. The pri-
mary center is the shaft. The secondary centers form distal epiphyses (the
knuckles) in metacarpals #2–#5. In metacarpal #1, the secondary center is
proximal.
104 Chapter 7 The Hand: Carpals, Metacarpals, and Phalanges

SEX
Several investigators have developed methods for determining sex from meta-
carpals. (Scheuer & Elkington, 1993; Falsetti, 1995; Stojanowski, 1999). Burrows
and colleagues (2003) compared the three methods and were most successful
with Stojanowski’s method. They concluded that “the potential utility of meta-
carpals in determining sex of human skeletal remains may be limited, especially
if used as a sole determinant” (p. 20). In other words, to the extent possible,
evaluate age with the whole body. If you want to use the hand, refer to the origi-
nal publications for complete lists of discriminant functions.

Figure 7.10
Metacarpal #1, Lateral, Medial, and
Proximal Views (80% Natural Size)
Metacarpal #1 is short and wide in comparison
to the other metacarpals. It has no articular
surfaces on the lateral or medial sides. From the
dorsal side, the base points toward #2. From the
proximal articular surface, the base points toward
the palmar surface. A view of the proximal surface
shows a saddle-shaped facet that articulates with
the saddle of greater multangular.
saddle shape

Figure 7.11
Metacarpal #2, Lateral, Medial, and
Proximal Views (80% Natural Size)
Metacarpal #2 is one of the two larger
metacarpals. It is the only metacarpal with two
processes at the base—one broad and the
other pointed. The processes are easiest to see
in the full-hand illustration (Figure 7.1). From the
dorsal side, the longer, larger process points
toward and articulates with #3. The medial
facet (for #3) is wide and “butterfly shaped.”
Compare it with the lateral facet on #3. On the
proximal surface, the two processes create a
groove for the lesser multangular.

butterfly shape

two processes
 The Hand: Carpals, Metacarpals, and Phalanges Chapter 7 105

Figure 7.12
Metacarpal #3, Lateral, Medial, and
Proximal Views (80% Natural Size)
Metacarpal #3 is about the same size as #2, but it has only
one major process at the base. From the dorsal side, the
single process points toward #2. The lateral facet is wide
and “butterfly shaped.” Compare it with the medial facet on
#2. The proximal surface is slanted and somewhat triangular
in outline. It articulates with the distal capitate.

two facets
for mc #4
butterfly shape

single process

Figure 7.13
Metacarpal #4, Lateral, Medial, and
Proximal Views (80% Natural Size)
Metacarpal #4 is one of the two smaller metacarpals. The base
is narrower than the other metacarpals, and no processes pro-
trude from the proximal surface. Metacarpal #4 has articular
facets on both sides of the base. The medial facet (for #5) is
single, wide, and “butterfly shaped.” The lateral facet is double
(two small facets for #3). The two lateral facets for #3 are
prominent and visible from the proximal view. The proximal facet
articulates with the lateral part of the of the distal hamate surface.

single, wide facet

two facets for mc #3

Figure 7.14
Metacarpal #5, Lateral, Medial, and
Proximal Views (80% Natural Size)
Metacarpal #5 is the other of the two smaller metacarpals.
The base is wider than #4 because an epicondyle bulges
from the medial surface. Metacarpal #5 has no processes
on the base, and only a single, wide, sometimes “butterfly-
shaped” lateral facet (for #4). The proximal surface is rather
round and the facet articulates at the distal hamate.

epicondyle

single, wide facet

106 Chapter 7 The Hand: Carpals, Metacarpals, and Phalanges

Table 7.2 Metacarpal and Phalanx Articulations

BONE ARTICULAR FACET ADJACENT BONE

METACARPAL #1 base greater multangular

medial surface no bone—not even #2
lateral surface no bone
head proximal phalanx
METACARPAL #2 mid-base lesser multangular
medial base metacarpal #3
lateral surface greater multangular
head proximal phalanx
METACARPAL #3 base capitate
medial surface metacarpal #4
lateral surface metacarpal #2
head proximal phalanx
METACARPAL #4 base hamate
medial surface metacarpal #5
lateral surface metacarpal #3
head proximal phalanx
METACARPAL #5 base hamate
medial surface no bone—only a tubercle
lateral surface metacarpal #4
head proximal phalanx
PROXIMAL PHALANX base metacarpal head
head intermediate phalanx
INTERMEDIATE (MEDIAL) PHALANX base proximal phalanx
head distal phalanx
DISTAL (TERMINAL) PHALANX base intermediate phalanx
head no bone—only fingernail

PHALANGES OF THE HAND: FINGER BONES

DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION
A phalanx is one of the fourteen bones in the fingers (or toes) of a hand (or
foot). The thumb has two phalanges, the proximal and distal. Each of the other
four digits has three phalanges—proximal, intermediate, and distal. The
distal phalanx is also called a terminal phalanx.
The intermediate phalanx is also called a medial or middle phalanx.
However, the word intermediate is probably the most explicit because the word
medial is used to mean toward the midline of the body, and the word middle is
used for the middle finger (the third digit).
Proximal phalanges articulate with the heads of the metacarpals. The
intermediate and distal phalanges articulate only with phalanges.
 The Hand: Carpals, Metacarpals, and Phalanges Chapter 7 107

LEFT/RIGHT RECOGNITION
Siding is usually not possible with phalanges. Even within the same hand, there
Forensic Note
can be confusion between the second and fourth fingers. Use extreme caution
in recovering, documenting, and storing individual fingers, depending on the Always bag hands and feet
separately!
needs of the case.

terminal phalanx

double facet

intermediate phalanx

double facet

proximal phalanx

single, cup-shaped facet

Figure 7.15
Finger Phalanges, Terminal,
Intermediate, Proximal (Natural Size)
Note that the proximal surface of the proximal phalanx
has a single facet whereas the proximal surface of the
intermediate phalanx has a double facet.

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

Each phalanx forms from two centers of ossification—the primary diaphyseal
shaft, and one proximal epiphysis (no distal epiphysis). The epiphysis of the
phalanx is flat and oval-shaped.

A METHOD FOR SORTING PHALANGES

1. First, identify all of the terminal phalanges and set them aside.
a. The distal end has no facet for articulating with another bone. Instead,
it is shaped to hold a fingernail and provide support for the fingertip.
b. The palmar side is flat and roughened for attachment of tendons.
2. Next, examine the proximal ends of the other phalanges and separate
them into two groups: double facets and single facets.
a. The intermediate phalanx has a double-faceted proximal end. It has a
scalloped appearance. The double-facet fits the indented surface of the
distal end of the proximal phalanx.
b. The proximal phalanx has a single, cup-shaped proximal end that fits
against the rounded head of the metacarpal.

Note: For a comparison of finger and toe phalanges, refer to Chapter 10,
“The Foot.”
 CHAPTER 8

The Pelvic Girdle: Illium, Ischium, and Pubis

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Introduction
Innominate: Ilium, Ischium, and Pubis
Sexual Differences
Age Changes

108
 The Pelvic Girdle: Illium, Ischium, and Pubis Chapter 8 109

INTRODUCTION
In adulthood, the completed pelvis is formed from two innominate bones and
a sacrum. Together, they create a bowl-shaped support for the organs of the
lower trunk—the intestines, bladder, uterus, and so forth. The human pelvis
also provides the bony structure that makes bipedal locomotion—upright
walking—possible. This chapter focuses on the innominate; the sacrum is cov-
ered with the rest of the vertebral column in Chapter 5.
Innominate is a strange word for a bone. It is derived from Latin and
means nameless. Os coxae is another Latin name for the bone. It is the plural
form of os coxa and means hip bones, however, it is frequently used as a syn-
onym for innominate which is a singular form. Coxal bone is probably the best
name because coxal is an adjective for hip and there is no singular/plural confu-
sion. Unfortunately, coxal bone is rarely used in recent literature. So, as with
many anatomical terms, use the easiest or most familiar term and remember
all the others for whenever they may be needed.

INNOMINATE: ILIUM, ISCHIUM, AND PUBIS

Just as the skull is formed of many individual bones, the innominate results
from the fusion of three individual bones—the ilium, the ischium, and the
pubis. The three bones are referred to by their distinct names except when a
composite name is more accurate, e.g., “The right innominate was found intact,
but only the left ischium was recovered.”

DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION

The ilium is the most superior bone of the
innominate. It is the large, flaring portion
that forms the structure commonly recog-
nized as a “hip bone.” The waist is immedi- ilium
ately above the iliac crest of the ilium.
The ischium is the most inferior bone
of the innominate. The ischial tuberosity
acetabulum
is the dense, rounded part of the ischium
that carries the weight of a sitting person.
The pubis is the most anterior bone of
the innominate. Left and right pubic bones
approximate each other at the pubic
symphysis, the lower midline of the trunk.
The symphyseal faces do not fuse under nor- pubis
mal conditions. They are separated through-
out life by a dense fibrocartilaginous disc. ischium
The innominate articulates with the
sacrum and the femur. The sacrum articu-
lates only with the ilium at the auricular (ear-
shaped) surface. The femur articulates at the obturator
acetabulum. Since the ilium, ischium, and foramen
pubis come together and fuse to create the Figure 8.1
acetabulum, the femur actually articulates Innominate with Ilium, Ischium, and Pubis Delineated
with all three bones of the innominate. This Illustration is provided to demonstrate the limits of individual bones.
110 Chapter 8 The Pelvic Girdle: Illium, Ischium, and Pubis

iliac crest
Anatomy Notes
• The sacrum articulates on iliac fossa
the inner (anteromedial)
surface of the ilium at the
auricular surface. anterior superior iliac spine
• The femur articulates on the
lateral surface of the innom-
inate at the acetabulum.
• The pubis curves outward anterior inferior iliac spine
like the lip of a bowl, not
inward like the greater part
of a bowl. arcuate line
• The thickest part of the
innominate is the ischial
tuberosity, the bone in iliac tuberosity
closest association with pubic ramus
the chair. auricular surface
• The iliopubic ramus is
thicker and twisted; the
ischiopubic ramus is
pubic symphysis
flatter and narrower.

ischiopubic ramus

Figure 8.2
Left Innominate, Internal View

iliac crest

iliac pillar

posterior superior iliac spine

acetabulum
posterior inferior iliac spine
greater sciatic
pubic tubercle notch

ischial spine

lesser sciatic notch

ischial tuberosity

Figure 8.3
Left Innominate, External (Lateral) View
 The Pelvic Girdle: Illium, Ischium, and Pubis Chapter 8 111

LEFT/RIGHT RECOGNITION
There is little problem orienting the complete innominate. When the iliac crest
is superior and the ischial tuberosity is inferior, the pubis is anterior. In this
position, the acetabulum is lateral. Hold the innominate in your right hand with
the pubis in front and the ilium up. If the acetabulum is lateral (toward your
palm), the bone is from the right; if not, the bone is from the left.
Fragments are a little more difficult, but the bowl shape of the pelvis helps
define the inner surface of the ilium and ischium. Look at the concavity and
orient the iliac crest superior or the ischial tuberosity inferior; then check the
location of the rim of the acetabulum. It must be lateral.
An unattached pubis is often misidentified because the inner curvature is
convex rather than concave. Keeping the opposite curvature in mind, put the sym-
physeal face medial and orient by the ramus shape. The superior pubic ramus is
thicker and twisted. The inferior ischiopubic ramus is more slender and flat.

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

The innominate forms from the union of three bones, the ilium, ischium, and
pubis. Each one has one primary center of ossification. The ilium has two second- Forensic Note
ary centers that meet and form the iliac crest, and the ischium has one secondary The epiphyses of the iliac crest
center that forms the ischial tuberosity. Three major secondary centers grow do not fully fuse until the late
within the cartilage of the triradiate area of the acetabulum. Several minor cen- teens or early twenties; there-
fore, the crest may be useful in
ters complete the acetabulum and form the tips of the iliac spines. Only the iliac establishing that the individual
crest epiphysis and ischial epiphysis are easily identifiable. The iliac crest epiphy- is legally an adult.
sis fuses in the late teens to early twenties, but it can sometimes appear to have
an open line of fusion in older individuals (Burns, 2009). This may possibly be an
artifact of osteoporosis and postmortem erosion.

Basic Ages of Fusion

ischiopubic ramus 5–8 years ilium (without crest epiphyses)
acetabulum 11–17 years
ischial tuberosity 16–20 years

acetabulum without triradiate epiphyses

pubis (without complete
symphyseal surface)

ischium (without tuberosity epiphysis)

line of fusion between

pubis and ischium

Figure 8.4
Left Ilium, Ischium, and Pubis, Juvenile, 3 Years Old, Lateral (External) View
The epiphyses are not included here, but are described in the text.
112 Chapter 8 The Pelvic Girdle: Illium, Ischium, and Pubis

SEXUAL DIFFERENCES
The adult pelvis is the single most reliable structure for sex determination.
During puberty, the male pelvis grows larger and more robust, but the female
pelvis actually changes in shape, resulting in wider female hips and a larger
pelvic inlet, which accommodates childbirth.
Numerous sexing techniques and methods are published. They include
visual assessment of traits (Phenice, 1969; Iscan & Derrick, 1984; Bruzek, 2002),
metric techniques (Schulter-Ellis, et al., 1983 & 1985; Steyna & Iscan, 2008;
Klales et al., 2009), and the latest in virtual determination of sex using both
metric and non-metric techniques (Decker et al., 2011). Most of the earlier
methods have been tested repeatedly on various populations, either to improve
the methods and/or to obtain statistical information on reliability and validity,
e.g. Kelley (1978) and Sutherland and Suchey (1991).
The goal here is not to teach sexing methods for the pelvis, but rather
to introduce the anatomical basis for the methods. With an understanding
of pelvic bone morphology and knowledge of the specific areas that are
known to be sexually dimorphic, it is possible to test a variety of methods
and select the most effective for the purpose, considering the condition of the
material and the population of origin. For example, if the pubic bones are
damaged, select methods based on the ilium or sacrum (Iscan & Derrick,
1984; MacLaughlin & Bruce, 1986). If the population is from South Africa,
use African-based research (Patriquin et al., 2005), etc.

SEXUAL DIFFERENCES IN THE PUBIS

When compared to the male pubis, the female pubis appears to have been
stretched out toward the midline. The result is a female pubic body that is
rather square in shape compared to the narrow, vertically-oriented male pubic
body. As the female pubic body widens, several other changes appear in the
subpubic area (immediately inferior to the pubic symphysis). The
subpubic angle widens, a subpubic concavity develops, and the medial
aspect of the ischiopubic ramus becomes sharper. On the body of the pubis, a
diagonal ridge—the ventral arc—develops.
 The Pelvic Girdle: Illium, Ischium, and Pubis Chapter 8 113

Compare each of
the following
characteristics:
• pubic bone width (female
is wider)
• subpubic angle (female
is wider)
MALE
• ventral arc (female is more
pronounced)
• parturition pits (more com-
narrow pubic body mon in females)

narrow
subpubic
angle

FEMALE

broad pubic body

subpubic concavity

wide
subpubic
angle

Figure 8.5
Male and Female Innominates, Internal Surface of Pubis and
Ischiopubic Ramus

Circular depressions sometimes form on the otherwise smooth dorsal sur-

face of the pubis. These irregularities are known as parturition pits (or scars)
because they are found more often on female pubes and were originally attrib-
uted to the trauma of childbirth. It is known that the correlation with childbirth
is not consistant (Holt, 1978). Parturition pits can be found in females who have
not born children as well as in males. I suggest that the pits may result from a
wide range of trauma to the posterior pubic ligament, including both childbirth
and sporting activities.
114 Chapter 8 The Pelvic Girdle: Illium, Ischium, and Pubis

DORSAL VENTRAL
SURFACE SURFACE

parturation ventral arch

pits

Figure 8.6
Adult Female Pubic Bone, Dorsal and Ventral Surfaces (Natural Size)
This is the same bone viewed from both sides. It was originally removed at autopsy and cleaned for age estimation analysis.
Note the parturation pits on the dorsal surface and the ventral arc on the ventral surface. Both are common female traits.

Compare each of
SEXUAL DIFFERENCES IN THE ILIUM
the following When compared to the male ilium, the female form appears more flared at the
characteristics:
widest point and narrower toward the base of the iliopubic ramus. This is par-
• sciatic notch width (female tially the result of a wider, shallower greater. sciatic notch. Studies by
is wider)
• sciatic notch depth (female
MacLaughlin and Bruce (1986) and Steyna and Iscan (2008) have shown the
is shallower) sciatic notch to be a particularly poor discriminator of sex, but it may still be
• existence of preauricular useful when taken into consideration with all other evidence.
sulcus (more common
in females)

MALE FEMALE

narrow sciatic notch

wide
sciatic notch
preauricular
sulcus

Figure 8.7
Male and Female
Innominates, Internal
Surface of Greater
Sciatic Notch
 The Pelvic Girdle: Illium, Ischium, and Pubis Chapter 8 115

Females tend to develop a groove at the anterior inferior edge of the auric-
ular surface more frequently than males. Because of its location, it is called a
preauricular sulcus. Like parturition pits, the preauricular sulcus probably
results from stress to ligaments which may or may not be related to childbirth.
As with other sexual characteristics, there are many intermediate and incon-
clusive forms.

Figure 8.8a
Male Pelvic
Girdle, Anterior
(Ventral) View
This is the pelvis of a
mature male. It has the
robusticity of a male and
lacks the sex-related
modifications visible in
the female pelvis.

Figure 8.8b
Female Pelvic Girdle, Anterior (Ventral) View
This is the pelvis of a mature female. It has all the characteristics of a female pelvis, and age-related osteophytes are
visible at the rims of the acetabula.
116 Chapter 8 The Pelvic Girdle: Illium, Ischium, and Pubis

AGE CHANGES
The innominate is one of several postcranial bones systematically studied for
adult (degenerational) age changes. Tested and revised methods exist for both
the pubic symphysis and the auricular surface of the ilium. The pubic symphy-
sis tends to be more reliable and easier to utilize, but there are cases in which
the auricular surface is the only available source of age estimation.

AGE CHANGES IN THE PUBIC SYMPHYSIS

Component analysis of pubic symphyses was first suggested by Todd in 1920.
He published a readable description of the ten phases of the pubic symphysis
with illustrations of each phase. Todd’s sample is entirely male orientated and
not an adequate representation of the wide variation encountered throughout
the world, but Todd’s work was instrumental in establishing the pubic symphy-
sis as a source of aging information and encouraging further research and it is
quite helpful as an aid to understanding the sequence of aging events. It is
included here for general use.

I. First post-adolescent phase (age 18–19). Symphysial surface rugged, tra-

versed by horizontal ridges separated by well-marked grooves; no ossific
(epiphyseal) nodules fusing with the surface; no definite delimiting mar-
gin; no definition of extremities (Todd, 1920, p. 301).
II. Second post-adolescent phase (age 20–21). Symphysial surface still rug-
ged, traversed by horizontal ridges, the grooves between which are, how-
ever, becoming filled near the dorsal limit with a new formation of finely
textured bone. This formation begins to obscure the hinder extremities
of the horizontal ridges. Ossific (epiphyseal) nodules fusing with the
upper symphysial face may occur; dorsal limiting margin begins to
develop; no delimitation of extremities; foreshadowing of ventral bevel
(Todd, 1920, pp. 302–303).
III. Third post-adolescent phase (age 22–24). Symphysial face shows progres-
sive obliteration of ridge and furrow system; commencing formation of
the dorsal plateau; presence of fusing ossific (epiphyseal) nodules; dorsal
margin gradually becoming more defined; beveling as a result of ventral
rarefaction becoming rapidly more pronounced; no delimitation of
extremities (Todd, 1920, p. 304).
IV. Fourth phase (age 25–26). Great increase of ventral beveled area; corre-
sponding diminution of ridge and furrow formation; complete definition
of dorsal margin through the formation of the dorsal plateau; commenc-
ing delimitation of lower extremity (Todd, 1920, p. 305).
V. Fifth phase (age 27–30). Little or no change in symphysial face and dorsal
plateau except that sporadic and premature attempts at the formation
of a ventral rampart occur; lower extremity, like the dorsal margin, is
increasing in clearness of definition; commencing formation of upper
extremity with or without the intervention of a bony (epiphyseal) nodule
(Todd, 1920, p. 306).
VI. Sixth phase (age 30–35). Increasing definition of extremities; develop-
ment and practical completion of ventral rampart; retention of granular
appearance of symphysial face and ventral aspect of pubis; absence of
lipping of symphysial margin (Todd, 1920, p. 308).
 The Pelvic Girdle: Illium, Ischium, and Pubis Chapter 8 117

VII. Seventh phase (age 35–39). Changes in symphysial face and ventral
aspect of pubis consequent upon diminishing activity; commencing bony
outgrowth into attachments of tendons and ligaments, especially the
gracilis tendon and sacrotuberous ligament (Todd, 1920, p. 310).
VIII. Eighth phase (age 39–44). Symphysial face generally smooth and inac-
tive; ventral surface of pubis also inactive; oval outline complete or
approximately complete; extremities clearly defined; no distinct “rim” to
symphysial face; no marked lipping of either dorsal or ventral margin
(Todd, 1920, p. 311).
IX. Ninth phase (age 45–50). Symphysial face presents a more or less marked
rim; dorsal margin uniformly lipped; ventral margin irregularly lipped
(Todd, 1920, p. 312).
X. Tenth phase (age 50 and upward). Symphysial face eroded and showing
erratic ossification; ventral border more or less broken down; disfigure-
ment increases with age (Todd, 1920, p. 313).

Todd’s work was tested and modified by Brooks (1955), Brooks and Suchey
(1990), McKern and Stewart (1957), Hanihara and Suzuki (1978), Snow (1983),
Katz and Suchey (1986), Suchey, Wiseley, and Katz (1986), and others. Each
investigator set out to find out if the method really worked and, if so, how to
improve or simplify it. Many became proficient in analyzing the hills and val-
leys of the pubic symphysis, but no one actually made the method easy to use.
Katz and Suchey (1986) cut the number of stages from ten to six, and the whole
group of researchers proved that intense study of large quantities of informa-
tion leads to increasingly better observation of detail.
It was long thought that pubic symphysis aging could be used only for
males because the trauma of childbirth was bound to have a destructive and
false aging effect on female pubes. However, determined researchers developed
separate standards for female pubic symphyses and proved them to be useful
(Gilbert & McKern, 1973; Suchey, 1979; Suchey et al., 1986). A study by
Klepinger and colleagues (1992) validated the methods for both males and
females. Formulae and illustrations for female pubic symphyses are not included
here, but the casts and instructions can be obtained from France Casting. Casts
are preferred over illustrations whenever possible.
As with all things biological, there are many variables and many responses
by the body. The result is expressed as trends rather than as clearly delineated
steps. Study the trends, use the methods, compare your samples to casts from
people of known ages, but do not rely wholly on the pubic symphysis or any other
single method alone for age determination. In a mass grave of people from the
same population group, it is at least possible to derive a fairly good age sequence.
118 Chapter 8 The Pelvic Girdle: Illium, Ischium, and Pubis

ANALYSIS OF THE PUBIC SYMPHYSIS

Before attempting age analysis of a pubic symphysis, study the anatomy
and learn to recognize each of the significant characteristics listed here:

1. Identify the ventral and dorsal surfaces of the pubis. The ventral
surface is concave; the dorsal surface, convex.
2. Identify the symphysial face. It is the same as the symphysial
surface. The two faces “face” each other in life, separated only by
fibrocartilage.
3. Recognize a ridged surface and distinguish it from smooth and
porous surfaces. A ridged surface can also be described as undulat-
ing, rippled, wavy, or billowing.
4. Locate the ossified nodules. They are bony bumps, elevated from
the plane of the symphysial surface.
5. Locate the oval outline. It is the outer margin of the symphysial
surface.
6. Feel the symphysial rim. It is an extension of the oval outline,
slightly elevated from the plane of the symphysial surface.

Table 8.1 Correlation

TODD KATZ AND SUCHEY AGE RANGE YEARS
and Comparison of
the Katz and Suchey I, II, III 1 15–23 8
Six-Phase System and IV, V 2 19–35 16
the Todd Ten-Phase
System VI 3 22–43 21
Note that the number of years VII, VIII 4 23–59 36
within the age range increases
by over 15 percent between IX 5 28–78 50
phase 1 and phase 6. In other X 6 36–87 51
words, the higher the phase
number, the less it tells you.
AGE CHANGES IN THE AURICULAR SURFACE OF THE ILIUM
The auricular surface of the ilium also changes with age. Lovejoy and colleagues
(1985a) developed a method for age determination based on changes in five
areas of the auricular surface. Just as Todd’s work (1920) revealed the sequence
of aging events in the pubic symphysis, Lovejoy’s work defined age changes in
the auricular surface. Lovejoy described eight phases covering five-year inter-
vals from ages 20 to >60. The Lovejoy method is not as easy to use as the pubic
symphysis method, but the ilium often survives conditions that destroy the
more fragile pubis. In other words, the auricular surface may be the only avail-
able age determination information.
Lovejoy’s method has been tested and revised several times (Meindl &
Lovejoy, 1989; Murray & Murray, 1991; Bedford et al., 1993; Buckberry &
Chamberlain, 2002; Osborne et al., 2004), but it continues to be difficult for
many users. Insufficient comparative materials may be one reason for the dif-
ficulty. Photographs have been published several places, including Ubelaker
and Buikstra (1994) and Lovejoy and colleagues (1995), but, at the time of this
writing, no comparative casts are available.
Murray and Murray (1991) found that the amount of degenerative change
in the auricular surface is not dependent upon race or sex in any given age
category. They also stated that the rate of degenerative change is too variable
to be used alone for age estimation. The work of Osborne and colleagues (2004)
seems to confirm Murray’s statement, but as stated earlier, the ilium may be
the only source of information. In such a case, the method should be used to the
limits of its predictability.
 The Pelvic Girdle: Illium, Ischium, and Pubis Chapter 8 119

AGE CHANGES IN PUBIC SYMPHYSES OF MALES

ridged surface

PHASE 1: 15 TO 23 YEARS—COMPLETELY RIDGED SURFACE

■ Early: completely ridged surface, no nodules, no beveling, no symphysial
rim, no lipping
■ Late: ossified nodules begin to form as ridges slowly disappear

ossified nodule
PHASE 2: 19 TO 35 YEARS—OSSIFIED NODULES
■ Ossified nodules obvious
■ Dorsal plateau formed
■ Ventral beveling begins

dorsal plateau

PHASE 3: 22 TO 43 YEARS—VENTRAL RAMPART

■ Definition of extremities (superior and inferior parts of symphysis)
■ The ventral rampart complete
■ No symphysial rim, no lipping

ventral rampart
PHASE 4: 23 TO 59 YEARS—OVAL OUTLINE
■ Smoother symphysial face
■ The oval outline almost complete
■ No symphysial rim, no lipping

PHASE 5: 28 TO 78 YEARS—SYMPHYSIAL RIM

■ Marked symphysial rim
symphyseal rim ■ Dorsal margin lipped
■ Ventral margin irregularly lipped

PHASE 6: 36 TO 87 YEARS—ERRATIC OSSIFICATION

■ Eroded erratic ossification
■ Irregular lipping
erratic ossification ■ Broken down ventral border

Figure 8.9
Male Pubic Aging in Six Phases with Abbreviated Descriptions
These illustrations and descriptions are provided only as an overview of the sequence of normal age changes in the pubic symphysis.
The illustrations are adapted from male pubic bone casts produced by France Casting for use with the six-phase Suchey–Brooks
Method of pubic symphysis aging. To use the Suchey–Brooks method, consult the literature directly and use the descriptions and
photographs provided by the researchers (Katz & Suchey, 1986; Brooks & Suchey, 1990; Suchey & Katz, 1998) as your guide.
120 Chapter 8 The Pelvic Girdle: Illium, Ischium, and Pubis

Areas
• Auricular surface: the artic-
ular surface for the sacrum
(It looks ear-shaped.)
• Apex: the anterior angle
of the auricular surface,
located at the termination
superior demiface
of the arculate line
• Superior demiface: the
apex
area of the auricular sur-
face above the apex
• Inferior demiface: the area
of the auricular surface
below the apex arcuate
• Retroauricular area: the line
entire area posterior to the
auricular surface

Characteristics
• Billowing: transverse
ridges, undulations
• Striations: thin lines, scrapes
• Porosity: tiny perfora-
tions, holes preauricular
• Granularity: small bumps, retroauricular sulcus
area
like sandpaper
• Apical activity: rim forma- inferior
tion at the auricular apex demiface
Figure 8.10
Auricular Surface, Anatomical Areas for Age
Determination

Table 8.2 Osborne’s Six-Phase Modification of the Lovejoy Eight-Phase Method with Prediction
Intervals

PHASE MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES MEAN AGE SUGGESTED AGE RANGE

1 billowing with possible striae; mostly fine granularity with some coarse 21.1 ≤27
granularity possible
2 striae; coarse granularity with residual fine granularity; retroauricular 29.5 ≤46
activity may be present
3 decreased striae with transverse organization; coarse granularity; 42 ≤69
retroauricular activity present; beginnings of apical change
4 remnants of transverse organization; coarse granularity becoming 47.8 20–75
replaced by densification; retroauricular activity present; apical change;
macroporosity is present
5 surface becomes irregular; surface texture is largely dense; moderate 53.1 24–82
retroauricular activity; moderate apical change; macroporosity
6 irregular surface; densification accompanied by subchondral destruction; 58.9 29–89
severe retroauricular activity; severe apical change; macroporosity
Modified from Osborne et al., 2004: 202, Tables 8, 9.
 The Pelvic Girdle: Illium, Ischium, and Pubis Chapter 8 121

Table 8.3 Pelvis Vocabulary

BONE TERM DEFINITION

INNOMINATE acetabulum the articular surface for the rotation of the head of the femur
acetabular fossa the non-articular central surface deep within the acetabulum
obturator foramen large opening bordered by the pubis, the ischium, and the ischio-pubic ramus
ILIUM auricular surface ear-shaped surface for the articulation of the sacrum
arcuate line the slight ridge on the medial (inner) surface of the ilium, beginning at the
pubis and ending at the edge (“apex”) of the auricular surface
preauricular sulcus groove anterior/inferior to the auricular surface, thought to be related to the
trauma of bearing children
iliac crest superior edge of the ilium
iliac fossa smooth, concave inner surface of the ilium
iliac tuberosity the posterior, inner thickening of the ilium, superior to the auricular surface
anterior superior iliac spine the upper of the two projections on the ventral edge of the ilium
anterior inferior iliac spine the lower of the two projections on the ventral edge of the ilium
posterior superior iliac spine the upper of the two projections on the dorsal edge of the ilium
posterior inferior iliac spine the lower of the two projections on the dorsal edge of the ilium; the projection
that forms the superior boundary of the greater sciatic notch
greater sciatic notch the large notch on the posterior edge of the ilium and extending down onto the
ischium; an area of distinct sexual dimorphism (♂ narrow, ♀ wide)
ISCHIUM ischial tuberosity the largest, thickest portion of the ischium; human sits on the two ischial
tuberosities
ischial spine the projection of bone that forms the inferior boundary of the greater
sciatic notch
lesser sciatic notch the smaller notch inferior to the greater sciatic notch
PUBIS dorsal plateau the elevated ridge that appears on the dorsal surface (the convex innermost
surface of the pubis) in the early phases of pubic symphysis aging
ischiopubic ramus the bridge of bone formed from processes of both ischium and pubis
pubic ramus the superior bridge of the pubis extending toward the ilium
pubic symphysis the cartilaginous joint between the two pubic bones; the symphysial bone
surfaces change progressively with age
pubic tubercle the small bony bump on the superior anterior surface of the pubic bone
subpubic angle the angle formed beneath the pubic symphysis when the two pubic bones are
anatomically aligned
subpubic concavity the lateral curvature inferior to the female pubic symphysis
symphysial rim the lip that circumscribes the face of the pubic symphysis in later phases of
pubic symphysis aging
ventral rampart the bevel that appears on the ventral surface (the concave, outer surface) in
middle phases of pubic symphysis aging
ventral arc the slightly elevated ridge of bone on the ventral aspect of the female pubis
parturition pits indentations or circular depressions on the inner surface of the pubis adjacent
to the pubic symphysis
 CHAPTER 9

The Leg: Femur, Tibia, Fibula, and Patella

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Introduction
Femur: Upper Leg, Thigh Bone
Patella: Kneecap
Lower Leg: Tibia and Fibula
Tibia: Lower Leg, Shin Bone, Medial Ankle Bone
Fibula: Lower Leg, Lateral Ankle Bone

122
 The Leg: Femur, Tibia, Fibula, and Patella Chapter 9 123

INTRODUCTION
The long bones of the leg are similar to those of the arm in that there is one
proximal long bone and two distal long bones. Unlike the arm, however, a large
sesamoid bone (the patella) exists in the joint, and the distal two long bones
(the tibia and fibula) are unequal in size and strength.

FEMUR: UPPER LEG, THIGH BONE

DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION
The femur is commonly called the “thigh bone” and is usually the heaviest and
strongest bone of the body. It is important in forensic settings because it endures
longer than most other bones, and it is useful for stature estimates and genetic
analysis. The femur is easily recognized by the ball-shaped head projecting at
an angle from the proximal end and the two large condyles at the distal end.
The shaft is slightly bowed and recognized by the linea aspera, a thick ele-
vated ridge that runs most of the length of the distal surface. The linea aspera
serves as the insertion site for major muscles of the hip and knee. The femur
articulates proximally with the acetabulum of the innominate and distally with
the tibia and the patella.
The femur angles medially (inward) from the acetabulum of the pelvis
toward the knee. It does not form a straight line with the tibia. The medial
condyle is longer than the lateral condyle in order to reach and articulate
with the horizontal platform of the tibia. The relative orientation of the femur
and the tibia in the human leg contributes to a smoothly balanced stride. (See
the subsection on sexual differences.)

LEFT/RIGHT RECOGNITION
In anatomical position, the head is medial, and the greater trochanter
is lateral. The greater and lesser trochanters are connected by the
intertrochanteric crest across the posterior surface. The medial condyle
is longer and the lateral condyle is broader. The surface for articulation of
the patella is anterior.
124 Chapter 9 The Leg: Femur, Tibia, Fibula, and Patella

fovea capitus

greater
trochanter

anatomical
neck
intertrochanteric
crest lesser
trochanter

surgical
neck

nutrient foramen

Posterior View linea aspera

lateral
supracondylar
ridge medial
supracondylar
ridge

popliteal surface

lateral medial
epicondyle epicondyle

Figure 9.1a
lateral medial condyle
Left Femur, Posterior View
condyle
(50% Natural Size) intercondylar
 The Leg: Femur, Tibia, Fibula, and Patella Chapter 9 125

head

Mnemonic Note
Nutrient foramina enter leg
bones away from the knee.
(TEAK = Toward Elbow, Away
from Knee)

shaft Anterior View

Figure 9.1b
patella articular Left Femur, Anterior View
surface (50% Natural Size)
126 Chapter 9 The Leg: Femur, Tibia, Fibula, and Patella

SEXUAL DIFFERENCES IN THE FEMUR

The condyles of the femur meet the platform of the tibia at a slight angle. This
angle is known as a Q-angle or quadriceps angle because it follows the path of
the quadriceps femoris muscle. In the living person, the angle is measured by
drawing a line from the anterior superior iliac spine to the center of the patella.
A second line is then drawn vertically, using the center of the patella and the
center of the anterior tibial tuberosity as guide points. (See Figure 9.1c.)
A range of Q-angles are reported for males and females of different popula-
tions, but there is general agreement that the female Q-angle is larger
(Livingston, 1998). In a North Carolina population, Horton (1989) reported a
mean value of 15.8 ± 4.5 degrees for females and 11.2 ± 3 degrees for males. In
an East Indian population, Raveenfranath (2009) reported a mean value of
14.48 ± 2.02 degrees for females and 10.98 ± 1.75 degrees for males. For general
purposes, the female Q-angle is about 15 degrees, and the male angle is about
11 degrees.
In skeletal material, evidence of the Q-angle is apparent in the angle of
the femoral neck to the shaft and the relative lengths of the two femoral con-
dyles. Compare angles by holding male and female femora upright, with both
condyles resting on the surface of a table.
Sex can also be estimated with femoral head measurements. This is based
on basic sexual dimorphism, anticipating that males are larger than females.
The method is useful if there is no pelvis or skull and if the unidentified indi-
Figure 9.1c
vidual is from a well-documented population. An unknown corpse from a het-
The Femoral-Tibia Angle
erogeneous population such as found in major U.S. cities may not be a good
(“Q-angle”)
candidate for this type of analysis.
Females have greater Q-angles
Stewart (1979: 120) offers the set of numbers shown in Table 9.1 based on
than males. The difference reflects
the wider pelvis and affects differ-
his tests of the earlier work of Pearson (1917–1919) for use in sexing dry bones
ences in the ways that men and of American whites. Šlaus et al., (2003) tested the method on a Croatian population
women run and walk. with positive results. To use the method, measure the greatest diameter of the
femur with standard sliding calipers and compare femoral head measurements
with the measurements in Table 9.1 .

Table 9.1 Estimation of Sex from the Femoral Head Diameter

FEMALE FEMALE? INDETERMINATE MALE? MALE

42.5 mm 42.5–43.5 mm 43.5–46.5 mm 46.5–47.5 mm 47.5 mm

Another, more elaborate, method of femoral head measurement proved to

be effective in the work of Purkait (2003). It is based on an East Indian popula-
tion and may be useful when a similar population is suspected. If possible,
always consider the population of origin before using a method with
confidence.

RACIAL DIFFERENCES IN THE FEMUR

Anterior curvature of the femur varies with individuals and populations.
Stewart (1962) suggested that individuals of African origin have less anterior
curvature and thus straighter femora. Gilbert (1976) tested Stewart’s observa-
tions and concluded that “the assumed genetic basis for expression of anterior
femoral curvature . . . seems to be a feature of human plastic response to body
weight rather than to temporal, clinal, postural or equestrian influences.”
Nevertheless, Ballard (1999) completely refined the method for measuring fem-
oral curvature and verified the tendency of femora of European origin to have
more anterior curvature, and African origin less. It is recommended that the
articles be read thoroughly before drawing conclusions.
 The Leg: Femur, Tibia, Fibula, and Patella Chapter 9 127

fovea
capitus greater
tubercle

femur humerus

Y- shaped
groove

Figure 9.2
Comparison of Heads of Femur and Humerus (Left Sides, Posterior View of Femur, Anterior View
of Humerus, External and Metaphyseal Views of Epiphyses)
The fovea capitus (on the external surface) is the key characteristic of the femoral head. The Y-shaped groove (on the metaphy-
seal surface) and the proximal portions of the tubercles and are the key characteristics of the humeral head.

BONES OF CONFUSION
Fragments of femur are sometimes confused with the tibia or the humerus, but
they are all different in cross section. The tibia is triangular, and the humerus
and femur are more rounded. The circumference of the humerus is fairly smooth,
whereas the circumference of the femur is interrupted by the protrusion of the
linea aspera.
The heads of the femur and humerus are sometimes confused when the
neck is not present, but there are several identifiable characteristics. The head
of the humerus is a smooth, unblemished hemisphere, whereas the head of the
femur is a more complete ball, attached to an extended neck and dimpled by
the fovea capitus, the insertion site of the ligamentum teres femoris.
The proximal epiphyses are further distinguishable in that the femoral
epiphysis ossifies from a single center and the humeral epiphysis ossifies from
three centers—the head and the greater and lesser tubercles. Identify the femo-
ral proximal epiphysis by the presence of the fovea capitus. Identify the humeral
proximal epiphysis by the greater tubercle protruding beyond the margin of the
articular surface and the Y-shaped groove delineating the three centers of ossi-
fication on the metaphyseal surface. (See Figure 9.2.)

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

The femur is formed from one primary center and four secondary centers of
ossification. The primary center is the diaphysis of the shaft. The secondary
centers, in order of appearance, include the epiphyses of the condyles, the head,
128 Chapter 9 The Leg: Femur, Tibia, Fibula, and Patella

head epiphysis, greater trochanter epiphysis,

anterior view anterior view

head epiphysis,
medial view

greater trochanter epiphysis,

lateral view

Forensic Note

diaphysis The distal epiphysis of the

femur appears in the final
month of gestation. It is
therefore an indicator of a
Basic Ages of Fusion full-term fetus.
head ♀12–16 years ♂14–19
greater trochanter ♀14–16 years ♂16–18
lesser trochanter 16–17 years
distal epiphysis ♀14–18 years ♂16–20

distal epiphysis,
inferior view

distal epiphysis,
anterior view

Figure 9.3
Juvenile Left Femur, Anterior View
The femur ossifies from one primary center (the diaphysis) and four secondary centers (the condyles, the head and
the greater and lesser trochanters). The epiphysis of the lesser trochanter is not illustrated here.
 The Leg: Femur, Tibia, Fibula, and Patella Chapter 9 129

and the greater and lesser trochanters. The order is important for estimating
the age of an infant because the distal epiphysis appears in the final month of
gestation (36–40 weeks) and the head appears after birth (6–12 months).

PATELLA: KNEECAP
DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION
The patella is commonly known as a “kneecap.” It is the largest sesamoid bone
in the body. The shape is roughly heart-shaped with a thicker, slightly beveled,
proximal portion and a distal point (the apex). The anterior surface is rough-
ened with longitudinal lines, and the posterior surface is smooth and rimmed.
The posterior surface is divided into medial and lateral surfaces for articulation
with the trochlear surface of the distal femur. The lateral articular surface is
usually the larger of the two.
The patella is located on the anterior surface of the knee in the tendon of
the quadriceps femoris muscle. The inferior aspect of the patella is held in place
by the patellar ligament, which originates on the apex of the patella and inserts
on the tibial tuberosity.
The patella appears simply to shield the knee joint, but its main function
is to increase the biomechanical efficiency of the knee in extension. It holds the
patellar tendon away from the axis of movement and increases the pull of the
quadriceps muscle.

LEFT/RIGHT RECOGNITION
Place the patella on a flat surface with the anterior surface up and the apex
pointed away. The patella will fall toward the larger facet—the lateral one. This
is the side of origin (i.e., the right patella falls to the right and the left patella
falls to the left).

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

Ossification is irregular in the patella. Typically, several centers of ossification
appear between 1.5 and 3.5 years and coalesce soon afterward. (There are no
epiphyses.) The patella becomes biconvex in shape at 4 to 5 years and assumes
an adult appearance during puberty (Scheuer & Black, 2004).

lateral articular facet

medial articular facet

apex apex
Figure 9.4a Figure 9.4b
Left Patella, Anterior View Left Patella, Posterior View
(Natural Size) (Natural Size)
Note the anterior vertical striations Note the lateral articular facet is larger than the
and the slightly beveled superior shelf. medial facet.
130 Chapter 9 The Leg: Femur, Tibia, Fibula, and Patella

femur

patellar
articular
surface

patella

fibula

tibia

Figure 9.5
Knee Joint and Vertical Location of Patella
The patella glides on the trochlear surface of the femur.

LOWER LEG: TIBIA AND FIBULA

The tibia and fibula comprise the bones of the lower leg, but unlike the bones
of the forearm, the tibia and fibula are completely unequal in size. The tibia is
the major weight-bearing bone, and the fibula is a slender companion, providing
long ridges for muscle attachment.
Note the manner in which the fibula fits against the outside of the tibia.

■ The head of the fibula is inferior to the lateral platform of the proximal tibia.
■ The lateral malleolus of the distal end of the fibula mirrors the medial
malleolus of the distal end of the tibia. (Each malleolus is commonly
called an “ankle bone.”)
■ The lateral malleolus (of the fibula) extends below the base of the fibular
notch of the tibia and articulates with the lateral surface of the body of
the talus.
 The Leg: Femur, Tibia, Fibula, and Patella Chapter 9 131

interosseus crests

lateral malleolus

Figure 9.6
Left Tibia and Fibula Together, Anterior
View (50% Natural Size)
Note that the interosseus crests face each other
and the lateral malleolus extends below the tibia to
articulate with the talus in the ankle.
132 Chapter 9 The Leg: Femur, Tibia, Fibula, and Patella

TIBIA: LOWER LEG, SHIN BONE, MEDIAL ANKLE BONE

DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION
The tibia is the second largest long bone and is commonly called the “shin
bone.” It is straighter than the femur and positioned vertically. The tibia is
somewhat triangular in cross section with the sharpest angle anterior. It is the
anterior crest of the tibia that frequently sustains bumps and bruises in the
course of an active life.
The proximal end of the tibia forms a horizontal platform, the tibial
plateau, for articulation with the distal femur. The platform is divided into a
medial articular surface and lateral articular surface. Each surface is
only slightly depressed. Stability of the knee joint is highly dependent on soft
tissue support and binding. Fibrocartilaginous, semilunar menisci raise the
outer rim of each condyle to fit the femoral condyles. Numerous ligaments bind
the joint together.
The thin ridge on the lateral side of the tibia is the interosseous crest.
It provides an attachment line for the interosseous membrane between the tibia
and fibula. The interosseous crest serves the same function as the interosseous
crests on the radius and ulna. The distal end of the tibia is identified by the
projection of the medial malleolus, commonly known as an “ankle bone.” The
tibia contributes only the inner ankle bone. (The distal fibula provides the outer
ankle bone.)
The tibia articulates proximally with the femur (but not the patella), and
it articulates distally with the talus (the most superior of the tarsal bones). It
also articulates laterally with the fibula, at both proximal and distal ends.

SEXUAL DIFFERENCES IN THE TIBIA

The width of the knee tends to be larger in males than females and sex can be
estimated by discriminant function analysis of tibia measurements (Isçan &
Miller-Shaivitz, 1984). Isçan and Miller-Shaivitz also demonstrate that sexual
prediction can be race-dependent. In other words, there is more sexual dimor-
phism in some racial groups than others. Thus, in estimation of sex, the genetic
(racial) nature of the population is important as well as the standard sexual
differences, size, and activity level. (This should be a general assumption.)

LEFT/RIGHT RECOGNITION
Study the tibia and fibula together to recognize left/right characteristics. Note
each of the following characteristics:

■ The interosseous crest of the tibia points laterally, toward the fibula.
■ The medial malleolus of the tibia points anteriorly when viewed from the
medial surface.
■ The lateral malleolus of the fibula points posteriorly when viewed from the
lateral surface.
 The Leg: Femur, Tibia, Fibula, and Patella Chapter 9 133

medial articular intercondylar

lateral articular surface eminence
surface

facet for
fibula tibial
tuberosity

Posterior View Anterior View

popliteal line

nutrient
foramen

interosseous
crest
anterior
crest (shin)
shaft

fibular medial
notch malleolus

articular surface
for talus
Figure 9.7
Left Tibia, Posterior and Anterior Views (50% Natural Size)
134 Chapter 9 The Leg: Femur, Tibia, Fibula, and Patella

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

The tibia is formed from one primary center of ossification (the diaphysis of the
shaft) and two secondary centers of ossification, the proximal and distal epiphy-
ses. The proximal epiphysis appears first (36–40 weeks fetal).

head epiphysis,
superior view

head epiphysis,
anterior view

diaphysis

Basic Ages of Fusion Forensic Note

distal epiphysis ♀14–16 years ♂15–18 The proximal epiphysis of the
proximal epiphysis ♀13–17 years ♂15–19 tibia appears during the final
month of gestation. It is an
indicator of a full-term fetus.

distal epiphysis,
inferior view
distal epiphysis,
anterior view

Figure 9.8
Juvenile Left Tibia, Anterior View
 The Leg: Femur, Tibia, Fibula, and Patella Chapter 9 135

FIBULA: LOWER LEG, LATERAL ANKLE BONE

DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION
The fibula is the long, thin bone on the lateral side of the lower leg. It is so
thoroughly embedded in soft tissue that, in most living persons, the only pal-
pable part of the fibula is the lateral “ankle bone” and a short portion of shaft
extending upward from the ankle.
The fibula is firmly connected to the tibia by an interosseus membrane
attaching at the interosseus crest. The proximal end is a knob-like head. It
has an articular facet on the medial aspect of the superior surface, and one
small rounded projection, the styloid process. The distal end is the lateral
malleolus. It is more pointed than the proximal end and slightly medio-
laterally flattened. The lateral surface bulges and the medial surface has a
flat, triangular-shaped facet.
The proximal fibula articulates with the proximal tibia at a small oval
facet inferior to the lateral extension of the condylar platform of the tibia. The
distal end of the fibula does not articulate with the tibia. It passes through the
fibular notch of the tibia and articulates with the lateral side of the talus.

LEFT/RIGHT RECOGNITION
The easiest way to side the fibula is with the distal end. When looking at the
lateral malleolus from the lateral side, the tip points posteriorly. (The medial
malleolus of the tibia points anteriorly.)
The fibula can also be sided with the shaft alone by noting the direction
of the spiral curvature. The curvature is right-handed on a right fibula and
left-handed on a left fibula. A right-handed spiral advances clockwise, and a
left-handed spiral, counterclockwise. Begin by examining the longitudinal sur-
faces of the fibula. Choose the flat surface that is the most uniform in width and
flow from one end to the other. Starting at the posterior surface of the distal
end, place the right thumb on the flat surface and slide the thumb outward
along the same surface toward the other end. If the right thumb advances
toward the right index finger, the fibula is right. (The direction of the spiral is
a property of the bone, so it will be the same from proximal to distal as from
distal to proximal.)

BONES OF CONFUSION
Fragments of fibula are sometimes confused with the radius or the ulna, but
they differ in cross section. The fibula is triangular, and the radius and ulna are
tear-drop shaped.

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

The fibula is formed from one primary center of ossification (the diaphysis of
the shaft) and two secondary centers of ossification, the proximal and distal
epiphyses. The distal appears first (9–22 months).
136 Chapter 9 The Leg: Femur, Tibia, Fibula, and Patella

styloid process

head facet for

tibia

Lateral View Medial View

shaft

interosseous
crest

lateral malleolar facet

malleolus for talus

malleolar fossa
Figure 9.9
Left Fibula, Lateral and Medial Views (50% Natural Size)
Note the main smooth surface on the lateral view. It curves laterally and is useful for siding when
only a shaft is available. Run a thumb along it to feel the lateral twist.
 The Leg: Femur, Tibia, Fibula, and Patella Chapter 9 137

epiphysis of head,
superior view

epiphysis of head,
medial view

diaphysis

Basic Ages of Fusion

distal epiphysis ♀12–15 years ♂15–18
proximal epiphysis ♀12–17 years ♂15–20

distal epiphysis,
medial view

distal epiphysis,
inferior view

Figure 9.10
Juvenile Left Fibula, Medial View
138 Chapter 9 The Leg: Femur, Tibia, Fibula, and Patella

Table 9.2 Leg Vocabulary

BONE TERM DEFINITION
FEMUR head the ball-shaped upper extremity of the femur; the femoral head articulates within the
acetabulum of the innominate; the proximal epiphysis
fovea capitis the pit in the femoral head providing attachment for the ligamentum teres
neck the constricted portion just below the head of the femur—the anatomical neck is proximal to
the two trochanters; the surgical neck is distal to the trochanters
greater trochanter the larger and more superior of the two protuberances between the neck and the shaft; a
separate center of ossification
lesser trochanter the smaller and more inferior of the two protuberances between the neck and the shaft; a
separate center of ossification
shaft the major portion of the femur formed from the diaphysis
linea aspera the muscle attachment line on the posterior surface of the femoral shaft
nutrient foramen the aperture through which vessels pass between the inner and outer surfaces of the femoral
shaft; the vessels pass inward as they progress away from the knee
trochlear articular the anterior-most articular surface on the distal end of the femur; the patellar articular surface
surface
medial epicondyle the protuberance proximal and medial to the medial condyle
medial condyle the medial articular surface for the tibia
lateral epicondyle the protuberance proximal and lateral to the lateral condyle
lateral condyle the lateral articular surface for the tibia
intercondylar fossa the depression between the two condyles on the posterior surface of the femur
PATELLA medial articular facet the articular surface that articulates with the anterior of the medial condyle of the femur
lateral articular facet the articular surface that articulates with the anterior of the lateral condyle of the femur
TIBIA medial condyle the proximal articular surface that articulates with the medial condyle of the femur
lateral condyle the proximal articular surface that articulates with the lateral condyle of the femur
intercondylar eminence the bony projection between the two condylar platforms of the tibia; also called
intercondyloid eminence
fibular articular surface the flat oval facet on the inferior surface of the lateral condylar platform; it articulates with the
head of the fibula
fibular notch the indentation on the lateral surface of the distal end of the tibia; the distal shaft of the fibula
is bound into the notch by the tibiofibular ligament
shaft the major part of the tibia, formed from the diaphysis
anterior crest the sharp ridge on the anterior shaft of the tibia, the shin
interosseous crest the low sharp border the length of the lateral side, the attachment site for the interosseous
membrane between tibia and fibula
medial malleolus the projection on the disto-medial end of the tibia; the inner “ankle bone”
popliteal line on the superior and posterior surface of the tibia, a curved roughened attachment surface
nutrient foramen the aperture through which vessels pass between the inner and outer surfaces of the femoral
shaft; the vessels pass inward as they progress away from the knee
tibial plateau the horizontal surface at the proximal end of the tibia; provides the articular surfaces for the
femoral condyles
FIBULA styloid process the slightly sharp projection of bone pointing upward from the proximal end (the head) of
the fibula
head the knob-like proximal end
shaft the major part of the fibula, formed from the diaphysis
lateral malleolus the distal end of the fibula, the lateral “ankle bone”
interosseous crest the sharp border on the length of the medial side; the attachment site for the interosseous
membrane between tibia and fibula
malleolar fossa the indentation or groove posterior to the distal articular surface
CHAPTER 10

The Foot: Tarsals, Metatarsals,

and Phalanges
CHAPTER OUTLINE

Introduction
Tarsal Bones: Ankle and Arch of the Foot
Metatarsal Bones: Foot Bones
Phalanges: Toe Bones

139
140 Chapter 10 The Foot: Tarsals, Metatarsals, and Phalanges

INTRODUCTION
The human foot is built of twenty-six bones. There are seven tarsal bones, five
metatarsal bones, and fourteen phalanges. The tarsals articulate with the leg
and form the heel and the major arch of the foot, the metatarsals extend from
the arch to the toes, and the phalanges form the toes.

Forensic Note
Always bag hands and feet
terminal phalanx
separately.

proximal phalanx
intermediate phalanx

1st metatarsal

5th metatarsal

1st cuneiform
2nd cuneiform
3rd cuneiform

Anatomy Note
cuboid
navicular
The base of the second
metatarsal articulates with all
three cuneiforms.

talus: head

talus

calcaneus

Figure 10.1a
Left Foot, Dorsal (Superior) View (80% Natural Size)
Note that the base of the second metatarsal is inset between the three cuneiforms. However, it
does not articulate with the first metatarsal.
 The Foot: Tarsals, Metatarsals, and Phalanges Chapter 10 141

As with the hand, the terms used for orientation of the foot are specific to the
structure. The top of the foot is superior and the surface is called dorsal. The sole
of the foot is inferior and the surface is called plantar. Each tarsal and metatarsal
can be recognized, and right can be distinguished from left. The phalanges are more
difficult. Proximal, intermediate, and terminal phalanges can be distinguished, but
right and left cannot be separated with certainty, except usually, the first toe.

terminal phalanx

proximal phalanx terminal phalanx

intermediate phalanx

proximal phalanx

1st metatarsal

5th metatarsal

1st cuneiform
2nd cuneiform
3rd cuneiform

navicular
cuboid

talus

calcaneus: sustentaculum calcaneus

tali

calcaneus: tuberosity

Figure 10.1b
Left Foot, Plantar (Inferior) View (80% Natural Size)
142 Chapter 10 The Foot: Tarsals, Metatarsals, and Phalanges

TARSAL BONES: ANKLE AND ARCH OF THE FOOT

DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION
The tarsal bones are seven irregular bones between the leg and the anterior
Definition Note
half of the foot. Only one of the tarsals, the talus, is considered to be part of the
The words tarsal and ankle. It provides for the hinge-type movement with the tibia. The other six
metatarsal are adjectives to
use with a noun (e.g., tarsal tarsals are foot bones.
bone, metatarsal joint). In com- Together, the tarsals form the posterior half of the foot, including the heel
mon usage, however, they are and the major part of what is commonly called the “arch” of the foot. The foot
nominalized to “tarsals” and actually has two arches, the major, longitudinal (proximal/distal) arch, and a
“metatarsals” for convenience less noticed, transverse (medial/lateral) arch. The longitudinal arch is some-
and brevity.
times subdivided into the larger, medial arch and the smaller, lateral arch. Keep
the arches in mind while examining the architecture of the foot.
The tarsal bones can be divided into two groups. Moving from proximal to
distal, the superior/medial group includes the talus, navicular, and three
cuneiforms. The inferior/lateral group includes the proximal calcaneus and
distal cuboid. The cuboid also articulates with the third cuneiform on the distal
row of tarsals.

First Cuneiform
a. b.
The first cuneiform is the largest cuneiform. It articulates with the
navicular proximally and the first metatarsal distally. Look at the
L
lateral facet (the second cuneiform articulation) with the point up.
The tip points toward the correct side.
Figure 10.2a Left First Cuneiform, Proximal View
(Natural Size)
Figure 10.2b Left First Cuneiform, Lateral View
(Natural Size)

Second Cuneiform
The second cuneiform is the smallest cuneiform. It articulates prox- pistol
imally with the navicular and distally with the second metatarsal. L facet
Look at the medial facet (the first cuneiform articulation). It is pistol
shaped. The “barrel” points toward the correct side.
Figure 10.3a Left Second Cuneiform, Distal View
(Natural Size)
Figure 10.3b Left Second Cuneiform, Medial View
(Natural Size)
 The Foot: Tarsals, Metatarsals, and Phalanges Chapter 10 143

Third Cuneiform a. b.
The third cuneiform is longer than the second. It articulates
proximally with the navicular and distally with the third metatar-
sal. When the “butterfly” facet (the double facet for the second
cuneiform) faces you, the narrow plantar end points toward the
correct side. L
Figure 10.4a Left Third Cuneiform, Distal View
(Natural Size)
Figure 10.4b Left Third Cuneiform, Medial View
(Natural Size)

Navicular
The navicular is bowl-shaped. It has a large concave facet on the triple
facet
proximal surface for articulation with the head of the talus. The
distal surface is a three-part facet for articulation with the three
cuneiforms. A tail-like process extends from the medial surface.
Facing the three-part facet with the curved dorsal side up, the “tail”
points toward the correct side.
Figure 10.5a Left Navicular, Plantar View L
(Natural Size)
Figure 10.5b Left Navicular, Distal View
(Natural Size)

Cuboid
The cuboid is bulkier than any of the other cuneiforms. It
articulates proximally with the calcaneus and distally with the
fourth and fifth metatarsals. Facing the dorsolateral side and
pointing the large curved facet down, the narrow margin points
toward the correct side. L

Figure 10.6a Left Cuboid, Lateral View

(Natural Size)
Figure 10.6b Left Cuboid, Dorsolateral View
(Natural Size)
144 Chapter 10 The Foot: Tarsals, Metatarsals, and Phalanges

a. b.
head

Talus
The talus is one of the two large tarsals. It is
the only tarsal with a headlike structure. The
smooth, partial hemisphere articulates with trochlea
the navicular. The saddle-shaped dorsal sur-
face articulates with the distal tibia. The
plantar surface articulates with the calca-
neus at two surfaces. Face the saddle facet
with the head pointed away. The lateral
process points toward the correct side.
ea
Figure 10.7a Left Talus, Superior L
View 85% Natural Size)
Figure 10.7b Left Talus, Plantar
View (85% Natural Size)

sustentaculum
tali

Calcaneus
The calcaneus is the largest tarsal bone. It
forms the heel of the foot. Face the talar facets
with the heel pointing toward you. The susten-
taculum tali is medial. It helps to remember
that the sustentaculum tali is the most proximal
bony support for the major arch of the foot. heel
Figure 10.8a Left Calcaneus,
Superior View (85% Natural Size)
Figure 10.8b Left Calcaneus,
Medial (85% Natural Size) m
i
 The Foot: Tarsals, Metatarsals, and Phalanges Chapter 10 145

LEFT/RIGHT RECOGNITION
It takes time and practice to be able to recognize each tarsal bone and tell right
from left, but it is possible. The positions in Figures 10.2–10.8 are clues from
other students. Examine all surfaces, compare articular surfaces for adjacent
bones, and use your own imagination.

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

The calcaneus is the first tarsal bone to begin ossification (fourth to fifth fetal
month). At the time of birth, only the calcaneus and talus are present. The other
tarsal bones appear one by one over the next five years with the navicular last
(2–6 years). The sequence has been studied by many investigators, and a sum-
mary has been published by Scheuer and Black (2000 and 2004). Tarsals (and
the foot as a whole) are a good guide for age determination in infants and
children.

Table 10.1 Tarsal Articulations

BONE ARTICULAR FACET ADJACENT BONE

TALUS trochlea tibia
head navicular
planar facets calcaneus
lateral facet fibula
CALCANEUS dorsal facet talus
sustentaculum tali facet talus
distal facet cuboid
NAVICULAR proximal surface talus
distal surfaces all three cuneiforms
FIRST CUNEIFORM proximal surface navicular
medial surface no bone
lateral surface second cuneiform and metatarsal #2
distal surface metatarsal #1
SECOND CUNEIFORM proximal surface navicular
medial surface first cuneiform
lateral surface third cuneiform
distal surface metatarsal #2
THIRD CUNEIFORM proximal surface navicular
medial surface second cuneiform and metatarsal #2
lateral surface cuboid
distal surface metatarsal #3
CUBOID proximal surface calcaneus
medial surface third cuneiform
distal surface metatarsals #4 and #5
146 Chapter 10 The Foot: Tarsals, Metatarsals, and Phalanges

METATARSAL BONES: FOOT BONES

DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION
Metatarsals are similar to metacarpals, but they are longer and thinner than
metacarpals. They are also slightly more curved. The specific descriptions and
articulations are given in the captions for each metatarsal illustration. Also see
Table 10.2 for a summary of articulations. Note that the descriptions are guide-
lines for metatarsal recognition. Individual variation abounds in well-used feet,
particularly in the shape and extent of facets.

Figure 10.9
Metatarsal #1, Medial, Lateral, and Proximal Views (80%
Natural size)
Metatarsal #1 is the thickest metatarsal. It has a D-shaped base that
articulates directly with the first cuneiform. The curved side of the “D” is
medial, following the curvature of the foot. The flat side is lateral.
Like the first metacarpal, metatarsal #1 usually has no lateral
facet. The base only articulates with the first cuneiform.
Determine side by looking at the proximal end with the head
pointed away and the dorsal surface up. The flat side is on the
correct (lateral) side.

Figure 10.10
Metatarsal #2, Medial, Lateral, and Proximal Views
(80% Natural Size)
Metatarsal #2 is the longest metatarsal. The base is triangular,
conforming to the distal surface of the second cuneiform. The base of
metatarsal #2 is inset between the distal ends of the first and third
cuneiforms and articulates with all three cuneiforms as well as
metatarsal #3. The result is a small medial facet for the first cuneiform
and a double facet on the lateral side for both the third cuneiform and
the next metatarsal. This double facet bevels the proximal lateral corner
and provides a key characteristic.
Determine side by looking at the proximal end from the dorsal
surface with the head pointed away. The sharper corner points toward
the correct side. Refer to the whole foot illustration for a dorsal view.
The Foot: Tarsals, Metatarsals, and Phalanges Chapter 10 147

Figure 10.11
Metatarsal #3, Medial, Lateral, and Proximal Views
(80% Natural Size)
Metatarsal #3 is easily confused with #2. It is similar in length and
overall conformation and the base is also triangular, conforming to the
shape of the third cuneiform. But the facet on the lateral side of the
base of #3 is large, flat, and adjacent to the base. The proximal
lateral corner is pointed, not beveled.
Determine side by looking at the proximal end from the dorsal
surface with the head pointed away. The sharper corner points toward
the correct side. Refer to the whole foot illustration for a dorsal view.

Figure 10.12
Metatarsal #4, Medial, Lateral, and Proximal Views
(80% Natural Size)
Metatarsal #4 is somewhat inset, but only on the medial side. The
lateral facet is large and adjacent to the base. The base is rectangular,
not triangular like #2 and #3. It articulates with the cuboid.
Determine side by looking at the proximal end from the dorsal
surface with the head pointed away. The sharper corner points toward
the side.

Figure 10.13
Metatarsal #5, Medial, Lateral, and Proximal Views
(80% Natural Size)
Metatarsal #5 is the only metatarsal with a long tail-like process on
the proximallateral aspect. The medial facet is a large simple surface
for articulation with metatarsal #4. The proximal facet articulates with
the cuboid.
Determine side by looking at the proximal end from the dorsal
surface with the head pointed away. The dorsal side is smooth; the
plantar side is grooved. The “tail” (a styloid process) points toward the
correct side.
148 Chapter 10 The Foot: Tarsals, Metatarsals, and Phalanges

LEFT/RIGHT RECOGNITION
It is easier to distinguish sides in metatarsals than metacarpals. The proximal
surfaces (bases) of the second through the fifth all slant so that the lateral edge
is an acute angle which points toward the correct side. (See the full foot illustra-
tion, Figure 10.1.) The plantar surfaces of metatarsals #2–#4 are pointed (see
illustrations of bases in Figures 10.10 to 10.12). The first metatarsal can be
sided by the curvature of the comma-shaped base. The curvature of the tail
points toward the correct side.

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

Just as in the hand, each metatarsal develops from two (not three) centers of
ossification. The primary center is the shaft. The secondary centers form distal
epiphyses (the heads) in metatarsals #2–#5. In metatarsal #1, as in metacarpal
#1, the secondary center is proximal.

Table 10.2 Metatarsal and Phalanx Articulations

BONE ARTICULAR FACET ADJACENT BONE

METATARSAL #1 base first cuneiform
medial surface no bone
lateral surface no bone—not even metatarsal #2
head proximal phalanx
METATARSAL #2 base second cuneiform
medial surface first cuneiform
lateral surface third cuneiform and metatarsal #3
head proximal phalanx
METATARSAL #3 base third cuneiform
medial surface metatarsal #2
lateral surface metatarsal #4
head proximal phalanx
METATARSAL #4 base cuboid
medial surface metatarsal #3
lateral surface metatarsal #5
head proximal phalanx
METATARSAL #5 base cuboid
medial surface metatarsal #4
lateral surface no bone
head proximal phalanx
PROXIMAL PHALANX base metatarsal head
head intermediate phalanx
INTERMEDIATE PHALANX base proximal phalanx
head distal phalanx
DISTAL OR TERMINAL PHALANX base intermediate phalanx
head no bone—only a toenail
 The Foot: Tarsals, Metatarsals, and Phalanges Chapter 10 149

PHALANGES: TOE BONES

DESCRIPTION, LOCATION, ARTICULATION
A phalanx is one of the fourteen bones in the toes. (The word, phalanx, is also
used for the finger bones.) The big toe has two phalanges, proximal and distal.
Each of the other four digits has three phalanges—proximal, intermediate, and
distal. The intermediate phalanx is sometimes called a medial phalanx, but the
term, intermediate is less ambiguous. The distal phalanx is also called a termi-
nal phalanx. In the foot, the intermediate phalanx is very short. Often the
length is no more than the width, forming a tiny square of bone.
Proximal phalanges articulate with the heads of the metacarpals. The
intermediate and distal phalanges articulate only with phalanges.

LEFT/RIGHT RECOGNITION
Whereas each tarsal and metatarsal can be separated from all the others, and
right can be distinguished from left, the phalanges are more difficult. Proximal,
intermediate, and terminal phalanges can be distinguished, but right and left
cannot be separated with certainty in any but the first toe, which usually devi-
ates laterally, toward the rest of the foot, particularly in shoe-wearing people.
Just as with the hands, it is important to bag feet separately during collection
or disinterment. Any toe that may contribute to identification because of trauma
or anomaly should be separated and labeled by number.

INDIVIDUALIZATION
The big toe may display clues about a person's life—particularly habitual posture,
athletic activities, shoe use, and shoe type. The critical joint is the metatarsophalan-
geal joint—the articulation of the first metatarsal and the proximal phalanx. Three
primary conditions that are common among different groups are as follows:

■ Hyperextension or extreme dorsiflexion of the big toe occurs when kneel-

ing is a habitual posture and the toes are hyperextended for balance. It is
best known from Native American populations, particularly women, who
spent long hours grinding corn while kneeling. The bony evidence is elon-
gation of the articular surface onto the dorsal aspect of the first metatar-
sal. It is usually accompanied by osteoarthritis of the joint.
■ Hallux valgus is the inward or lateral deviation of the big toe. It is com-
mon in modern shoe-wearing populations and is more common in women,
particularly when pointed-toe shoes are worn. A large bump (bunion) often
forms on the medial surface of the foot at the distal end of the first meta-
tarsal. This condition can be seen in the angle of metatarsophalangeal
articulation and the enlargement of the medial epicondyle of the first
metatarsal.
■ Hallux varus is the outward or medial deviation of the big toe. It is more
common in archaic populations or other non-shoe-wearing people. Hallux
varus may also suggest use of sandals relying on a strap between the first
and second toe.
150 Chapter 10 The Foot: Tarsals, Metatarsals, and Phalanges

ORIGIN AND GROWTH

Each phalanx forms from two centers of ossification—the primary diaphyseal
shaft, and one epiphysis at the proximal surface (not the distal surface as in
metatarsals #2–#4). The fourth and fifth toes are irregular in development. Toes
are seldom recovered in skeletonized individuals, and epiphyses of phalanges
are even rarer.

Figure 10.14
Toe Phalanges, Dorsal View (Natural Size)
Note the squarelike shape of the intermediate phalanx.
The intermediate and terminal toe phalanges frequently fuse,
probably because of trauma (a lifetime of toe stubbing).
 The Foot: Tarsals, Metatarsals, and Phalanges Chapter 10 151

A FINGER–TOE COMPARISON
The proximal phalanges of the finger and toe look very much alike, but notice
that the finger phalanx is dorso-palmarly compressed. It is flatter and more
oval in cross section than the toe phalanx. The shaft of the toe phalanx is medio-
laterally compressed. It is narrower and waist-like.
The intermediate finger phalanx is much longer than the intermediate toe
phalanx. Whereas the proximal and intermediate finger phalanges can be con-
fused if the observer does not look closely at the proximal articular surfaces, the
proximal and intermediate toe phalanges are not likely to be confused because
of the great difference in size.
Frequently, the tiny distal toe phalanx fuses to the intermediate phalanx.
This is particularly common with the fourth and fifth toes. Fusion is unusual
in fingers.

Figure 10.15
Cross Section Comparison of Finger and Toe
Phalanges
Note that the finger phalanx is oval in cross section, and the toe
phalanx is round in cross section. Roll the bones between your
fingers to feel the difference.
152 Chapter 10 The Foot: Tarsals, Metatarsals, and Phalanges

Figure 10.16
The Value of Shoes
Shoes are often found on the feet of the dead in
both clandestine graves and surface burials.
Whereas the bones of the hands are often scat-
tered, the bones of the feet may be intact and
well preserved, thanks to shoes. They serve to
slow decomposition and protect the feet from
scavengers. In some cases, the only remaining
information about age, sex, and health may
be from the foot bones. Photo courtesy of
Lancerio López
CHAPTER 11

Odontology (Teeth)

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Introduction
Structure and Function of Teeth and Supporting Tissues
Tooth Recognition
Tips for Distinguishing Similar Teeth
Complete Permanent Dentition
Recognizing Racial Traits
Dental Aging
Dental Anomalies
Dentistry and Oral Disease

153
154 Chapter 11 Odontology (Teeth)

INTRODUCTION
Teeth may be just another part of the skull, but they are fascinating. A single
tooth contains enough information to make it a subject unto itself. There is
information about genetic heritage, age, diet, health, medical care, personal
hygiene, personal habits, cultural status, economic condition, and more.
Odontology is the study of teeth—their development, structure, function,
and degeneration. Odontology is the science behind the practice of dentistry.
Use this chapter to learn to identify teeth and find your way around the
oral cavity using the correct terminology. As in the rest of the body, learn what
is normal so that you can recognize the variations that serve to identify the
individual. The long-term objective is better communication between the foren-
sic anthropologist and the dentist (or any professional odontologist).
As with any scientific discipline, the most reliable work is accomplished
by the best-trained person. The odontologist—a dentist, orthodontist, periodon-
tist, oral surgeon, or oral pathologist—has years of study and experience with
the structures of the oral cavity. A forensic dentist has additional training in
human identification and related subjects such as bitemark evidence. The
anthropologist may be the first one to see the teeth, chart them, and report on
them, but the final analysis is usually in the hands of the dentist. If the mouth
contains restored (filled or crowned) teeth, a practicing dentist from the same
region as the victim is usually the best person to provide the analysis. If dental
prostheses are present, a local dentist can often date the work and sometimes
even identify the workmanship.
Why not just skip this chapter and call a forensic dentist? It won’t work.
After extolling the virtues of dental professionals, I still insist that forensic
anthropologists need to learn about teeth, and there are at least three good
reasons as to why:

1. There may be no dentist to call. Under such conditions, the anthropologist

who knows more about teeth is going to find more, see more, and under-
stand more.
2. The anthropologist who can use dental and oral terminology can commu-
nicate with dental professionals, make accurate use of dental records, and
incorporate the information into a larger picture of the unidentified
person.
3. Not all dental information is included in the dental school curriculum
because it is of no practical interest to the dentist. The anthropologist is
more likely to have knowledge about genetic variation due to geographic
and ethnic isolation, cultural differences in hygiene and nutrition, ritual
dental practices, and decompositional changes due to burial conditions.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF TEETH

AND SUPPORTING TISSUES

Both hard and soft tissues are essential to healthy teeth, and teeth contain both.
Enamel overlays the dentin and covers the tooth crown. Enamel is not
only hard, but crystalline in structure. It has no living cells or blood supply, and,
therefore, is not capable of self-repair.
Dentin is the main component of the tooth. It has both organic and inor-
ganic components. The original dentin to be formed is called primary dentin.
It is tubular in structure. The tubules lead from the dentinoenamel junction
(DEJ) to the pulp.
 Odontology (Teeth) Chapter 11 155

Two other types of dentin appear after the tooth is fully formed. (Usually
the tooth is functional at this point.) They are the cellular response to chronic
and acute stress, and are, therefore, age-related changes. Secondary dentin
is laid down within the pulp chamber. It is first seen at the incisal tip and pro-
gresses slowly toward the root apex. The pulp tissue recedes as the secondary
dentin forms. Secondary dentin is non-tubular and, therefore, denser than pri-
mary dentin. The third type of dentin is reparative dentin or tertiary dentin.
It is formed within the dentinal tubules and creates areas of relative transpar-
ency in the primary dentin.
Cementum is a hard, porous substance covering the dentin of the root.
It provides a surface for attachment of the fibers of the periodontal ligament.
In young teeth, the cementum and the enamel meet at the cementoenamel
junction (CEJ). In older teeth, dentin is often exposed in the area of the CEJ.
The periodontal ligament surrounds the tooth root. Collagen fibers
attach the periodontal ligament to the periosteum of the alveolus (tooth socket)
and anchor the tooth in place. The periodontal ligament connects tightly to the
tooth at or near the CEJ, forming a periodontal attachment line on the root.
The gingiva is commonly called “gums” or “gum tissue.” It is connective
tissue covered by mucous membrane. Gingiva surrounds the teeth and envelops
the alveolar bone of the maxilla and mandible. The gingiva is continuous
with the periodontal ligament at the CEJ.

HARD TISSUE SOFT TISSUE

TERMS TERMS

enamel

dentin
pulp

gingiva

alveolar
bone Notes
1. Enamel is a dense, nonor-
periodontal ganic tissue with a crystal-
ligament line structure.
2. Dentin is a dense organic
cementum tissue with a tubular struc-
ture.
3. Alveolar bone is mostly
cancellous bone.
4. Cementum is hard and
porous.
5. Pulp is soft connective tis-
nerves and sue filled with blood ves-
blood vessels
sels and nerves.
6. The periodontal ligament
is fibrous connective
tissue.
Figure 11.1 7. Gingiva is a fibrous con-
Cross Sectional Diagram of a Tooth and Surrounding Tissues nective tissue covered with
mucous membrane.
Note the hard tissue terms are on the left and the soft tissue terms are on the right.
156 Chapter 11 Odontology (Teeth)

DIRECTIONS, SURFACES, AND ANATOMY

Directional terms in the mouth are different from the rest of the body. They are
defined by the oral structures rather than the whole body. Start at the midline
and move along the dental row in either direction. Anything toward the back of
the dental row is distal. Anything toward the midline of the dental row is
mesial (not medial). Other directions are defined by the tongue (lingual), the
cheek (buccal), and the lips (labial).
The surfaces of the teeth are named with directional terms. The prin-
ciples are the same as for the rest of the body, but the terms are different,
so it helps to spend time thinking them through, tooth by tooth. Refer to the
illustrations and note that there is a different name for each surface. The
human body has two lateral sides, but the tooth has a mesial and distal side
as defined by the dental row and not by the body. The second incisor may be
lateral to the first incisor, but it is distal to the first incisor.

Figure 11.2 labial: toward

the lips
Directional Terms for the
Mouth
This is a palatal view of the maxilla mesial: toward
with arrows indicating directions and the midline
tooth surfaces within the oral cavity.
Note that the oral terms are different
than the ones used for the rest of the distal: away from
body. Mesial surfaces are on the buccal: toward
lingual: toward
the midline
the cheek
same side as the midline. Distal the tongue
surfaces are away from the mid-
line. Buccal surfaces face the
cheek. Labial surfaces face the
lips. Lingual surfaces face
the tongue.

apical

labial
Figure 11.3 (buccal on
posterior teeth)
Directional Terms for the
Surfaces of a Single Tooth
This is tooth #10, the upper left lat-
eral incisor. Each surface is named mesial distal
according to its position in the
mouth. The surface nearest the cen-
tral incisor is mesial; the surface
against the canine is distal (not lat-
mesial distal lingual
eral); the cutting surface is incisal
(not inferior); and the root tip is
apical (not superior). Note that the
anterior teeth have incisal edges and
incisal
posterior teeth have occlusal (occlusal on
surfaces. posterior teeth)
 Odontology (Teeth) Chapter 11 157

Table 11.1 Directional Terms for Teeth and Mouth

TERM DEFINITION OPPOSITE
APICAL toward the root tip incisal or occlusal
BUCCAL surface toward the cheek (posterior teeth only) lingual
CERVICAL around the base of the crown, the neck of the tooth, none
or the CEJ
DISTAL away from the midline of the dental row mesial
FACIAL toward the lips or cheek (i.e., both labial and buccal lingual
surfaces) (used for multiple teeth)
INCISAL toward the cutting edge of the anterior teeth apical
INTERPROXIMAL between adjacent teeth none
LABIAL surface toward the lips (anterior teeth only) lingual
LINGUAL surface toward the tongue (all teeth) labial or buccal
MESIAL toward the midline of the dental row distal
OCCLUSAL toward the grinding surface of the posterior teeth apical
Source: Adapted from Gustafson, 1966.

The anatomical terms refer to tooth structures, not tissues. Each structure
is formed of more than one dental tissue (enamel, dentin, cementum, and/or pulp).

■ The crown is the part covered with enamel. It is the first tooth structure
to appear as the tooth develops.
■ Cusps are the conical elevations on the tooth surface. All but the incisors
have at least one cusp. The cusps are named according to their position
(e.g., mesiolingual cusp, distobuccal cusp).
■ The root is the part of the tooth covered with cementum and anchored to
the alveolus by the periodontal ligament. It grows and develops as the
tooth erupts into the oral cavity.
■ The neck or cervix is the area where the crown and root meet—the
CEJ—and the gingiva attaches. It is a dynamic area, vulnerable to age
and health changes.
■ The root apex is the tip of the root through which vessels and nerves incisal edge and cusp
enter the pulp chamber. It is the last structure to be completed in the
growing tooth. Normally, the apex forms when the crown reaches the
occlusal plane (the plane at which the upper and lower teeth meet).

crown
(enamel covered)

neck/C-E junction

Figure 11.4
root
Anatomical Terms (cementum covered)
This is tooth #22, the lower left canine, labial
view. Use this example to clarify the difference
between tissues and structures. For example,
the crown is a tooth structure covered by enamel
tissue. The root is a tooth structure covered by
the tissue, cementum. Enamel and cementum
(two tissues) meet at the neck (a tooth structure). root apex
158 Chapter 11 Odontology (Teeth)

TOOTH NUMBERING SYSTEMS

Many parts of the skeleton can be seen or felt by the observer within his or her
own body. In other words, bones from the left side are easily pictured within the
left side of the observer’s body. The mouth is different. Most people look at their
own mouth in a mirror where left and right can be easily confused. Therefore, to
study the mouth and teeth, use the methods of a dental professional—visualize
the mouth and teeth of another person. In this way, the observer’s right is always
left, and the observer’s left is always right.
There are several different numbering systems. Some require symbols
that do not reproduce well on a keyboard. Others are simple abbreviations such
as “ULM3” (Upper Left Molar #3). Others are based on quadrants such as “28.”
The “2” refers to the second quadrant (the maxillary left quadrant), and the “8”
refers to the eighth tooth from the center (M3).
The standard in the United States is the Universal Numbering System.
It is easy to understand, but it requires a little time and concentration before
each tooth can be visualized by number. The teeth are numbered sequentially
from 1 to 32 beginning with the upper right third molar. One way to remember
the system is to look at the open mouth as if it were a clock. Begin the count at
9:00 and always move clockwise.

#8 #9

#1 #16

#17
#32

Figure 11.5
Universal Numbering System
Teeth are numbered sequentially, beginning with the upper right third molar, progressing clock-
wise around the open mouth, and ending with the lower right third molar.
 Odontology (Teeth) Chapter 11 159

TOOTH RECOGNITION
There are four categories of teeth: incisors, canines, premolars, and molars.
A child has twenty deciduous teeth (baby teeth), five in each quadrant (two
incisors, one canine, and two molars). There are no premolars in the
deciduous dentition.
The normal adult has thirty-two permanent teeth, eight in each quad-
rant (two incisors, one canine, two premolars, and three molars). The premolars
form and erupt beneath the deciduous molars. The permanent molars erupt
distal to the deciduous molars.
There are many variations on the ideal dental model. This is due to both
genetic heritage and the dynamic nature of the oral cavity. It is best to begin by
studying what is considered to be normal. It will then be easier to recognize
individual anomalies and population variation in more advanced studies.
In the following section, each type of permanent tooth is described briefly.
For a more complete description, I recommend Concise Dental Anatomy and
Morphology, 4th ed., by Fuller and Denehy (2001).

Figure 11.6
Incisor
Incisors are the biting teeth in the anterior part of the mouth. They
have a single, relatively straight incisal edge, no cusps, and a
single root. The upper central has the greatest length and breadth
of all the incisors; the four lower incisors are the shortest and nar-
rowest incisors.
When incisors first erupt into the oral cavity, the incisal edge tends
to be scalloped. The scallops or “bumps” are called mamelons.
Dentists often refer to incisors as “centrals” and “laterals.” Centrals
are medial; laterals are distal. The central incisors can be abbrevi-
ated, I1, and the lateral incisors, I2.

Figure 11.7
Canine
Canines are the pointed teeth on either side of the incisors.
They are the longest teeth in the mouth. Canines have one
cusp and a single root.
Dentists may refer to canines as “cuspids,” but a common
name in English is “eye tooth.” The canine can be abbrevi-
ated with the letter, C.

Figure 11.8
Premolar
Premolars are the two teeth distal to the canine. They have two cusps
and one or two roots. Lower premolars are rounded in cross section
whereas upper premolars tend to be mesiodistally compressed.
The buccal cusp is larger on both upper and lower premolars, but
the cusp size difference is greater on the lower premolars. The dif-
ference is so pronounced on the lower premolar that it is commonly
mistaken by students for a canine. The main cusp of the lower pre-
molar occludes between the two cusps of the upper premolar.
Dentists may call premolars “bicuspids.” Premolars are abbreviated
P1 and P2.
160 Chapter 11 Odontology (Teeth)

Figure 11.9
Molar
Molars are the three teeth distal to the premolars. They are the chewing or grinding
teeth. Molars have multiple cusps and multiple roots. They vary more than any of the
other teeth in size and shape.
Upper molars usually have three roots; lower molars usually have two roots. The cusp pat-
terns are distinctive. The first molars usually have the largest occlusal surface, whereas
the third molars tend to be reduced in size, usually with fewer roots or fused roots.
The third molars are more variable in form than the first and second molars, therefore they
can be more difficult to recognize. Learn the first and second molars first.
Dentists may call molars the “first molar, second molar, and third molar.” In common lan-
guage, the molars are often referred to by the general time of eruption—the 6-year
molar, the 12-year molar, and the 18-year molar. The third molar is more commonly
called the “wisdom tooth” because it erupts after puberty.
Molars are abbreviated M1, M2, and M3.

TIPS FOR DISTINGUISHING SIMILAR TEETH

It is relatively easy to sort teeth into incisors, canines, premolars, and molars.
But the next step is to sort maxillary from mandibular teeth, left from right,
and first from second in series (e.g., first and second maxillary right premolars).
All of this can be accomplished with normal dentition, but it takes practice.
The only real problem may be the lower incisors. Sometimes the only way to be
sure is to see which fits into which socket of the mandible.
The illustrations help with the preliminary sorting of maxillary from man-
dibular incisors, premolars, and canines.

DISTINGUISHING MAXILLARY INCISORS FROM MANDIBULAR INCISORS

(200% NATURAL SIZE)
Study the two incisors. The primary differ-
ence is the shape of the root. The maxillary
incisor root is rounded in cross section, and
the mandibular incisor root is mesiodistally
flattened.
The incisal edge of the lateral maxil-
lary incisor is more likely to be slanted with
the mesial edge longer, whereas the incisal
edge of the mandibular incisor is more
cingulum likely to be horizontal. In other words, the
incisal corners of the mandibular incisor
slanted edge are nearer to 90-degree angles, whereas the
Figure 11.10a incisal corners of the lateral maxillary inci-
sor are mesially acute and distally obtuse.
Maxillary Lateral—#10,
Labial and Incisal Surfaces The cingulum of the maxillary inci-
sor is a well-defined shelf on the lingual
surface. The lingual surface of the mandib-
ular incisor is curved, but not quite so
shelflike.

narrow root

Figure 11.10b
Mandibular Lateral—#23,
Labial and Incisal Surfaces
 Odontology (Teeth) Chapter 11 161

DISTINGUISHING MAXILLARY PREMOLARS FROM MANDIBULAR

PREMOLARS (200% NATURAL SIZE)
buccal Examine the two premolars. On both pre-
molars, the buccal cusps are larger than the
lingual cusps. The difference, however, is
much greater between the size of the two
distal mesial
cusps on the mandibular premolar than on
the maxillary premolar.
The cross-sectional shape is also dif-
lingual ferent. The maxillary premolar is mesiodis-
tally compressed, whereas the mandibular
Figure 11.11a
premolar is rounded.
Maxillary Premolar (#5), The maxillary first premolar usually
Occlusal Surface
has two well-defined roots, whereas the
maxillary second and the mandibular pre-
lingual molars usually have a single root.
The first maxillary premolar is the
same size or slightly larger than the second
maxillary premolar. The first mandibular
distal mesial
premolar is almost always smaller than the
second mandibular premolar.

buccal

Figure 11.11b
Mandibular Premolar (#28),
Occlusal Surface

DISTINGUISHING MAXILLARY MOLARS FROM MANDIBULAR MOLARS

(200% NATURAL SIZE)
buccal Take a good look at the two first molars.
Notice that the cusps and grooves form a
completely different pattern. The cusps of
the maxillary molar are not in a symmetri-
mesial distal cal relationship, whereas the cusps of the
mandibular molar are symmetrical. The
mesiolingual cusp predominates on the
maxillary molar, whereas no single cusp
lingual predominates on the mandibular molar.
Figure 11.12a The distolingual cusp of the maxillary
Maxillary First Molar (#14), molars is separated from the other three
Occlusal Surface by the diagonal distolingual groove. The
mandibular molar cusp pattern is square
and the grooves tend to form a plus sign.
lingual

mesial distal

buccal
Figure 11.12b
Mandibular First Molar (#19),
Occlusal Surface
162 Chapter 11 Odontology (Teeth)

COMPLETE PERMANENT DENTITION

2nd 1st
premolar premolar canine lateral central
3rd molar 2nd molar 1st molar (bicuspid) (bicuspid) (cuspid) incisor incisor
#1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7 #8

facial
view

occlusal
and incisal
view

occlusal
and incisal
view

facial
view

3rd molar 2nd molar 1st molar 2nd 1st canine lateral central
#32 #31 #30 premolar premolar (cuspid) incisor incisor
(bicuspid) (bicuspid) #27 #26 #25
#29 #28
Figure 11.13
Anatomy Note
Permanent Dentition, Facial View and Occlusal/Incisal View
Root tips tend to curve distally.
 Odontology (Teeth) Chapter 11 163

1st 2nd
central lateral canine premolar premolar
incisor incisor (cuspid) (bicuspid) (bicuspid) 1st molar 2nd molar 3rd molar
#9 #10 #11 #12 #13 #14 #15 #16

facial
view

occlusal
and incisal
view

occlusal
and incisal
view

facial
view

central lateral canine 1st 2nd 1st molar 2nd molar 3rd molar
incisor incisor (cuspid) premolar premolar #19 #18 #17
#24 #23 #22 (bicuspid) (bicuspid)
#21 #20
164 Chapter 11 Odontology (Teeth)

RECOGNIZING RACIAL TRAITS

There are many variants of the “standard” dentition, but only two dental traits
stand out as easy-to-recognize characteristics of major racial groups. As with
all other racial indicators, dental traits cannot stand alone in racial
identification.

SHOVEL-SHAPED INCISORS
Maxillary incisors tend to be shovel-shaped among groups with Asian ances-
try. This includes Native Americans. The lateral edges of the incisor fold lin-
gually to form a rough version of a coal shovel, or, in extreme cases, a rolled cone.
Shovel-shaped incisors are found in close to 100 percent of some Native
American groups, but they are also found (in low frequency) in other parts of
the world (Scott & Turner, 2000).

no shoveling deep shoveling

Figure 11.14
Shovel-Shaped Incisor, An Asian Origin/Native American
Indicator

CARABELLI’S CUSP
Among people of European ancestry, the first maxillary molar sometimes dis-
plays an accessory cusp on the mesiolingual surface. The cusp can be found in
a range of sizes from a small “leaflet” to a size equivalent to the other four cusps.
The frequency of Carabelli’s cusp is low (< 20 percent) in most of the world,
but higher (20 to 30 percent) in Western Eurasia (Scott & Turner, 1997). (It is
also called Carabelli’s trait or Carabelli’s tubercle.)

mesiodistal
Carabelli’s groove
cusp

Figure 11.15
Carabelli’s Cusp on Maxillary Molar, a
European Indicator
Photo Courtesy of Bone Clones, Inc.,
www.boneclones.com.
 Odontology (Teeth) Chapter 11 165

DENTAL AGING
Age estimation from teeth has been employed by numerous researchers seeking
better and more convenient ways to determine age from human remains. Just
as with bone, the formative years provide better age estimates than the degen-
erative years. The sequence of tooth formation and eruption is well documented.
Formation is influenced by nutrition and health care, as well as by inheritance,
but dental formation is less dependent on behavioral factors than are dental
aging and degeneration.

FORMATIVE CHANGES IN TEETH

Tooth formation and eruption are very useful for determining the age of infants,
children, and young adults. The rate of tooth growth and the details of tooth
morphology vary from population to population, and anomalies appear in indi-
viduals, but the stages of development are the same. Study how teeth form and
develop. Learn to recognize the definable stages of growth in both exfoliated
teeth and radiographs. Then apply the knowledge to understanding methods
for age determination.
Each of the following steps occurs, in sequence, in the formation of teeth.
All can be seen on dental radiographs.
■ Commencement of crown development: The cusps form first.
■ Completion of crown development: The enamel is complete.
■ Commencement of root development: The CEJ is visible.
■ Bifurcation of the root in multirooted teeth: The floor of the pulp chamber
is visible in molar teeth.
■ Eruption into the oral cavity: The crown is no longer completely enclosed
in alveolar bone.
■ Attainment of occlusion: The cusps are level with the occlusal plane.
■ Closure of the root tip: The outer walls of the tooth root curve toward each
other and the sharp terminal edges thicken.

deciduous later
permanent lateral

Figure 11.16
Mixed Dentition Mandible
The full deciduous dentition is present with the exception of the deciduous central incisors. The permanent first
molars and the permanent central incisors are in occlusion. The permanent lateral incisors have erupted lingual to
the deciduous lateral incisors. (Mamelons are visible on incisal surfaces of the permanent teeth, and exposed
dentin can be seen on the incisal surfaces of the deciduous teeth.) The permanent second molars can be seen
within the alveolar bone. Use the charts on the following pages to estimate the age of this child.
166 Chapter 11 Odontology (Teeth)

INFANT AND TODDLER: DECIDUOUS DENTITION

The illustrations on pages 166 to 168 are adapted from Ubelaker’s 1989 Dental
Aging Chart from Human Skeletal Remains (Fig. 71) and provide an overview of
dental development in relation to age. Note the increasing range of variation for
each stage of development. Deciduous teeth are cross-hatched; adult teeth are white.

Figure 11.17a
Birth ±2 months

No teeth have erupted, but the maxilla and mandible are packed
with growing teeth.
■ Crowns of the deciduous incisors are near completion.
■ All other deciduous teeth are present.
■ The crown of the first permanent molar is beginning to
develop.

Figure 11.17b
1 Year ±4 months
The deciduous incisors have erupted.
■ The first deciduous molar is ready to erupt.

■ Crowns of the first permanent molar, incisors, and canine are

beginning to develop.

Figure 11.17c
2 Years ±8 months

The deciduous dentition is completely erupted, but the roots are

incomplete.
■ The crown of the first permanent molar is near completion.
■ The crown of the upper first permanent premolar has begun
to develop.

Figure 11.17d
4 Years ±12 Months

The deciduous dentition is complete, including root tips.

■ The crown of the second permanent molar is beginning to
develop.
■ All of the permanent teeth except the third molar are now
growing in the developing mandible.
 Odontology (Teeth) Chapter 11 167

CHILD: MIXED DENTITION

The deciduous dentition is cross-hatched. The adult dentition is white.

Figure 11.18a
6 Years ±24 months

■ The first permanent molar is erupting.

■ The permanent incisors are ready to erupt.
■ The second permanent molar is beginning to
develop.

Figure 11.18b
8 Years ±24 months

■ Exfoliation of deciduous teeth has begun.

■ Permanent incisors have erupted.
■ The root tips of the first permanent molar are
complete.
■ The root of the second permanent molar is
developing.
■ The  roots of the canine and premolars are
developing.

Figure 11.18c
10 Years ±30 months

■ Exfoliation and replacement is near completion.

Only the upper canine and second deciduous
molars remain.
■ The root bifurcation of the second permanent
molar is complete.
■ The third permanent molar is beginning to develop.
168 Chapter 11 Odontology (Teeth)

TEENAGER AND ADULT: PERMANENT DENTITION

Figure 11.19a
12 Years ±30 months

■ No deciduous teeth remain.

■ The second permanent molar has erupted.
■ Many of the root tips are incomplete.
■ The crown of the third molar is developing.

Figure 11.19b
15 Years ±30 months

■ The root tips of the erupted teeth are all complete.

■ The root of the third molar is developing.

Figure 11.19c
21 Years or More—Complete Permanent Dentition

■ All thirty-two teeth have erupted.

■ All have reached occlusion.
■ All root tips are fully formed.
 Odontology (Teeth) Chapter 11 169

AGE CHANGES IN ADULT TEETH

Teeth are an ideal source of age-related information. They survive longer than
any other part of the body and are still available when the rest of the body is
mutilated or decomposed. In ancient and primitive populations, dental attrition
(wear) is directly correlated with age. It is possible to look at the teeth of a
young adult, compare the wear on the first molar (erupted at 6 years) with the
second molar (erupted at 12 years), and know about how much attrition to
expect in six years of the local diet. But modern populations are not so simple.
Processed foods and professional dental care can make the teeth of a 60-year-old
look like those of a 20-year-old at first glance. The teeth are still aging, but in
less visible ways. Modern tooth aging methods are designed to use the obscure
changes along with the obvious ones.
Before discussing methods, it is important to understand what is actually
happening as a tooth ages. Teeth, just like bone, are adaptive. They change
throughout life. The enamel is nonliving and incapable of regeneration, so it
just wears away through the process of abrasion. But as the tooth enamel disap-
pears, the underlying dentin grows stronger. Minerals are deposited in the pulp
chamber (secondary dentin) and the dentinal tubules sclerose and become
translucent or transparent (this is also called reparative or tertiary dentin).
If the timing is right, the dentin is ready to serve as a chewing surface by
the time the occlusal enamel is worn down. Then the pulp chamber is ready to
do the same by the time the occlusal dentin is worn off. With good oral health,
teeth can be chewed to the original gum line and slightly below.
Gingival tissues (gums) also recede. In the newly erupted tooth, the gums
are attached to the tooth root at the cervix, but with time and stress, the attach-
ment moves toward the root apex. The older adult is called “long in the tooth”
for a reason. As the attachment moves, the underlying alveolar bone resorbs,
and more and more of the root surface is exposed.
The only tissue that grows (minimally) is the cementum at the apical end
of the tooth. As less and less of the tooth root is held within the bony socket, the
cementum, vital to periodontal attachment, grows thicker.
Loss of crown height and change in periodontal attachment level are the
only two age changes that can be evaluated on direct examination in the mouth.
Root transparency can be seen in intact teeth with strong transmitted light,
and root transparency and secondary dentin can be seen fairly well on radio-
graphs. All age changes can be seen and measured on thin sagittal sections of
intact (not decalcified) teeth.

AGING METHODS FOR ADULT TEETH

Over the last few decades, several dental aging techniques have advanced. The
first was a scoring method published by Gösta Gustafson, a Swedish odontolo-
gist, in 1947 (English version in 1950). He used ground sections of teeth to view
the six major age changes described in the last section—attrition, secondary
dentin, periodontal attachment level, root transparency, and cementum deposi-
tion. He also included root resorption, a change that is more difficult to recog-
nize and assess.
The goal of subsequent methods was to improve on Gustafson’s method by
determining age with greater precision and making it applicable to more diverse
populations. There have been improvements in sectioning methods, more elabo-
rate statistics, and increases in population size and diversity. Some methods
used fewer criteria, others used more. The more recent goal has been to obtain
reasonably reliable results with the very simplest methods possible. Soomer
and colleagues (2003) tested eight of the methods, including Kvaal and Solheim
(1994) for in situ and extracted teeth, Solheim (1993) for in situ and sectioned
teeth, Lamendin and colleagues (1992) for extracted teeth, Johanson (1971) for
sectioned teeth, and Bang and Ramm (1970) for extracted and sectioned teeth.
170 Chapter 11 Odontology (Teeth)

It was found that methods for sectioned teeth gave more reliable results when
compared to methods for intact teeth. This is no surprise—sections reveal more
information.
The two best-known aging methods are included here—one for sectioned
teeth (Gustafson, 1950) and one for whole teeth (Lamendin et al., 1992). Both
of these have been tested and improved upon. In other words, there are better
formulae available, but these are the simplest techniques and they provide a
starting point for all the others. I recommend a thorough study of all the meth-
ods to anyone considering using a dental aging method. The choice of method
depends on several factors:

1. Which teeth are available? Most of the methods can only be used on ante-
rior teeth. A few methods include posterior teeth (Burns & Maples, 1976;
Maples, 1978).
2. Can the remains be removed, altered, or destroyed to obtain information? If
not, methods for in situ or intact teeth are required (Bang & Ramm, 1970;
Kvaal & Solheim, 1994; Lamendin et al., 1992; Prince & Ubelaker, 2002).
3. What equipment is available? A thin sectioning saw or something similar
is necessary for histological methods and dental radiographic equipment
for x-ray methods. A light table is also useful.
4. What information is already known about the individual? Prince and
Ubelaker’s (2002) modifications to the Lamendin method require knowl-
edge of sex and ancestry.
5. What is the level of training of the observers? Sectioned teeth require more
training.
6. What are the requirements for precision and accuracy? Sectioned teeth
provide more information..

GUSTAFSON’S METHOD
Gustafson’s method (1950, 1966) requires thin sections of single-rooted teeth.
Gustafson used hand ground sections. The same or better results can be
obtained with a Buehler Isomet low-speed saw.

Steps for Age Estimation from Tooth Sections, based on Gustafson

(1950, 1966)
1. Cut a section from the center of the tooth. The sections should be thin
enough to allow transmitted light (100 to 300 microns). It should be pos-
sible to locate and examine microstructural features.
2. Mount the section on a glass slide for stability and maintenance and num-
ber the slide.
3. Score each of the age-related factors according to Table 11.2.
4. Apply the scores to the Gustafson formula and compare results with any
and all other age-related information available from the remains.

Gustafson Formula
Age = 11 + 4.56 (A + P + S + C + R + T) +/– 10.9 (standard error of the
estimate)
 Odontology (Teeth) Chapter 11 171

stage 0 stage 1 stage 2 stage 3

Figure 11.20
Age Changes in Adult Teeth
These illustrations depict the four stages of the six age changes defined by Gustafson (1950). The crown
is wearing down (A); secondary dentin is filling the pulp chamber (S); the periodontal attachment level is
moving toward the root apex (P); the root is becoming transparent (T); the cementum is thickening near the
apex (C); and the apex of the root is resorbing (R). Each of these changes is defined in Table 11.2.

Table 11.2 Scoring Information for Age-Related Data from Teeth

SCORE STAGE 0 STAGE 1 STAGE 2 STAGE 3
A no attrition attrition into attrition into dentin attrition into original
CROWN enamel only pulp chamber
ATTRITION

S no secondary dentin secondary dentin secondary dentin secondary dentin filling

SECONDARY visible filling 1/3 of the most of the pulp
DENTIN pulp chamber chamber
P periodontal reduced periodontal periodontal periodontal attachment
PERIODONTOSIS attachment at CE attachment attachment at the at the lower 2/3 of
junction upper 1/3 of root the root
T no transparency beginning transparency of the transparency of the
ROOT transparency apical 1/3 of root apical 2/3 or more of
TRANSPARENCY the root
C thin, even cementum increasing cementum thick layer of heavy layer of
CEMENTUM cementum cementum
R no resorption and beginning resorption flattening of root flattening of root apex,
ROOT open apex and closed apex apex, affecting only affecting both
RESORPTION cementum cementum and dentin
172 Chapter 11 Odontology (Teeth)

LAMENDIN’S METHOD
The Lamendin method (1992) is embraced by many because of its simplicity.
Prince and Ubelaker (2002) tested the Lamendin method with a larger, more
variable sample. They claimed that the mean errors could be reduced when
ancestry and sex are considered. The International Commission on Missing
Persons in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina uses the Lamendin method regu-
larly. The Commission reports no difference in overall results between Lamendin
and Prince, but it recommends separate formulae for individual teeth (Sarajlić
et al., 2005).
Lamendin’s method is not used for anyone less than 25 years old, but other
methods are available for the younger age group.

Steps for Age Estimation from Intact Teeth, based on Lamendin (1992)
1. Extract tooth carefully, do not scrub or alter the periodontal line of
attachment.
2. Measure periodontosis height on the labial surface of the root from the
cementoenamel junction to the periodontal attachment line. If no soft tis-
sue remains, the line appears as a smooth yellowish area below the enamel.
Stain and calculus deposits are common along the line.
3. Measure transparency height from the apex of the root to the maximum
height of transparency on the labial surface. (View with transmitted light.)
4. Measure root height from the apex of the root to the cementoenamel
junction.
5. Apply Lamendin formula:

Age = (0.18 × P) + (0.42 × T) + 25.53

P = (periodontosis height × 100)/root height

T = (transparency height × 100)/root height

Figure 11.21
Periodontosis
Figure 11.22 Figure 11.23
Height
Root Height Transparency
Height (on
Light Board)
 Odontology (Teeth) Chapter 11 173

DENTAL ANOMALIES
There are many minor variations in secondary cusps, fissure patterns, marginal
ridges, supernumerary roots, and so forth. Any unusual trait may be useful for
identification by dental records, and dental anomalies can be helpful for match-
ing traits of family members in mass graves. There are several dental anomalies
common enough to be named and a few examples are listed here.

1. Gemination. Adjacent teeth are sometimes fused, or “twinned,” and two

teeth form from one tooth bud. This usually affects central and lateral
incisors.
2. Fusion. Two teeth fuse during development and erupt as one, unusually
large tooth. This also affects incisors more than other teeth.
3. Supernumerary teeth. Extra teeth (hyperodontia), adding to the usual
2-1-2-3 dental formula. The extra tooth may be either normal or anoma-
lous in form. It may appear either as a separate structure or be fused to
other teeth.
4. Missing teeth. It is slightly more common to have missing teeth (agenesis
or hypodontia) than extra teeth. The third molar is missing more often
than any other tooth. It may be difficult to tell if a tooth is congenitally
missing or extracted, especially if the tooth is a third molar or a bicuspid.
Bicuspids are frequently extracted as part of orthodontic treatment.
5. Abnormal crown forms. There are many variants on the normal crown
form, but only a few that are common enough to have names.
a. Conical lateral incisor (microdontia, peg-shaped incisors). A simple,
primitive-looking tooth.
b. Hutchinson’s incisors. Screwdriver-shaped incisors. Usually
associated with congenital syphilis.
c. Tricuspid premolar. A maxillary premolar with three cusps—two
buccal and one lingual.
d. Mulberry molar. A molar covered with many small cusps or bumps.
Usually associated with congenital syphilis.
6. Amelogenesis imperfecta. The enamel fails to form normally. The mild
form looks like cloudy enamel; the more severe form results in very thin
enamel and yellow or brown teeth.
7. Dentinogenesis imperfecta. The dentin fails to form normally, and the
teeth may appear as mere stubs.
8. Enamel hypoplasia. The enamel fails to mineralize normally, leaving
ridges on the surface of the tooth.

DENTISTRY AND ORAL DISEASE

As the major entrance to the interior of the body, the mouth admits many
uninvited guests, otherwise known as pathogens. Even the healthiest person
usually shows some evidence of oral or dental disease. Oral diseases are exten-
sive enough to fill entire books and require years of study. Here, however, the
focus is only on the most common diseases that leave their mark in the oral
tissues most likely to be found in skeletonized remains. Each of the following
conditions should be reported. They all provide clues about the life history of
the individual.
174 Chapter 11 Odontology (Teeth)

DENTAL CARIES
The most common chronic disease in the modern world is dental caries or “cavi-
ties.” It is caused by microbial invasion of the teeth. The organisms first demineral-
ize the inorganic substance of the teeth, and then destroy the organic substance. If
not arrested, the sensitive nerve tissue at the center of the tooth is exposed and the
entire tooth is consumed. The pulp chamber and the root provide free and easy
access to the alveolar bone that supports the tooth, and the bone itself can also be
invaded and destroyed. Once inside the bone, the infection can proceed to the sinus
cavities and even the brain. The pain is so great, however, that few people allow the
disease to advance so far before finding a way to extract the tooth.
Dental caries is most common among modern populations with high-
carbohydrate diets (e.g., corn agriculturalists). The occurrence of caries is
greatest in groups that have both high-carbohydrate diets and drinking water
with low mineral content. Modern societies counter this problem by adding
stannous fluoride (or stannous hexafluoroziconate) to drinking water and tooth-
paste. Fluorine reduces the incidence of caries by making the tooth enamel
harder and less penetrable.

PERIODONTAL DISEASE
Periodontal tissues support and anchor the tooth. Any disease in the periodontal
tissues endangers the tooth also. Usually periodontal disease begins with sim-
ple plaque, followed by calculus formation. Calculus is rough and porous. It
easily harbors bacteria. The result is irritation and inflammation of the sur-
rounding gingival tissues.
Underlying alveolar bone is affected by the inflamation in the gingiva, and
the bone resorbs and remodels. The result is pocket formation around the teeth,
more bacteria, more plaque, more calculus, more inflammation, and more bony
resorption.
Eventually, the tooth root is exposed to the oral cavity and the tooth
becomes unstable. Finally, the tooth has insufficient bone for support and it
simply falls out. By this time, the alveolar bone is highly irregular in appear-
ance and very little tooth socket is visible. (See Figure 11.24.)
perforation of labial
and lingual bone

exposed
roots porous and irregular
reactive bone

Figure 11.24b
apical Evidence of Advanced Periodontal Disease in the
abscesses Maxilla, Palatal View
Figure 11.24a Note the extreme alveolar bone loss. The existing bone is porous and
Evidence of Advanced Periodontal Disease in irregular. The tooth roots are exposed. During life, the remaining teeth
the Maxilla, Lateral View were loose and near exfoliation. Apical abscesses had perforated both
the labial and palatal bone. This is good evidence that the deceased
individual was experiencing pain and halitosis (bad breath).
 Odontology (Teeth) Chapter 11 175

APICAL ABSCESS
An apical abscess is the result of microbial invasion of the tooth root.
The abscess forms at the apex of the root and a cavity develops in the bone. The
shape of the cavity is rounded and smooth walled. This is a result of the body’s
efforts to wall off the infection. The abscess will often drain by perforating the
labial or buccal bony plate. (See Figure 11.24.)

CALCULUS ACCUMULATION
Calculus or “dental tartar” is the hard substance that forms around the neck
of the tooth—in the area of the CEJ. It is dental plaque that has undergone
mineralization. In some individuals, dental calculus accumulates to the extent
that it forms a “bridge” between teeth. In extreme cases, a tooth may be held in
place only because it is attached to adjacent teeth by the calculus bridge.
Occasionally, a calculus “collar” will grow into a calculus “crown,” literally cover-
ing the entire tooth. Calculus on the occlusal surface is an indication that the
tooth is not used for chewing.

OCCLUSION AND MALOCCLUSION

Maxillary and mandibular teeth fit together in a variety of ways. The exact
occlusion is dependent on genetics, use or behavior, and disease or trauma.
Dentists, and particularly orthodontists, classify occlusion into three general
classes. Each can be considered normal or abnormal according to oral health
and function. Personal expectations and societal norms tend to influence what
is considered normal also.
1. Class I occlusion: All of the top teeth line up with the bottom teeth, includ-
ing the anterior teeth. This is also called an “edge-to-edge” bite and is
normal in many groups of people.
2. Class II occlusion: The upper teeth stick out past the lower teeth when the
molars are occluded. This is also called an “overbite” and is a normal condi-
tion in people of European and African origin. The lower incisors occlude
with the cingulum instead of the incisal edge of the upper incisors. (Class II
Malocclusion is a more extreme condition, also called “buck teeth.”)
3. Class III occlusion: A type of bite where the lower teeth stick out past the
upper teeth. This is also called an “underbite.”

DENTAL STAINING
Stained teeth are exposed to the world throughout life, so they make good iden-
tification tools. But before considering all the lifetime possibilities, rule out
postmortem effects. If the stains are the result of burial conditions, the teeth
should be consistent in color with the rest of the skull and any adhering soil.
Antemortem tooth discoloration can be related to external staining agents,
dental restorations, trauma, or systemic disease. The normal color of teeth is
determined by the white of the enamel (with tints of blue and pink) and the
underlying yellow of dentin. A clean, “unstained” tooth may appear yellowish
simply because of thin enamel.
Most of us know the causes of generalized external staining—lack of den-
tal hygiene, coffee, tea, tobacco, red wine, and so on. Most of these are general-
ized yellowish brown stains, except for wine, which tends to leave a purplish
gray stain. Tobacco produces a recognizable pattern of staining. Smokers show
an overall brownish stain that intensifies on the lingual surfaces. A person who
uses chewing tobacco will have more stain (and more periodontal disease) in
the area where the “wad” is habitually placed—typically the buccal surface of
one side of the mouth.
Other yellowish-brown stains can be caused by tetracycline, an antibiotic
that deposits in hard tissues during development. It affects developing teeth
until about 12 years of age. It crosses the placental barrier and is secreted in
176 Chapter 11 Odontology (Teeth)

breast milk. Tetracycline was first used in the mid-1950s and the effect on
developing teeth was recognized within a few years. It is unlikely that such
staining would be seen on younger persons today.
Congenital diseases such as amelogenesis imperfecta and dentinogenesis
imperfecta also cause yellow teeth, but the teeth are malformed. There is little
reason to confuse these diseases with simple staining.
Metallic stains produce brownish or grayish coloration, depending on the
metal. Iron oxide, a common drinking water contaminant, stains brown.
Amalgam dental restorations and silver endodontic treatments stain gray. In
dental restorations, the metal either shows through the enamel directly or it
slowly infiltrates open dentinal tubules to reach the dentinoenamel junction
with the same gray result.
White or “cloudy” spots can be caused by fluorosis—excessive fluoride
intake. Fluorosis may be due to naturally occurring water supplies or an excess
of fluoride treatment.
Pink, purple, and blue teeth can be caused by trauma to individual teeth
resulting in hemorrhage within the pulp. Red blood cells are too big to travel
up dentinal tubules, but when the red blood cell membrane ruptures, the con-
tents are released. Iron oxides can travel up the dentinal tubules, where they
may release oxygen and change color from red to purple to blue, just like the
blood cells in a bruise. Pinkish teeth can also result from postmortem changes
through the same mechanism. There are reports of pink teeth in carbon mon-
oxide poisoning and drowning, and some medical investigators say that the
position of the body contributes to the pattern of coloration.
If possible, find out what is normal for the locality. If a specific type of
staining is common to all people living in the area, the condition may place the
unidentified person within the population, but it won’t identify him or her. In
some groups, staining is so common that unstained teeth are more interesting
than stained teeth. Unusually white teeth may be the result of unusual dietary
habits, or, in recent years, the popular “teeth whitening” agents. Either way, a
bit of social information can be gained from unstained teeth. (See Watts & Addy,
2001, for a more thorough review of staining.)

“METH MOUTH”: EFFECTS OF METHAMPHETAMINE USE

The effects of methamphetamine use have been reported only recently (see
Davey, 2005), but dentists who work in prisons or drug clinics recognize it
instantly. They call it “meth mouth.” The teeth are grayish brown, or blackened
stumps. The most characteristic effect is erosion of the enamel, beginning at
the gum line and moving toward the crown. The teeth twist and break off
near the gum line, leaving decaying roots in the alveoli. One dentist said it
looked like someone had taken a hammer to the teeth and shattered them.
The damage is evidently caused by several associated factors. The caustic
ingredients in the methamphetamine lead to enamel damage and cause dry
mouth. Without saliva, bacteria multiply rapidly. Without intact enamel, decay
is rampant. Users are constantly thirsty and crave carbonated high-sugar
drinks, which increases the progress of decay. Jaw clenching and tooth grinding,
effects of a methamphetamine high, weaken, twist, and break the teeth.
At this writing, the dental effects of methamphetamine are not well
researched, but the phenomenon is well enough known to be useful for anthro-
pologists faced with identification of possible drug addicts.
 Odontology (Teeth) Chapter 11 177

THE EDENTULOUS CONDITION: EFFECTS OF LONG-TERM TOOTH LOSS

Compare the two skulls below. They are approximately the same size and of the
same sex and race. But the lower halves of the faces are very different. When
teeth are extracted, the alveolar bone that supports the teeth is no longer under
tension. The only force becomes compression as a person “gums” food. Therefore,
the alveolar ridge resorbs, the maxilla and mandible are shortened, and the
facial appearance changes drastically. Dentures can increase the distance
between the maxilla and mandible, but no prosthesis can replace the critical
tension supplied by the periodontal ligament.

no remaining
alveolar bone

Figure 11.25
Normal Dentition and Edentulous Mouth
The skull on the left is of a European male with only the third molars missing. The alveolar ridge fully supports the teeth and the facial
profile is normal. The skull on the right is of a European male without teeth. The teeth were lost years before death and all of the tooth
sockets have healed and resorbed. The maxilla and mandible have remodeled to exclude the alveolar ridge. The result is forward
projection of the chin, shortening of the lower face, and a change in overall facial proportions.
178 Chapter 11 Odontology (Teeth)

Table 11.3 A Few of the More Common Terms Used in Dentistry

These terms may help the anthropologist communicate more effectively with the odontologist.

TERM DEFINITION
AMALGAM a restoration made of a metal in mercury solution (usually 67% Ag, 27% Sn, 5% Cu, and 1% Zn); one part
alloy and two parts mercury are mixed and packed into the cleaned and sealed dental cavity; the amalgam
hardens in about 24 hours
BRIDGE a fixed or removable replacement for missing teeth, attached to natural teeth by wires or crowns
COMPOSITE a plastic resin restoration that mimics the appearance of enamel
CROWN a permanent replacement for a natural crown, made of porcelain on metal, or metal alone (gold or other
stable metal)
DENTAL fixed or removable replacement of one or more teeth and/or associated oral structures; denture, bridgework,
PROSTHESIS or oral appliance
DENTURE a complete or full denture replaces all of the natural dentition of the maxilla or mandible; a partial denture
replaces one or more teeth and is retained by natural teeth at one or both ends
EDENTULOUS toothless; a mouth without teeth
INLAY a prefabricated restoration (usually gold or porcelain) sealed in the cavity with cement
PULPECTOMY removal of the entire pulp, including the root; commonly known as a “root canal”; the tooth is no longer living
RADIOGRAPH, a film of posterior teeth produced by exposure of laterally oriented intraoral film; the x-ray beam is angled
BITE-WING between the teeth; the crowns are the main focus of the films
RADIOGRAPH, a film produced by exposure of vertically oriented intraoral film; the x-ray beam is angled from above
APICAL maxillary teeth or below mandibular teeth to capture the complete tooth, including the apex
RADIOGRAPH, a film of the entire oral cavity produced by immobilizing the head and moving the x-ray beam behind the
PANORAMIC head while film moves in synchronization in front of the face
RESTORATION any inlay, crown, bridge, partial denture, or complete denture that restores or replaces lost tooth structure,
teeth, or oral tissues

Table 11.4 Dental Vocabulary

TERM DEFINITION
ALVEOLAR PROCESS the ridge of the maxilla or mandible that supports the teeth
ALVEOLUS DENTALIS the tooth socket in which teeth are attached by a periodontal membrane
ATTRITION the wearing down of a tooth surface due to abrasion and age
CARIES, DENTAL a localized, progressively destructive disease beginning at the external surface with dissolution of inorganic
components by organic acids produced by microorganisms
CEMENTUM a porous layer of calcification covering the tooth root; the cementum provides a site for periodontal fibers
to anchor
CERVIX (NECK) the slightly constricted part of the tooth between the crown and the root
CINGULUM the lingual ridge or shelf at the base of upper incisors and canines; in normal occlusion, the lower anterior
teeth touch the cingulum of the upper anterior teeth
CROWN the enamel-capped portion of the tooth that normally projects beyond the gum line
CROWN, CLINICAL the portion of the tooth visible in the oral cavity
CROWN, ANATOMIC the portion of a natural tooth that extends from the cementoenamel junction to the occlusal surface or
incisal edge
CUSP a conical elevation arising on the surface of a tooth from an independent calcification center; cusps are
named according to their position (e.g., mesiolingual cusp, distobuccal cusp)
CUSP, CARABELLI’S an extra cuspid on the mesiolingual surface of upper molars; more common within the Caucasian race
 Odontology (Teeth) Chapter 11 179

TERM DEFINITION
CUSP PATTERN the recognizable alignment of cusps on a particular tooth type
DENTIN, PRIMARY forms until the root is completed; tubular dentin
DENTIN the main mass of the tooth; 20% is organic matrix, mostly collagen with some elastin and a small amount of
mucopolysaccharide; 80% is inorganic, mainly hydroxyapatite with some carbonate, magnesium, and
fluoride; structured as parallel tubules
DENTIN, SECONDARY forms after the tooth has erupted, due to irritation from caries, abrasion, injury, or age
DENTIN, SCLEROTIC generalized calcification of dentinal tubules as a result of aging
DENTIN, REPARATIVE calcification of dentinal tubules immediately beneath a carious lesion, abrasion, or injury
DENTINAL TUBULE the tubules extending from the pulp to the dentinoenamel junction; odontoblastic processes extend into the
tubules from the pulp surface
ENAMEL the dense mineralized outer covering of the tooth crown; 99.5% inorganic hydroxyapatite with small
amounts of carbonate, magnesium, and fluoride, and 0.5% organic matrix of glycoprotein and keratin-like
protein; structured of oriented rods consisting of rodlets encased in an organic prism sheath
GINGIVA the gums, gum tissue; the dense fibrous tissue covered by mucous membrane that envelops the alveolar
processes of the upper and lower jaws and surrounds the necks of the teeth
JUNCTION, the line around the neck of the tooth at which the cementum and enamel meet
CEMENTOENAMEL
(CEJ)

JUNCTION, the surface at which the cementum and dentin meet

CEMENTODENTINAL

JUNCTION, the surface at which the dentin and enamel meet

DENTINOENAMEL
(DEJ)

MAMELONS small, regular bumps on the incisal edges of recently erupted incisors; indication of youth or (occasionally)
lack of occlusion
PERIAPICAL around the tip of the root
PERIODONTAL inflammation of the tissues surrounding the teeth resulting in resorption of supporting structures and tooth loss
DISEASE

PERIODONTAL the fibrous tissue anchoring the tooth by surrounding the root and attaching to the alveolus
LIGAMENT

PERIODONTOSIS lowering of the attachment level of the periodontal ligament

PITS AND FISSURES the depressed points and lines between cusps
PULP the soft tissue in the central chamber of the tooth, consisting of connective tissue containing nerves, blood
vessels, lymphatics, and at the periphery, odontoblasts capable of dentinal repair
PULP CHAMBER the central cavity of the tooth surrounded by dentin and extending from the crown to the root apex
ROOT the cementum-covered part of the tooth, usually below gum line
ROOT, ANATOMICAL the portion of the root extending from the cementoenamel junction to the apex or root tip
ROOT, CLINICAL the imbedded portion of the root; the part not visible in the oral cavity
SHOVEL-SHAPED central incisors formed with lateral margins bent lingually, resembling the form of a flat shovel or a coal
INCISORS shovel; common in people of Asian origin (e.g., Native Americans)
 CHAPTER 12

Introduction to the Forensic Sciences

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Introduction
Evidence
Direct and Indirect Evidence
Managing and Processing Physical Evidence
Forensic Scientists Typically Employed by Crime
Laboratories
Scientists Typically Consulted by Crime Laboratories
in Death Investigation Cases
Choosing the Correct Forensic Specialist in Death
Investigation Cases

180
 Introduction to the Forensic Sciences Chapter 12 181

INTRODUCTION
Forensic science is knowledge based on scientific method used to investigate
Etymology of Forensic
and establish facts in criminal and civil courts of law. It is a multidisciplinary (Adjective) and Forensics
field, and any systematic form of knowledge applied to legal issues can be called (Noun)
a forensic science. Forensic is an adjective used
Prior to the twentieth century, the courts relied primarily on evidence for anything relating to, used
contained in verbal testimony. Much of the world still does. However, modern in, or appropriate for courts
courts have been persistent in the search for more reliable ways to obtain facts, of law, public discussion,
argumentation, or debate.
and the scientific community has responded. Increasingly, scientists are finding
Science is a noun which
ways to expand on the specific aspects of their disciplines which are most useful encompasses the wide range
to legal issues. Forensic questions are being explored, and an ever-increasing of systematic methodologies
number of research reports are published in scientific literature. New forensic used to increase understand-
subdisciplines have grown out of the effort and training programs and advanced ing of the physical world.
Forensic science is any scientific
degrees are now available.
methodology applied to legal
Scientific disciplines actively contributing to the growth of the forensic issues and courts of law.
sciences are medicine, dentistry, chemistry, biology, anthropology, and engineer- Recent popular usage shortened
ing. The technical specialties include fingerprint identification, questioned docu- forensic sciences to forensics,
ments examination, blood spatter analysis, accident reconstruction, and a noun used to encompass all
forensic sciences and technology.
photography. This wide assortment of forensic sciences has one thing in
common—evidence.

EVIDENCE
Evidence is any object or testimony offered as a basis for belief. It can take any
form, and its key element is the power to convince. Evidence makes something
apparent to others whether or not they were present at the critical time or place.
It is also the term used for the statement itself, as presented before a court
of law.
The two main categories of evidence are verbal (testimonial) evidence and
physical evidence. A third category of evidence is called demonstrative evidence.
It did not originate with the event or the crime and is important only for teach-
ing or explaining. It will be discussed separately in Chapter 16.
Verbal evidence is oral or written testimony from a witness about his or
her own observations or knowledge. The person who gives verbal evidence may
be an eyewitness or a character witness. The words within a document are
verbal evidence, but the document itself is physical evidence.
Physical evidence is tangible. It may be substantial, or it may be deli-
cate (as in “trace” evidence). It is material that can be collected, analyzed, and
interpreted by scientific method. The person who presents physical evidence in
a court of law is called an expert witness.
In the early 1900s, an innovative French scientist, Edmond Locard
(1877–1966), introduced a concept that would change crime scene investigation
forever. Locard was trained in both medicine and law, and he used his broad
training to explore the nature of evidence. His work led to the discovery of
minute physical evidence that no one else had noticed. He is best known today
for his assertion that information is exchanged whenever two objects come into
contact. This information is in dust, hair, dyes, pollen, etc. that constantly trans-
fer from surface to surface (Locard, 1930). Today, it is called trace evidence, and
crime scene technicians search for it because they have no doubt whatsoever
that it exists. Prior to Locard, trace evidence was not mentioned. It was not
found because no one considered its presence or usefulness and, therefore, no
one was looking for it. Locard’s assertion came to be known as Locard’s
Exchange Principle and is considered to be the guiding theory of modern
forensic science.
182 Chapter 12 Introduction to the Forensic Sciences

In the United States, high-profile trials of the last two decades have
demonstrated to the public that physical evidence is critical. The trials of
O. J. Simpson and Timothy McVeigh are prime examples. People can forget, lie,
and distort the truth, but, in and of itself, physical evidence is incapable of
deception. The challenge is in finding a way for the evidence to speak. It must
be collected without contamination, analyzed correctly, interpreted accurately,
and recorded honestly. To accomplish all this, the forensic scientist requires
specialized education, training, experience, and a strong sense of ethics.

DIRECT AND INDIRECT EVIDENCE

Physical evidence can be further classified as direct or indirect evidence. Direct
evidence is capable of proving something on its own. It is obvious to the observer
and needs no further interpretation. It is sometimes called real evidence, but the
word real is not recommended because it is overused and imprecise.
Indirect evidence is also called circumstantial evidence. It proves
something by inference or deduction. Its significance may not be generally rec-
ognized or understood, therefore, explanation is important. The expert witness
is critical when indirect evidence is used in a court of law.

MANAGING AND PROCESSING PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

It may seem that physical evidence can simply be found and collected, but this is
far from the truth. Evidence can be difficult to recognize and it is useless if it is
not handled properly from first sighting to final presentation. If evidence is to be
convincing and acceptable to the courts, it requires complete documentation, care-
ful collection, proper handling, effective preservation, appropriate analysis, cor-
rect interpretation, and accurate reporting. Haste is the worst enemy of good
evidence collection. It is better to step back from the scene and plan carefully than
to rush in and touch something without appropriate planning. All too often an
enthusiastic but inadequately prepared person—official or not—has become the
inadvertent enemy of the judicial process. The following sections are a general
introduction to methods of handling physical evidence. A more thorough discus-
sion for anthropologists is found in the chapter on field methods (Chapter 15).

DOCUMENTATION
Documentation of evidence begins at the moment of discovery. The evidence
should be recorded in photographic and written form (including maps) before
it is disturbed. (If the evidence is first discovered by someone from the general
public, the person should be located and interviewed.) Documentation continues

Table 12.1 Examples

RECENT CRIME SCENE BURIAL
of Physical Evidence
from a Recent Crime fleshed body decomposing or skeletonized body
Scene and a Burial latent fingerprints mummified fingers
Note the similarities and hair hair
differences in types of physical fibers fibers
evidence recovered in each clothing decomposing clothing
venue. Different experts may be footprints footprint impressions
necessary to recognize, collect, projectiles & cartridges projectiles & cartridges
and process the specific blood spatter coffin parts
evidence. other body fluids plant residues
documents insect pupae
weapons shovel marks
 Introduction to the Forensic Sciences Chapter 12 183

at each stage of recovery, each time that any procedure is performed, and each
time that the evidence changes hands (chain of custody).

CHAIN OF CUSTODY
It is necessary to account for the integrity of each piece of evidence by tracking
all handling and storage from the time the evidence is collected to final dis-
position. A custody form is a standard means of tracking. The form accompa-
nies the evidence and is signed (together with date and time) by each and
every person who handles the evidence. Each person checks to see that the
evidence is as described in the record before signing. The unbroken record
makes it possible to trace any unauthorized alterations and locate opportuni-
ties for substitutions. The chain of custody maintains the value of the physical
evidence for legal purposes.

COLLECTION
After a record is made of each item in situ (photos, map, and written descrip-
tion), the evidence can be collected. The goal is to collect evidence without alter-
ation or contamination. It is important to think before touching. Keep in mind
that Locard’s Exchange Principle applies as much to the crime scene technician
as to the victim and perpetrator. Modern conditions usually require the use of
rubber gloves and other protective clothing.
Packaging must be marked so that it can be located, identified, and
matched easily with records. This means labeling or tagging with indelible ink.
If the evidence is packaged properly, tampering should be obvious. This can be
accomplished by securing the package with one-use tamper-evident tape or by
adding a signature or initials across the tape, beginning on the tape and ending
on the package itself. Keep in mind that some types of evidence require airtight
packaging and other items require porous packaging such as paper bags.

PRESERVATION AND STORAGE

It is important to maintain the evidence for future analysis by other scientists
or with improved methods. Good preservation requires that the evidence be
maintained as stable as possible. Every type of sample has its own requirements
but “cool, dry, and away from sunlight” are almost always good guidelines.
Antimicrobial agents may be useful in some cases, and avoidance of over-drying
is important in others. It is important to use common sense and check with
experts on specific substances.
The evidence should be packaged in such a way that it is well protected
and easily retrieved. The boxes should be as uniform as possible and the labels
should be in standardized easy-to-find locations.

ANALYSIS
Methods of analysis change over time, but it is important that the analysis be
appropriate for the material and the resources. It is also important that the
methods be consistent with generally accepted practices within the specific sci-
entific discipline. In addition, the methods must be shown to be valid, reliable,
and repeatable (replicable). Validity can be shown by the use of controls. Known
samples should produce the expected result. Reliability can be demonstrated
by consistency in results. (Note that a method may be reliable but not valid.) The
method should produce the same result over and over again. To demonstrate
repeatability, different analysts at different times should be able to produce
the same results. (Note that a method may be reliable for one analyst but not
184 Chapter 12 Introduction to the Forensic Sciences

another.) See the chapter on laboratory analysis (Chapter 13) for methods of
analysis in forensic anthropology.

INTERPRETATION
Interpretation of the evidence must first take into account the limits (validity,
reliability, and repeatability) of the analytical method(s) being used. In addition,
the size of the sample, origin of the sample, and the composition of the sample
population must be taken into account. The analyst is continually challenged
to avoid overstating the results and produce a balanced and accurate interpre-
tation of evidence.

REPORTING
Documentation must be thorough and detailed, but the final reporting of results
should be as simple and direct as possible. The report must be clear and under-
standable to nonscientists. Refer to the chapter on professional results
(Chapter 16) for a discussion of forensic reports.

FORENSIC SCIENTISTS TYPICALLY EMPLOYED BY

CRIME LABORATORIES
Forensic science is a multidisciplinary field. No specialist can ignore the work
of the others any more than a plumber, electrician, and carpenter can avoid
one another on a building project without causing costly mistakes. The success
of an investigation may depend on the fact that one person knows when to call
in another.
Crime lab scientists and technicians usually have backgrounds in law
enforcement, chemistry, biology, or medicine. Some of the specialists work
directly with the body; others focus on evidence from the scene. Some specialists
spend more time in the field; others in the laboratory. Some spend a lot of time
testifying in court; others submit their reports and are rarely called to court.
The following is a short list, in alphabetical order, of typical crime lab
scientists and a brief description of the work each one does.
Ballistic specialists or firearm examiners are experts capable of recog-
nizing and analyzing weapons and projectiles. Many come from a police or mili-
tary background and training. They can determine if a weapon has been fired
and match a projectile to the specific weapon that fired it. Computer capabilities
are also important. Most major labs use the Integrated Ballistics
Identification System (IBIS) for collecting, storing, and correlating digital
images of ballistics evidence.
Crime scene investigators are usually police officers who specialize in
processing crime scenes and gathering forensic evidence. Ideally, scene investiga-
tors arrive on the scene soon after the
initial responders. They are trained to
recognize, photograph, map, organize,
and collect evidence. The evidence is
then sent to a forensic laboratory for
secure storage and a more thorough
analysis with equipment not available
at the crime scene. Scene investigators
are typically knowledgeable about fin-
gerprints, footprints, hair, fibers, blood
spatter dynamics, and weapons of all
types. Most crime scene investigators
call on death investigation specialists
Shutterstock.com to deal with human remains.
 Introduction to the Forensic Sciences Chapter 12 185

Criminalists are a broadly-trained group of scientists and technicians

within the forensic sciences. Many are chemists, and most have extensive on-the-
job training. The work of the criminalist focuses on the physical evidence from
the crime scene, but not the body itself. Much of the physical evidence is trace
evidence such as glass fragments, fibers, hair, paint, tool marks, soil, and anything
else that may reveal information. Criminalists rely on a wide range of advanced
technical equipment for microscopy, chromatography, spectrophotometry, mass
spectrometry, and so on.
Death investigators are similar to crime scene investigators and, in
some jurisdictions, the jobs are carried out by the same people. In jurisdictions
with a medical examiner’s office separate from the crime laboratory, the death
investigator is the medical examiner’s representative in the field. This person
focuses on evidence from the body rather than the scene. The death investigator
reports to the medical examiner or forensic pathologist in charge of the case.
Drug analysts are chemists who analyze and identify the wide variety of
drugs and poisons available to man. They are usually excellent chemists with
knowledge of pharmaceutical products as well. Drug analysts are different from
toxicologists in that they analyze different forms of evidence. For example, they
may both be looking for cocaine, but the drug analyst receives a packet of pow-
der, and the toxicologist receives a tube of blood.
Fingerprint specialists collect latent finger-
prints from a wide variety of surfaces and materials.
They enhance the prints for identification, classify
fingerprints, and compare them for identification.
This work used to be based largely on ink and powder,
but chemical enhancement and computer imaging
and analysis are now essential to the work. In the
United States, most fingerprint experts use the
Automated Fingerprint Identification System
(AFIS) for matching unidentified and known finger-
print patterns.
Forensic pathologists are medical doctors
who have completed a residency in pathology and an
additional residency in forensic pathology—usually in a medical examiner’s
office. They use their knowledge of disease and death for legal purposes. They
conduct autopsies on fleshed bodies to determine cause and manner of death.
Many are employed as medical examiners by government agencies. It is often
the medical examiner who requests additional analysis by forensic dentists
and anthropologists. (Note that most pathologists are not trained in forensic
work. They are medical doctors who specialize in the recognition and diagnosis
of diseases. They work in hospitals and private laboratories.)
Questioned document examiners are best known for their expertise
in handwriting analysis, but they also perform a wide range of analyses that
include just about any type of surface and mark—from subway graffiti to com-
puter printouts. In the profession of document examination, the word document
is broadly defined. It can mean any sign or symbol that is written, printed, or
inscribed on a surface to convey a message from one person to another.
Questioned document examiners may also be experts in the analysis of ink,
paper, writing tools, typewriters, printers, and copy machines.
Serologists and geneticists are part of a larger group of forensic bio-
logists. Serologists work specifically with body fluids. They identify blood,
sperm, saliva, and other biological fluids. They also determine blood types. Often
they are called to analyze residues of fluids recovered from clothing or discarded
items at crime scenes.
During the 1980s, advances in the field of genetics made DNA analysis
practical. By the 1990s many crime laboratories were sending samples to pri-
vate laboratories or installing their own dedicated laboratories. Today, forensic
186 Chapter 12 Introduction to the Forensic Sciences

geneticists are fully incorporated into many crime labs. For identification pur-
poses, they utilize the FBI Laboratory’s Combined DNA Index System
(CODIS). This system allows laboratories to exchange profiles and seek out
DNA matches with the same ease as fingerprint matches.
At first, it appeared that the move to DNA analysis would negate the need
for serologists. However, human identification is not the only question in a
crime. Serologists are needed to identify the source of the DNA. It is still impor-
tant to know from which body fluid the DNA is extracted. The presence of saliva
has very different implications from the presence of semen. Also, serological
tests work well for rapid preliminary testing. They are inexpensive and help to
separate out specific evidence for further testing thereby reducing the burden
of carrying out expensive tests on items of no evidentiary value.
Toxicologists are chemists who specialize in extracting drugs and poi-
sons from body tissues and fluids. Typically, blood and/or urine samples are sent
to the toxicologist if there is a question of alcohol or drug overdose or impair-
ment, carbon monoxide poisoning, or lead or arsenic poisoning. The toxicologist
may also extract and identify a wide range of other foreign substances from
tissue samples.

SCIENTISTS TYPICALLY CONSULTED BY CRIME LABORATORIES

IN DEATH INVESTIGATION CASES

The following is a short list, in alphabetical order, of forensic scientists typically

consulted by crime laboratories and/or medical examiner’s offices for death inves-
tigation cases. These specialists are seldom employed full-time by the average
crime lab unless they are working in other capacities as well. (Many other consul-
tants serve the forensic sciences in capacities not related to death investigation.)
Forensic anthropologists are typically physical or biological
anthropologists with a strong background in human osteology. They
apply their knowledge of anthropology to legal issues such as recov-
ery, analysis, description, and identification of human remains. Other
anthropologists, particularly archaeologists, are included by many
within this title or given the more specific title, forensic archaeolo-
gist. More information is contained in Chapter 1.
Forensic odontologists (also called forensic dentists) are
dentists with additional training in the use of dental evidence for
human identification. Some also specialize in bitemark analysis.
They have knowledge of oral anatomy and pathology, radiography,
dental materials, and restoration methods. They also have a famil-
iarity with the wide variety of methods for charting and annotating
used by dentists.
There are at least three computerized dental identification sys-
tems utilized by forensic odontologists. Probably the most popular is
the WinID Dental Identification System.
Forensic entomologists are specialists in the life cycles of the
insects that are attracted to decomposing bodies (necrophagous or
carrion-feeding insects). They are not involved in human identifica-
tion as are the anthropologist and odontologist. Instead, they contrib-
ute to the determination of time since death and sometimes, the
analysis of perimortem trauma when it is not known if damage to the
Julian Chen/Shutterstock.com body can be attributed to insect or human action.
 Introduction to the Forensic Sciences Chapter 12 187

Forensic entomologists also study the arthropod pests that contribute to

disease and death through food contamination. In addition, they testify on cases
of abuse and neglect where insect evidence is present.
Forensic botanists bring their knowledge of plants, plant life cycles and
ecology to legal cases. They identify plants, seeds, and trace evidence such as pol-
len. They are capable of calculating the season of burial based on the succession
of plants on disturbed ground and plant reside found in fill dirt. They can also
determine the origin of plant residue based on knowledge of plant ecology.

CHOOSING THE CORRECT FORENSIC SPECIALIST IN DEATH

INVESTIGATION CASES
When human remains are involved, law enforcement officers have to decide who
to involve in the recovery and documentation. The medical examiner or death
investigator is called first, but who else is required to adequately process the
remains?
As time passes, physical evidence changes. If a scene is preserved, it is
probably because it is covered—usually with dirt. If anything remains of the
body, it is most commonly the hard tissues of the skeleton and the teeth. With
sufficient time, the focus of an investigation changes from crime scene and
autopsy to excavation and skeletal analysis. The forensic specialists also change.
In historic and ancient cases, the archaeologist replaces the crime scene inves-
tigator, and the physical anthropologist replaces the forensic pathologist.
The person in charge of an investigation should be able to recognize when
one specialist might be more effective than another. For the dead body, this
question can be answered by taking a careful look at the processes at work on
the time line of death and decay. There are two critical points—loss of visual
identification of the remains and change in legal consequence regarding the
death. Neither point can be pinpointed precisely, because they are both subject
to environmental and legal factors.

WHEN NO VISUAL IDENTIFICATION IS POSSIBLE

The first critical point on the time line occurs when simple visual identification
of the body is no longer possible. This may be the result of decomposition, burn-
ing, or disarticulation. Beyond this point, the remains can no longer be recog-
nized by relatives or friends.

WHEN THERE IS NO IMMEDIATE LEGAL CONSEQUENCE

The second critical point on the time line is the loss of immediate legal conse-
quence with regard to identification or death investigation. Beyond this point,
it is unlikely (although not impossible) that identification or knowledge of man-
ner of death will result in legal action on issues such as homicide, inheritance,
or life insurance claims. Most statutes of limitations are exceeded, the con-
cerned relatives or friends are dead, and the person who may be responsible for
the death is dead. Discoveries of remains beyond this point are classified as
historical or ancient deaths.
There are, of course, legal consequences to disturbing graves of any time
period, but the laws vary by jurisdiction with the exception of Native American
graves. They are federally protected by the Native American Graves Protection
and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA), Pub. L. No. 101-601, 104 Stat. 3048 (1990).
188 Chapter 12 Introduction to the Forensic Sciences

In Table 12.2, note which specialists are most appropriate for investigation
of the scene and the analysis of the body in each section of the time line. The
involvement of forensically-trained anthropologists is most important in the
years between loss of visual identification and loss of immediate legal
consequence.

Table 12.2 Choice of Specialist

The most appropriate specialist for the job is determined by (1) the condition of the body and (2) the legal consequences of the
investigation.

RECENT DEATH THE YEARS IN BETWEEN ANCIENT DEATH

VISUAL IDENTIFICATION possible not possible not possible

LEGAL CONSEQUENCES immediate immediate or uncertain limited

INVESTIGATION OF THE SCENE office of medical examiner or office of medical examiner or archaeologist
coroner coroner with forensic
anthropologists and
archaeologists
ANALYSIS OF THE REMAINS forensic pathologist forensic anthropologist physical anthropologist
forensic odontologist forensic odontologist

CASE EXAMPLES: INTERDISCIPLINARY INVESTIGATIONS

Critical Evidence from the Document Examiner

A box of bones, ragged clothing, and assorted garbage had gathered dust in the back of a government
morgue for many months. There had been little hope of identifying the incomplete remains found in an empty
city lot, so other cases were given priority.
When I took custody of the box, I sorted the contents and found three plastic hospital identification brace-
lets. They were badly weathered and no ink was visible, but I knew that questioned document examiners often
use alternative light sources to reveal hidden ink. Within the hour, the questioned document examiner had a
tentative identification, and before the week was over, a positive identification was established by multiple
radiographic comparisons.
Critical Evidence from the Fingerprint Examiner
A police officer had been working on an unidentified person case. A pathologist had told him to look for
a missing woman in her mid-twenties, but no matches had surfaced in six long months of searching. Finally,
the officer decided to ask for help through another jurisdiction. After examining the skeleton, I explained
that the officer would have to look for a teenaged male, not an older female. More important, I also noted
that the remains included mummified fingers that could be printed. The 18-year-old male was positively
identified by fingerprint comparison. His remains were returned to his family in a foreign country for burial.
CHAPTER 13

Laboratory Analysis

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Introduction
Preparation for Analysis
Evidence Management
Skeletal Analysis and Description
Quality Check for Skeletal Analysis
Human Identification

189
190 Chapter 13 Laboratory Analysis

INTRODUCTION
Analysis is the examination and study of a whole item through the study
of its component parts. An analysis can be descriptive (qualitative) or
numerical (quantitative). The objective of skeletal analysis is information—
the maximum amount possible. It is usually both qualitative and quantita-
tive. Description and identification of the deceased are only parts of the
desired result. The full skeletal analysis should also provide insight into
the activities of the deceased, the circumstances surrounding death, the
postmortem interval (time since death), and the fate of the remains during
that interval. This information can be powerful if handled correctly.
The investigator has a responsibility to the evidence throughout the
process of analysis and beyond. For this reason, a good skeletal analysis
should be approached like the crime scene itself. Stop, look, and record at
every step. Avoid the tendency to rush through the mundane in search of
something “interesting.” Keep track of everything, even changes of opinion.
Organize the process from the beginning to the end—from the laboratory
design to the final testimony. Maintain a careful sequence of analysis
throughout. The sequence is presented in the following list, and the details
of each step are provided in the following sections.

BASIC SEQUENCE OF ANALYSIS

1. Prepare the laboratory.
2. Manage the evidence through numbers, files and forms.
3. Inventory the evidence.
4. Transfer nonskeletal evidence to the appropriate specialists.
5. Clean and stabilize the evidence.
6. Analyze the evidence.
7. Preserve samples for further analysis.
8. Return the evidence or store in a secure place.
9. Report all findings.

PREPARATION FOR ANALYSIS

PHYSICAL FACILITY
There are three basic requirements for a good physical facility—security, space,
Note
and utilities. Security is most important. Without security for the evidence,
Many different structures nothing else matters. Space is second. There must be sufficient space for at least
can be used as temporary
laboratories—barns, garages, three separate areas with lockable doors between each—receiving, analysis, and
and even tents will work. Tables storage. Each area has a different level of access/security.
can be created from sawhorses The receiving area is the least secure because it is the point where
and plywood. Lights can be evidence changes hands and enters the system. The receiving area can also be
battery operated. Running the office area as long as no evidence or reports are stored there.
water may be difficult to ob-
tain, but buckets can suffice. The analysis area is accessible only to the employees. It needs to be large
The hardest thing to arrange is enough to allow for separate work areas, including wet and dry areas, and large
security. tables. The analysis area must have adequate lighting and be cleanable. It is
helpful to have dividers between individual work areas.
The storage area is the area of highest security. It is locked at all times,
and only designated persons have access. It should not have windows, but it
needs to be cool and dry. Good organization is essential and adequate shelving
is important.
 Laboratory Analysis Chapter 13 191

EQUIPMENT, SUPPLIES, AND REFERENCE MATERIALS

BASIC EQUIPMENT
■ Sliding calipers or dial calipers

■ Spreading calipers

■ Osteometric board or tree calipers

■ Brushes, picks, and other small instruments

■ Large tables or plywood and sawhorses

■ Chairs or benches Figure 13.1a

■ Camera with macro capability and
Dial Calipers
supplies
■ Extra lights and extension cords

■ Background cloth for photos

■ Gauge or ruler to include in photographs

■ Colanders, trays, buckets, tubs

■ Computer and printer

■ Software: spreadsheet, word processor, and

osteological analysis
■ Chalkboard or whiteboard
■ Hot plate

■ Hot wax glue gun

■ Dust pan and brush

Figure 13.1b
Spreading Calipers

Figure 13.1c
Tree Calipers
Modified for measuring long bones (www.haglofsweden.com)

BASIC SUPPLIES
■ Cards for labels
■ Pens—indelible ink and others
■ Osteometric forms, notebooks
■ Soap and other cleaning supplies
■ Brown paper or plastic table covers (the paper cover is good for quick notes)
■ Glue, tape
■ Chalk (for handedness determination)
■ Rubber gloves and surgical gloves
■ Bags, boxes, and packing material
192 Chapter 13 Laboratory Analysis

REFERENCE MATERIALS
Reference materials are essential to good skeletal analysis. Begin with the fol-
lowing casts, charts, and reference books and add others whenever possible.

Instructional Skeletons or Casts

■ Disarticulated human skull

■ Juvenile skull

■ Postcranial skeleton

■ Suchey–Brooks pubic symphysis plastic cast sets for males and females

■ Isçan–Loth sternal rib end plastic cast sets for females and males

Charts and Photographs

■ Anatomical charts for the adult skeleton and juvenile epiphyseal union

■ Dental charts for adult dentition and juvenile calcification and eruption
sequence

Books
■ Juvenile Osteology, A Laboratory and Field Manual, 2009, by M. Schaefer,
S. Black, and L. Scheuer.
■ Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains,
2003, by D. J. Ortner
■ Data Collection Procedures for Forensic Skeletal Material, 1994, by P. M.
Moore-Jansen, S. D. Ousley, and R. L. Jantz
■ Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains, 1994, edited
by J. E. Buikstra and D. H. Ubelaker
■ Classification of Musculoskeletal Trauma, 1999, P. B. Pynsent, J. C. T.
Fairbank, and A. J. Carr (if you are dealing regularly with trauma cases)
■ A general anatomy textbook

OPTIONAL EQUIPMENT (DEPENDING ON TYPE AND EXTENT OF ANALYSIS)

■ Refrigerator
■ Power bone saw
■ Radiographic equipment
■ Thin sectioning saw
■ Microscope
■ 3-D digitizer
■ Scale

EVIDENCE MANAGEMENT
ASSIGN CASE NUMBER
The case number is issued and entered into a database when custody is initiated
and the material “enters the system.” This should happen first at the time of
recovery. If the same agency remains in control, the original number may be suf-
ficient, but if another agency is in charge of the laboratory, a new number is issued
as the evidence enters the new system. The old number is noted in the records.
A single piece of evidence can accumulate a list of case numbers over time.
If you are initiating a numbering system, think it through carefully. Begin
by defining case for your use. Is it a single individual, an excavation, a site loca-
tion, a specific job, or a single piece of evidence? The case number should provide
a sufficient amount of information to be easy to use and maintain continuity
over time. The information should include some reference to the agency or
 Laboratory Analysis Chapter 13 193

consultant, date, location, and specific unit. It should be ordered from the most
general to the most specific so that it is sortable and searchable. For example,
consider the number, HBI-06-BW-132: HBI is the agency abbreviation or the
consultant’s initials; 06 is the year; BW is an abbreviation for the site or loca-
tion; and 132 is the unit number at the BW site. Each part of the alphanumeric
system is a subset of the previous part.
If additional subsets are found (such as fragments of an unexpected second
individual) letters can be appended to case numbers (e.g., HBI-06-BW-132a and
HBI-06-BW-132b).

ORGANIZE DATABASE
The database can be computerized or based on a simple logbook, but it must be
backed up and kept secure. The database should include the following
information:

■ Case number
■ Any other numbers associated with the evidence
■ All dates and times (receipt, change in custody, release)
■ Names of persons in the chain of custody
■ Description of packaging (e.g., plain brown cardboard box, 13 × 14 × 9 inches,
taped with duct tape and initialed over the tape border)
■ Basic description of the evidence (e.g., clay-covered bones, miscellaneous
clothing, hair)
■ Procedures requested and performed
■ Reports submitted
■ Disposition of the evidence (To whom was custody released? Provide date,
name, and address.)

PREPARE CASE FILE

Every agency has standard procedures for creating and maintaining case files.
Note
This section provides an overview for students and independent consultants
who are creating a case file for the first time. Except in government labora-
tories, most lab notes are not
A case file can be contained in a notebook or file folder. It can also be com- read by anyone but the ana-
pletely digital. The file should contain the chain of custody form, a checklist of lyst/investigator. But occasion-
procedures, a photographic log, and all forms pertinent to the case. Each form ally, highly sensitive cases will
should include the case number, date, and name of investigator. The case file require that all notes be turned
stays with the case during analysis, even if more than one person examines the over to the court along with
the report. Be complete, but
case. There should be no stray notes or separate records. avoid writing anything you
The photographic log provides a record of all photos for the case. It is cannot explain in court.
impossible to go back for missed photos, so plan ahead. There should be photos
of the original condition, the inventory as a whole, and specific areas of interest,
both in context and close-up. If the final state of the evidence is different from
the initial state, a photo should be taken before storage.
A series of forms are included in the Appendix. Use them as they are or
use them as a starting point from which to develop new forms to fit specific
needs. The major categories of laboratory forms include a skeletal inventory
form, measurement forms, and diagrams of skeletons, skulls, and teeth.

INVENTORY AND RECORD INITIAL OBSERVATIONS

Begin recording information from the time the container is opened. This is an
opportunity to note gut reactions, strange smells, and other oddities before you
begin to get used to them.
Lay out the bones in anatomical order or a practical modification thereof,
and fill out an inventory form. The Bone Inventory Form in the Appendix is
provided for this purpose. Use the diagrams of the full skeleton, skull, thorax,
194 Chapter 13 Laboratory Analysis

pelvis, hands, and feet to supplement the inven-

tory forms. It is important to have both written
and graphic records.
Use this time to examine each element in
detail. Note anomalies for future examination. It
may be necessary to find comparative material,
refer to textbooks, or discuss the case with col-
leagues before reaching conclusions.
Record all observations at this time, for
example:

■ Stains of any type (blood, metal oxides, insects,

leaves, etc.)
■ Sun bleaching or erosion
■ Tool marks
■ Tooth marks (carnivore, rodent, etc.)
■ Anything that may seem out of place such as
sand in the ear canal of remains recovered in
nonsandy soil

Be clear about your own degree of certainty.

Use expressions such as “possible” or “consistent
with” when there is any uncertainty whatsoever.
Return to these notes when you review the case to
confirm that you have followed through on all
aspects of the initial examination.

TRANSFER NONANTHROPOLOGICAL
EVIDENCE
It is not uncommon for anthropologists to receive
a box of bones from a police investigation and find
that it still contains evidence that falls within the
expertise of a different specialist. When nonan-
thropological evidence is discovered, record it.
Then see that it is transferred to the appropriate
specialist through standard chain-of-custody pro-
cedures. Examples include bullets, hair and fibers,
mummified fingers with ridge detail, insects, cloth-
ing, jewelry, and even personal papers.

Figure 13.2 CLEAN AND STABILIZE THE EVIDENCE

Inventory Photo Clean and stabilize the evidence if necessary. The
The skeleton is laid out in an unconventional pattern, but the right
type and amount of cleaning is dependent on the
and left elements are on the correct sides and it is easy to ascer-condition of the evidence and future analysis or
tain what is missing from the assemblage. The objective is to try use. Avoid destructive procedures unless abso-
to photograph everything in one frame. Close-up pictures can
lutely necessary for purposes of analysis. The
then be referenced to the inventory photo.
objective is to be able to evaluate the evidence, not
to make it more pleasant to work with.
Any specimen that is to be used for DNA analysis should be treated with
special care from the point of collection. Less handling is always better. Contact
the genetics laboratory for preservation and packing instructions. DNA labora-
tories usually prefer to send their own containers for packing and shipping.
Dry bones can usually be cleaned with soft brushes. If the dirt is overly
adherent, use water but do not soak. Dry in open air and store in a breathable
container such as paper or cardboard.
 Laboratory Analysis Chapter 13 195

Marks from knife blades, embedded metal fragments, and stains are more
visible after cleaning, but great care must be taken to avoid altering the marks
for microscopic examination. Numerous pathological conditions are also visible
after exposure of the bone surface, but such evidence may be exceedingly fragile
and easily damaged.
Water-soluble glues and plastics have been suggested for extremely fragile
material, but form-fitting packaging may be a better alternative. Do not use any
stabilizer without thoroughly studying the effects and being certain that the
process will aid, and not endanger, future analysis. Plastics can be painted on
with a soft brush or sprayed on. Several thin coats, each allowed to dry, are
preferable to one thick application. Note that acetone dehydration is necessary
before the use of plastics.
Check all teeth for stability within the sockets and overall integrity.
Single-rooted teeth tend to fall out at inopportune moments. Loss or breakage
is the result. Teeth are maintained better if they are left in the alveolar bone.
The alveolar bone is also less likely to chip. A tiny drop of adhesive material in
the correct tooth socket works to hold the tooth in place without harming it for
future study. It can be removed with an appropriate solvent. (Do not alter any
teeth necessary for age-related studies or DNA analysis.)
Tooth enamel dries over time and cracks easily. Coat the teeth with a non-
erosive, protective glaze if necessary. Also use care in packing and setting on
tables. Skulls and teeth are less likely to sustain damage if they are placed
upside down in ring-type cushions. These can be made of cork, foam, cloth, acid-
free plastic wrap, or any other nonabrasive, nonreactive substance.
Cleaning procedures are very different for fleshed remains. The challenge
is to remove all the soft tissue (both external and internal) and the bulk of the
natural oils without damaging the bone or loosing evidence that may be present
on the bone surface.
Short-term cleanup for quick examination of a bone surface can be done
with warm water and soap, but long-term preservation and storage requires
much more time and care. The very best results are obtained from professionals
such as Skulls Unlimited International, Inc. Understandably, they charge for
the service and their specific methods are proprietary. Nevertheless, they have
generously shared a few recommendations (Eric Humphries, personal commu-
nication, July 6, 2011).

■ Never boil human bones.

■ Never use ammonia or chlorinated solutions.
■ Wash in warm water, but don’t soak.
■ Use dermestid beetles (Dermestes maculatus) for
defleshing.

Dermestid beetles are commonly known as skin beetles. a

They feed on dried skin and other (dried) tissues in the wild, and
they can be utilized in the laboratory for slow, non-destructive
cleaning of bone. They are not, by the way, easy to maintain. A
beetle colony will fail to thrive if humidity and temperature are not
controlled. They will not consume wet flesh, so bones must be mac-
erated and somewhat dry before introducing them to the colony.
The beetles will also reject overly dry tissue, so moisture sometimes b
needs to be added. It usually requires months to clean an entire
skeleton.
Dermestids can be a serious threat to other collections such Figure 13.3
as animal skins or natural-fiber clothing. Therefore, great care Dermestidae (Skin Beetles), Larva
must be taken to keep the colony confined within a glass or and Adult
metal tank. Illustration by E. Paul Catts. (Catts &
Haskell, 1990).
196 Chapter 13 Laboratory Analysis

SKELETAL ANALYSIS AND DESCRIPTION

The methods for sex and age determination from individual bones are presented
in the specific bone chapters. This section provides an overview of methods and a
place to discuss methods involving more than one bone, such as stature estimation.

MINIMUM NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS

Take time to confirm the number of individuals during the inventory. In typical
single-individual cases, there will be no more than one of each skeletal element.
(Supernumary teeth and sesamoid bones are exceptions.)
Many forensic cases, however, involve clandestine burials, mass graves,
intrusive burials, or disturbed burials. In any of these situations, accurate assess-
ment of the number of individuals is accomplished by searching for duplicate
elements. The presence of something as simple as two right third metacarpals or
two left distal ulnar fragments indicates the presence of a second individual.
The minimum number of individuals (MNI) is just that—a minimum.
It may not be the actual number of individuals, but it is as close as one can get
with certainty. The actual number of individuals is either the same as the
MNI or more. There are statistical methods for estimating the actual number
of individuals from the minimum number of individuals (Adams, 2005), but
experience and common sense are useful, too. If the remains are in good condi-
tion and relatively complete, the MNI is probably the same as the actual num-
ber. If the remains are in poor condition, fragmented, or commingled, the MNI
may be less than the actual number of individuals.

CASE EXAMPLES: THE MINIMUM NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS (MNI)

Why bother to determine the minimum number of individuals (MNI)? MNI may be one of the only results
possible. Under such conditions, MNI can be the one critical piece of physical evidence that supports or
refutes verbal testimony.
A Mass Grave
During the Guatemalan civil war, villagers reported the location of a mass grave and requested an exhuma-
tion. Before the official exhumation could begin, someone else removed the remains in an attempt to destroy
evidence of the massacre and discredit the testimony of the villagers.
We went ahead with the excavation and recovered bones from the hands and feet of the victims as well
as several unfused epiphyses from a teenager. The skeletal analysis revealed an MNI of six, based solely
on the left first cuneiform. None of the epiphyses were duplicated; therefore, only one of the six was
confirmed to be teenaged.
The villagers had testified that five adult men and one teenaged boy disappeared just before the time
that the area of recently disturbed earth was found in a nearby forest. The villagers’ claims were supported
by the physical evidence.
A Cemetery Relocation
A cemetery relocation firm in the United States was contracted to move a large unmarked cemetery prior
to redevelopment of the site. Since the number of graves was unknown, the contractor was to be paid by
the number of graves moved rather than for the job as a whole.
Previous landowners estimated that the area contained approximately two thousand separate graves.
The relocation firm, however, reburied more than four thousand boxes of bones! Suspicion was finally
aroused, and I was asked to find a way to examine the work of the cemetery relocation firm.
I disinterred forty of the four thousand boxes and found the MNI to be eighteen. The skeletal elements
were in good condition, but there was significant postmortem breakage. It is possible that more than eigh-
teen individuals were present, but it is highly unlikely that forty individual graves were represented. The firm
was charged with fraud.
 Laboratory Analysis Chapter 13 197

A third category is the estimate of the probable number of individuals.

This can be based on differences in size, age, sex, or state of decomposition. For
example, the presence of a left and a right humerus indicates an MNI of one, but
if the humeri are of different lengths, age, or type of staining, a probable number
of two can be reported as long as the reason for the opinion is clearly explained.

AGE
Age-related changes fall into two categories—formative and degenerative.
Formative changes such as dental eruption and epiphyseal union occur dur-
ing growth and development. Degenerative changes such as dental wear and
osteoarthritis result from the process of aging and generalized trauma. The
body is never static. In any one area of the body, degenerative changes begin as
soon as formative changes are completed. Several of the changes even overlap
during the twenties—some developmental changes are just reaching completion
(e.g., the clavicle) while others have already begun to show degeneration (e.g.,
the pubic symphysis).
There are many methods available for estimating age, and each has
advantages and limitations. Keep in mind that no aging method is even close
to 100 percent accurate. There are two sources of error: (1) individual variation
as reported in the standard deviation of the method, and (2) differences
between the sample population and the population of origin. Unfortunately,
the population of origin for an unidentified body is usually unknown.
No aging method should be used alone unless there is no choice. Choice of
method is, of course, limited when incomplete or fragmentary remains are the
only material available.
Always provide a range when estimating age. It is far better to include a
10- to 20-year age range, especially in older individuals, and succeed in match-
ing the missing person by other characteristics than to give a 3- to 5-year range
and miss the identification entirely.
Methods for estimating age from specific bones are covered in the relevant
chapters. (Chapter 4 contains methods related to the clavicles and ribs; Chapter 5,
vertebral bodies; Chapter 8, the pubic symphysis; and Chapter 11, teeth.)

SEX
Sex is a little easier than age because there are supposed to be only two possi-
bilities. In truth, the human animal is not neatly divided into female and male
types. Sexual variation is better visualized as an overlapping set of normal
curves. Many people fall in the area of overlap and some fall in the tails. And
this is just a normal population. If you wish to investigate the abnormal, read
about diseases of the endocrine system. There is more than one condition that
causes masculinization of the female genotype and vice versa.
Table 13.1 summarizes basic sexual differences in the normal pelvis, skull,
ribs, and sternum. Details are found in the chapters that discuss each bone.
20 Figure 13.4
Typical Bimodal
Distribution of Sexual
15
Variables
The expression of sexual traits is
10 highly variable, and considerable
overlap is normal.

Female Male
198 Chapter 13 Laboratory Analysis

Table 13.1 Sexual Differences in the Skeleton

THE BONE THE DIFFERENCES MALE FEMALE

overall size larger smaller
muscle attachments larger smaller
PUBIS pubic length short long
ventral arc absent present
subpubic concavity absent present
subpubic angle narrow wide
ischiopubic ramus wide narrow, “stretched”
parturition pits absent sometimes present
ILIUM preauricular sulcus absent often present
sciatic notch narrow wide
FEMUR femoral head diameter possible: 46.5–47.5 mm possible: 42.5–43.5 mm
(Stewart, 1979) probable: >47.5 mm probable: <42.5 mm
FRONTAL supraorbital ridge prominent double boss absent single central boss
frontal bossing
TEMPORAL mastoid process large; extends to the external auditory small; ends before the external
zygomatic process meatus and beyond auditory meatus
length
OCCIPITAL nuchal ridges strong muscle attachment slight muscle attachment
MANDIBLE ramus wide and sharply angled narrow and less angled
chin shape square rounded or pointed
RIB subperichondrial ossification marginal ossification central foci of ossification
STERNUM sternum length the body is more than twice the the body is less than twice the
manubrium length manubrium length

RACE
Race is both a biological and a cultural concept. It is confusing because it encom-
passes everything from skin color to family origin, nationality, ethnicity, religion,
and more. The politically charged connotations of the word race make racial
analysis the most difficult aspect of human identification. Obviously, the analysis
of skeletal remains must rely on biological information. However, the report
must communicate to nonbiologists—police, attorneys, judges, and juries. The
challenge is to achieve effective communication about an imprecise concept/term.
The subject of racial identification is addressed in Chapter 14.

HANDEDNESS
In a group of unidentified persons, the lone left-handed person might be more
easily identified if he or she can be recognized and separated from the majority.
As much as 90 percent of the human population is predominantly right-handed.
Among the remaining group, a great deal of variability exists. Some people are
strongly left-handed. Others are ambidextrous; they are left-handed for some
activities and right-handed for others.
The hand an individual prefers is in part genetically determined, but the
precise ways in which genes affect handedness are still being researched. It is
not simple inheritance (i.e., two right-handed parents can have a left-handed
child or vice versa).
 Laboratory Analysis Chapter 13 199

The methods of recognizing handedness in skeletal remains are impre-

cise. The question is difficult to study in skeletal populations because there
are seldom records of handedness as there are of stature, sex, and race. It
is usually necessary to interview the family to obtain the information.
One thing is certain—the majority of skeletons are asymmetrical. The
right arm is usually longer and the left leg is usually longer. It is generally
accepted among anthropologists that the dominant arm tends to be the longer
one. Look for any other sign of unequal use between the arms. Compare the
right and left arms for inequality in major muscle attachment areas—the del-
toid tuberosity of the humerus and the radial tuberosity of the radius. Examine
the elbow area for differences in osteoarthritic changes that may indicate
increased use of one side over the other. Also see Chapter 4 for illustrations of
differences in the glenoid fossa of the scapula.

STATURE
Stature (height) is usually determined by measuring long bones and comparing
the measurement with average measurements from large databases (Trotter &
Gleser, 1952). Stature can also be estimated from full skeletal measurements
(Fully & Pineau, 1960) or from specific segments of the vertebral column (Tibbetts,
1981; Pelin et al., 2005). The formulae vary by sex and race, so it is advisable to
know the sex and race of the subject before beginning stature analysis.
Long bones are usually measured on an osteometric board. The large slid-
ing calipers used by foresters for measuring tree diameters are also very useful.
(Tree calipers are also more portable than most osteometric boards.)
MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
It is easy to become confused when moving from one measurement system to
another. People in the United States usually know just how tall a 5 foot 3 inch
woman is, but they find it hard to imagine 160 centimeters. One system is
adequate within any single group of people, but scientists and international
workers need to be flexible.
Bone measurements are recorded in millimeters and stature estimation for-
mulae utilize the metric system. The final results should be reported in the system
or systems of common use so that they are fully available to the readers.
Table 13.2 Quick Conversion Table for Stature Measurements
OSTEOMETRY
Osteometry is the measurement of bone. The process is usually called
osteometrics, and the two words are often interchanged. Bones are measured
in many different ways for a variety of purposes. Some bone measurements are
obvious, such as maximum length. Other measurements require knowledge of
bone anatomy and written instructions with illustrations. Complete methods
for measuring human bones are given in Data Collection Procedures for Forensic
Skeletal Material by Moore-Jansen et al. (1994). Illustrations and explanations
are also available in the help files of the Fordisc software program.
Most long bone measurements are simple maximum lengths. This includes
the measurement of the humerus, radius, ulna, femur, and fibula. The tibia is a
bit more complicated. It is measured from the superior articular surface of the
lateral condyle to the tip of the medial malleolus. In other words, the intercon-
dylar eminence is not part of the measurement. Use tree calipers or an osteo-
metric board with a hole or notch to allow for the intercondylar eminence.
The femur is sometimes measured with both condyles in contact with the
osteometric board. This is called the bicondylar length or oblique length
and is particularly useful because it orients the femur in anatomical position.
Bicondylar length provides information about sex as well as stature. (See
Q-angle in Figure 9.1c on page 126.)
200 Chapter 13 Laboratory Analysis

intercondylar
eminence

lateral articular
surface

medial
malleolus

Figure 13.5
Long Bone Measurements
Maximum length is measured as illustrated for the major long bones. In all but the tibia, maximum length is the greatest possible
length from the most extreme points of the bone. For the tibia, the standard length measurement is the condylomalleolar length.
It is measured from the superior surface of the lateral condyle to the tip of the medial malleolus. The intercondylar eminence is
excluded, as shown.
 Laboratory Analysis Chapter 13 201

STATURE DETERMINATION BY FORMULAE

After measuring each bone according to instructions (see Figure 13.4), insert
the measurement into the appropriate formulae (discussed next). For example,
if the unidentified person is a white male and the measurement of the humerus
is 32.7 centimeters, the first formula in Table 13.3 is the correct one to use:
Stature = (2.89 × 32.7) + 78.10 = 172.6 cm ± 4.57 cm standard deviation
The predicted height of the unknown person is 168.0–177.2 centimeters,
66.1–69.8 inches, or 5 feet 6 inches to 5 feet 10 inches. This may seem like a
wide range (the prediction interval from the femur would be a little narrower),
but think about the goal: identification. It is better to give a wide range and
search a few more records for the missing person than to give too narrow a
range and miss the chance at a successful identification.

STATURE ERRORS FROM SELF-REPORTING AND FAULTY MEMORY

Stature estimates are complicated by more than biological variation. The esti-
mate may be accurate, while the records of the missing person are entirely
wrong. Many records of height are self-reported verbal estimates. Self-reported
height tends to be exaggerated (or sometimes diminished) according to the
wishes of the individual.
Friends and family have problems remembering the height of a person
they have not seen recently. Strangely enough, much-admired people tend to
“grow” after death!

Table 13.2 Stature Formulae

RACE/SEX BONE FORMULA (CM) S.D. RACE/SEX BONE FORMULA (CM) S.D.

EUROPEAN humerus 2.89 humerus + 78.10 ±4.57 AFRICAN MALE humerus 2.88 humerus + 75.48 ±4.23
MALE

radius 3.79 radius + 79.42 ±4.66 radius 3.32 radius + 85.43 ±4.57
ulna 3.76 ulna + 75.55 ±4.72 ulna 3.20 ulna + 80.77 ±4.74
femur 2.32 femur + 65.53 ±3.94 femur 2.10 femur + 72.22 ±3.91
tibia 2.42 tibia + 81.93 ±4.00 tibia 2.19 tibia + 85.36 ±3.96
fibula 2.60 fibula + 75.50 ±3.86 fibula 2.34 fibula + 80.07 ±4.02
EUROPEAN humerus 3.36 humerus + 57.97 ±4.45 AFRICAN humerus 3.08 humerus + 64.67 ±4.25
FEMALE FEMALE

radius 4.74 radius + 54.93 ±4.24 radius 3.67 radius + 71.79 ±4.59
ulna 4.27 ulna + 57.76 ±4.30 ulna 3.31 ulna + 75.38 ±4.83
femur 2.47 femur + 54.10 ±3.72 femur 2.28 femur + 59.76 ±3.41
tibia 2.90 tibia + 61.53 ±3.66 tibia 2.45 tibia + 72.65 ±3.70
fibula 2.93 fibula + 59.61 ±3.57 fibula 2.49 fibula + 70.90 ±3.80
ASIAN MALE humerus 2.68 humerus + 83.19 ±4.16 MEXICAN humerus 2.92 humerus + 73.94 ±4.2
MALE

radius 3.54 radius + 82.00 ±4.60 radius 3.55 radius + 80.71 ±4.04
ulna 3.48 ulna + 77.45 ±4.66 ulna 3.56 ulna + 74.56 ±4.05
femur 2.15 femur + 72.57 ±3.80 femur 2.44 femur + 58.67 ±2.99
tibia 2.39 tibia + 81.45 ±3.27 tibia 2.36 tibia + 80.62 ±3.73
fibula 2.40 fibula + 80.56 ±3.24 fibula 2.50 fibula + 75.44 ±3.52
MEXICAN femur 2.59 femur + 49.74 ±3.82
FEMALE

tibia 2.72 tibia + 63.78 ±3.51

Source: Trotter & Gleser, 1952, 1977; Genovés, 1967.
202 Chapter 13 Laboratory Analysis

CHANGES IN HEIGHT WITH ADVANCING AGE

Another problem is the loss of height with age. Most people shorten with age.
The intervertebral discs compress and the vertebra develop microfractures,
causing the gradual loss of a few centimeters. But people seldom report them-
selves to be any shorter than they were at age 20.
TRAUMA
Trauma is a physical injury or wound caused by an external force or violence.
The following section focuses on the two main questions about trauma in a
forensic setting—“When did it happen?” and “What happened?” It includes
information about the most common types of bone trauma—fractures, cutting
wounds, and gunshot wounds.
WHEN DID IT HAPPEN?
Antemortem Trauma Antemortem trauma is injury that occurred before
death. It shows evidence of a physiological response in the area of the injured
tissue. The wound is healed, healing, or responding to some sort of infection.
Bony surfaces show signs of thickening and bony proliferation. The edges are
rounded, and the surfaces are characteristic of bony remodeling.
Antemortem trauma is very useful for identification purposes. Evidence
of traumatic events during the life of the individual can be compared with medi-
cal records or testimony of friends and family.
Figure 13.6
Antemortem Trephination
This amazing cranium is from an archeological site. The individual lived for
many months (possibly even years) after the holes were cut into his skull.
The edges of the holes are well rounded. At the time of death, lamellar bone
was still continuing to develop over the exposed spongy bone. All of the holes
are somewhat beveled toward the outer surface. If this were an example of
modern cranial surgery, there would be small drill holes at the edges of the
larger holes and bony plates would be wired back into place. (Note that
the individual was edentulous. There are no alveolar sockets and little or no
alveolar bone.)

Perimortem Trauma Perimortem trauma is injury that occurs around the

time of death but not necessarily “at” the time of death. The trauma may have
taken place immediately before, during, or after death. The edges are sharp and
the wound shows no sign of healing. It should be clear that the damage occurred
in fresh, not dry bone. The fracture may be incomplete or bent (greenstick frac-
ture). Any postmortem staining or weathering should be consistent with that
of the surrounding bone.
Perimortem trauma may provide valuable information about the cause
and/or manner of death.
Figure 13.7
Perimortem Gunshot Wound
A projectile from a rifle pierced this skull at the coronal suture and the
bone split open in a starburst pattern. The semi-elastic property of living
bone allowed the bone to expand and split rather than breaking into
pieces as it would have if it had been a dry skull used for target
practice (postmortem damage).
 Laboratory Analysis Chapter 13 203

Postmortem Trauma or Damage Postmortem trauma is damage that occurs

long after death. The expression postmortem trauma has a long history of use,
but postmortem damage is probably more accurate. Trauma is defined as seri-
ous bodily damage. This is unlikely to apply to a dry bone.
Neither perimortem trauma nor postmortem damage shows any sign of heal-
ing, but postmortem damage is recognizable because bare, dry bone breaks differ-
ently and marks differently than living bone. The edges of the break are sharp and
the bone tends to break completely through rather than partially or with bent
edges as in a greenstick fracture. In postmortem damage, the outer surface of bone
that has been exposed to decomposition fluids, dirt, and weather is a different color
from the inner surface that was, for a time at least, protected.
It is important to separate perimortem from postmortem, because peri-
mortem events have far greater forensic implications. Perimortem trauma may
have been caused by a murderer, whereas postmortem damage is more likely
to have been caused by a hungry scavenger or an inattentive excavator.

Figure 13.9
Hacksaw Marks
The repetitive, parallel marks on this femur
are characteristic of a saw. The surface is
flat and the edges of the bone are sharp.
Compare this with the parallel lines left by
a rodent in Figure 13.8.
Figure 13.8
Postmortem Scavenger Activity
This humerus was gnawed on by rodents. The small parallel lines left
by the incisors are plainly visible. A carnivore would have left a
ragged surface with canine tooth indentations or puncture marks.

CASE EXAMPLE: EVIDENCE OF ABUSE

Unidentified skeletal remains of a young adult female displayed multiple fractures in various stages of heal-
ing. The right ribs #7–#9 were partially healed (porous bony callus) and the left ribs #6–#7 were fully
healed (thickened areas of remodeled bone). Several anterior teeth (#23–#26) were missing, and the
sockets were partially healed. The left zygoma had a perimortem fracture and the right parietal displayed
hairline fractures consistent with blunt force trauma. With evidence of at least three episodes of trauma in
the area of the head and chest, it was suspected that the woman was the victim of an abusive relationship.
The suspicions were confirmed when the woman was identified and the family testified. The boyfriend
confessed to the murder.
204 Chapter 13 Laboratory Analysis

BONE HEALING
Antemortem trauma is challenging to analyze because the wound has been altered
by the healing process, but understanding the sequence and timing of healing can
help to determine if several wounds happened at the same time or at different times.
There are three important factors in the bone’s ability to heal—the vascu-
larity of the particular bone or area of bone, the stability of the area, and the
presence or absence of infection. The entire process of repair is sabotaged and
delayed by infection. If, however, immobilization is maintained and the infection
subsides, repair resumes after the fragments of dead bone are resorbed. Advanced
age, poor nutrition, and systemic disease can also slow the healing process.
Bone follows a predictable six-stage process of healing—clot, vascular bridge,
osteogenic cells, soft callus, bony callus, and remodeling. It is difficult to state the
exact amount of time required for each stage. Under ideal conditions, osteoclastic
bone resorption and subperiosteal bone apposition is visible two weeks following
the fracture, and the bony callus has bridged the break by one month.
1. Clot Formation (Time Period: Hours) Immediately following the injury,
there is an infusion of blood into the tissue surrounding the break and a
clot or hematoma forms.
2. Vascular Bridge Formation (Time Period: Days) A vascular network
is established through the clot. The vessels bridge the ends of the broken
bone and provide a conduit for nutrients and cells.
3. Infusion of Cells (Time Period: Throughout the Healing Process)
Osteogenic cells infuse the vascular bridge and differentiate into the variety
of cells needed to build bone. Osteoclasts resorb bone fragments.
4. Soft Callus Formation (Time Period: Weeks) Osteoblasts build a soft
callus. This is an organic matrix on which minerals can be deposited. The
soft callus begins to buttress the damaged area.
5. Bony Callus Formation (Time Period: 1–2 Months) Osteoblasts con-
tinue to build by depositing minerals within the callus. The new woven bone
buttresses the damaged area. At this point, a hard mass can be felt in the
area of the break.
6. Bone Remodeling (Time Period: Years) Once the broken bone is sta-
bilized by the bony callus, osteoclasts and osteoblasts commence to remodel
the callus into lamellar bone, and osteocytes take over the long-term main-
tenance of the rebuilt Haversian systems. The bony callus becomes
smoother and denser but remains visible in spite of remodeling. (Bones of
a very young child will remodel completely.)
DELAYED UNION OR NON-UNION
Healing can be delayed if damage is severe or if bone approximation and immobi-
lization are inadequate. Under such conditions, the body’s effort to rebuild bone
may finally fail. The medullary cavity is sealed off with compact bone, proliferating
cells differentiate into chondroblasts which produce a hyaline-like cartilage over
the ends of the fractured bones, and a pseudoarthrosis or false joint is formed.
The scaphoid of the wrist and the femoral neck are particularly vulnerable.
AMPUTATION
The amputated end of a bone remodels in response to change or loss of function.
In general, this means that the sharp edges disappear and the terminal part of
the bone becomes smoothly rounded.
The femur, however, is a weight-bearing bone, and the individual repre-
sented in Figure 13.11 was a double amputee who used the stumps for modified
walking. The result is function-specific remodeling. A large resorption pit is
apparent at the point of compression (compression necrosis). The posterior sur-
face of the amputated end of the femur is expanded into osteophytic growths
(traction osteophytes), providing attachment for the adductor magnus muscle.
 Laboratory Analysis Chapter 13 205

Figure 13.10
Simple Fracture of a
Radius, Healing
The radius is shown first as
smooth bone immediately prior
to fracture, then one month later
with a bony callus of porous
woven bone (stage 5), and
finally, two years later with dense
bone covering and enlarging the
fracture site (stage 6).

intact bone bony callus fracture site

prior to break during healing after remodeling

Figure 13.11
Bone Resorption and
osteophytic processes Remodeling Following
Above-Knee Amputation
The healed amputated end displays
traction osteophytes and evidence
of compression necrosis.

resorptive pitting
206 Chapter 13 Laboratory Analysis

CASE EXAMPLE: RECOGNIZING RAPE OR TORTURE IN GUATEMALA

Rape is usually determined by vaginal swabs and evidence of genital bruising. Of course neither is possible
with skeletal remains. However, other physical evidence can be used to support verbal testimony from
witnesses.
In Guatemala, an entire village (Rio Negro) of women and children were massacred during the recent civil war.
One witness watched from a distance. She reported that the women were raped and beaten by the military before
they were executed. The women were found with blouses still in place, but few skirts. (The blouses and skirts had
been of the same fiber, so they would not have decayed at different rates.) Many of the victims exhibited perimortem
fractures of zygomas, mandibles, and forearms. These fracture locations are consistent with facial beating and de-
fense attempts. Some also had spiral fractures of the arms, typical of wrenching force. While rape could not be
proven after so many years, the physical evidence clearly supported the testimony of the witness.

WHAT HAPPENED? EVIDENCE OF TRAUMA

The evidence of trauma is highly variable. It is dependent on both the instru-
ment of trauma and the location of impact. Guns, fists, and screwdrivers all
produce different effects. Skulls, ribs, and femora all respond differently to the
same trauma. Some of the more obvious variables include size, shape, density,
velocity, and angle of impact.

Bone Fractures A bone break of any size or shape is called a fracture. Several
variables affect the occurrence and type of fracture. The quantity and direction of
force and the health and robusticity of the subject are the most important. There
are many different names and classifications for fractures, but the following is a
list of the most common fracture types. For more information about fractures, refer
to Classification of Musculoskeletal Trauma by P. B. Pynsent et al. (1999).

FRACTURE TYPES

■ Simple fracture: A “clean” break with no skin penetration; including

transverse and oblique fractures
■ Greenstick fracture: An incomplete break with one side bent inward
and the other side broken outward (common in children, rare in adults)
■ Spiral fracture: A ragged break caused by excessive twisting
■ Comminuted fracture: The bone is broken into many pieces
■ Compound fracture: Broken ends of bone protrude through an open
wound in the skin. (A compound fracture is not recognizable without soft
tissues, but it is important to know the definition when reading comparative
medical records.)
■ Compression fracture: Crushed bone (common in porous bone)
■ Depressed fracture: Broken bone is pressed inward (as in a blunt force
trauma to the skull)
■ Impacted fracture: One of the broken ends of a bone is wedged into the
cancellous bone of the other end
 Laboratory Analysis Chapter 13 207

compression fracture
of vertebral body

simple greenstick spiral comminuted compound

transverse

Figure 13.12
Common Fracture Types

Cutting Wounds All cutting wounds are called “tool marks.” They may be caused
by a knife blade or a screwdriver but they are all characterized by some sort of
straight or clean-edged line. They are easy to recognize because neat, clean, lines
are seldom found in nature. The fine details can be the result of difference in the
type of tool or the specific tool and provide a means of specific weapon identification.
Learn more about knife and tool impressions by experimenting with fresh
bones from a local butcher. Examine the marks made by every tool available. Use
a low-power microscope or a magnifying glass to observe the fine patterns.

sharp, clean slices by

machete completely through
both tables of bone

knife marks

Figure 13.14
Machete Wounds from Death Blows
Figure 13.13
The deep penetrating wounds on this skull were left by a machete. All of
Knife Wounds from Scalping the edges are sharp, long, and deep. A machete can decapitate and
The marks on this skull were left by a butcher knife in an disarticulate a body with efficiency.
attempted scalping. At least one edge is sharp on each cut
mark, and the cut marks penetrate only the outer table of bone.
208 Chapter 13 Laboratory Analysis

Gunshot Wounds The type of weapon, type of projectile, range, and trajectory
all have an effect on the resulting gunshot wound. Thorough analysis of gun-
shot wounds is best accomplished by experts with the most experience. (Big
city medical examiners are usually a good choice.) It is, however, possible for
even the novice to separate out the major characteristics of gunshot wounds
and report them without overstepping their expertise.
Separate the obviously high-power wounds from the low-power wounds by
classifying the damage surrounding the point of penetration. Low-power weapons
such as small pistols release less energy than high-power weapons. The resulting
wound can be a simple hole, beveled so that the hole grows larger as it penetrates.
If the projectile exits the body, the exit wound is larger than the entrance.

Figure 13.15 Figure 13.16

Low Power GSW (Handgun) Higher Power GSW (Rifle)
Low-energy gunshot wound. There is less expansion and Higher-energy gunshot wound. There is “starburst” pattern
fewer cracks. In this particular case, the energy was also of cracks. This is the result of rapidly expanding gases
partially absorbed by the cranial suture. within the cranial vault.

High-power weapons such as rifles and machine guns release large

amounts of energy. As the projectile enters the body, there is a sudden expan-
sion or bursting effect. (In soft tissue this is called temporary cavitation.)
If the bone is not totally shattered, the wound in bone may take on a “star-
burst” pattern with cracks radiating out from the entrance hole.
Projectile Type The wide assortment of projectiles can be described by several
primary characteristics: caliber (diameter of the bullet or shot), composition (usu-
ally lead, but sometimes plastic or rubber), shape (with or without a hollow point),
and jacket (with or without, partial or full). The combination produces different
effects when striking living tissue. Full metal jacket rifle bullets frequently exit
the body. Partial jacket, hollow point bullets expand and often do not exit.
Bone does not accurately maintain the caliber of the projectile. The diam-
eter of the wound may be larger because of the angle of entry, distortion of the
projectile by intermediary targets, chipping of bone edges, and many other
factors. The diameter of the wound may even be slightly smaller because of
shrinkage of the bone during drying.
The bullet wound depicted in Figure 13.16 resulted from a direct or
“straight on” hit. If the bullet had struck the bone at a tangential angle, a
keyhole fracture could have resulted. The primary edge of entry would be
rounded and beveled inward as expected, but the secondary edge of entry would
 Laboratory Analysis Chapter 13 209

Figure 13.17
Entrance and Exit
Characteristics
The wound in the back of the skull
exit wound
is a typical entrance wound. It is
smaller than the exit wound and
beveled inward. The bevel is visi-
ble from the inside of the skull. The
wound above the eye orbit is a
typical exit wound. It is larger than
the entrance wound and beveled
outward. (This entrance–exit pat-
tern is typical of a close-range
execution-style killing.)

entrance
wound

be less uniform in shape and beveled outward. The entering projectile “levers”
the secondary edge upward as it passes underneath. Keyhole fractures are ovoid
or keyhole-like in shape.

Shotgun Wounds Shotguns produce entirely different types of wounds. The

size of the pellets and the range between muzzle and target affect the size and
shape of the wound and the degree of injury.

Figure 13.18
Shotgun Wounds
This skull was penetrated by two rounds from a .410 shotgun fired at close range. Note
the scalloped margins and the small “starburst” cracks. Lead scrapings and imbedded
pellets are common in this type of wound. There is only slight inward beveling of the
entrance wounds and no exit wounds. (The .410 is a low-power shotgun, but even
high-power shotgun pellets seldom exit the body.) If the range had been greater, the
pellets would have scattered more, creating a larger pattern.
210 Chapter 13 Laboratory Analysis

Blunt Force Trauma Blunt force trauma is caused by all sorts of “blunt”
instruments—baseball bats, 2 × 4s, hammers, and so on. The force of impact is far
less than in gunshot wounds and the wound edges are not so clearly defined as in
cutting wounds. With less force and no cutting edge, the elastic properties of bone
can be seen. Greenstick-type, concentric breaks occur around the point of impact.
Other fractures may occur also, but the concentric fractures are characteristic.

Figure 13.20
Figure 13.19 Depressed Skull Fracture
Blunt Force Skull Fracture This wound was caused by the same type of instrument as in the
This skull was penetrated by a carpenter’s hammer. Note the last illustration, but with less force. Only the outer table of the
presence of concentric cracks in addition to the occasional skull is penetrated and fragments are depressed into the wound.
“starburst” crack. Fragments of bone are bent inward and the The concentric fractures are close together creating an imprint of
outer table is broken in places where the inner table is only the hammer head.
bent (greenstick effect).

Dislocation A dislocation is the temporary displacement of a bone from its

normal position in the joint. If the damage to surrounding ligaments is minimal
and the bone is repositioned and stabilized so the joint can heal, there may be
no bony sign of the dislocation. But if full healing does not take place and the
bones of the joint move abnormally against each other (chronic dislocation), the
joint surfaces remodel according to use. The edges of the original joint become
ill defined and a joint-like surface may develop in an abnormal location.

Figure 13.21
Chronic Shoulder Dislocation
The shape of this humeral head is the result of chronic dislocation. The head is flatter than normal
and osteoarthritic. The articular surface is dense, smooth, and shiny (eburnated), a condition
associated with loss of articular cartilage. (The adjoining scapula had developed a secondary
articular fossa anteromedial to the glenoid fossa.)
 Laboratory Analysis Chapter 13 211

DISEASE AND PATHOLOGY

Pathology is the study of disease, its causes, processes, development, and con-
sequences. A disease is a pathological condition, but it is not “a pathology” any
more than a human is “an anthropology”—at least, not until recently. However,
language evolves and changes with usage, and when the expression pathology
and trauma appeared in the literature, it quickly gained popularity. It may have
been just a shortened version of pathological conditions and trauma, but it
opened the word pathology to new usage. The word disease is now being replaced
by pathology, and the plural pathologies has followed.
Analysis of disease from bone alone is challenging and sometimes impos-
sible. First, the effects of trauma and disease can be interrelated and confused.
For instance, the primary cause of a bacterial infection may be the trauma of a
compound fracture.
Even without trauma, disease analysis is complicated. Single disease
agents can produce a variety of effects, and different disease agents can produce
what appears to be the same effect. The expression of any disease may be influ-
enced by advancing age, inadequate nutrition, metabolic deficiencies, infection,
or neoplasm.
It is advisable to use as many descriptive terms as possible before
suggesting the cause or diagnosing a disease. Begin with terms like osteogenic
(producing bone) and osteolytic (dissolving bone). Report the obvious effects
before suggesting possible causes. For example, report that the child had bowed
legs before suggesting that the child may have suffered from rickets due to
vitamin D deficiency.
A few of the most common diseases affecting the skeleton are listed here.
They are divided into groups related to age, nutrition and metabolic deficiencies,
infections, and neoplasms. For an in-depth study of disease effects, refer to
Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains by
D. J. Ortner (2003).

AGE- AND HORMONE-RELATED CONDITIONS

Osteoarthritis Osteoarthritis refers to a group of degenerative joint diseases.
The most common is caused by progressive wear and tear on joints with age.
The articular cartilage thins, bony projections proliferate at the edge of the
articular surface, and in later stages, striations appear on the face of the
articular surface. Osteoarthritis can be accelerated by inflammation caused by
trauma or infection. Generalized osteoarthritis is more likely to be age related.
Osteoarthritis caused by disease is more likely to be localized. See Figure 5.11b,
An elderly or “hard-working” back.

Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH) DISH is considered a

form of degenerative arthritis and is characterized by “flowing” calcification
along the sides of the vertebrae, most frequently on the right side. It is commonly
associated with inflammation of the tendons (tendinitis) and calcification
of tendons at their attachments points to bone. Heel spurs are a common
nonvertebral expression of DISH.

Hyperostosis frontalis interna (internal frontal hyperostosis) Hyperos-

tosis frontalis interna is characterized by irregular, ridged, thickening on the
endocranial surface of the frontal bone. It is usually bilateral and symmetrical.
It looks somewhat like Paget’s disease on first glance, but it is usually confined
to the anterior part of the cranium, and it doesn’t extend to other parts of the
body. It has been reported in high frequency among postmenopausal elderly
women and is considered to be a benign condition.
212 Chapter 13 Laboratory Analysis

Osteomalacia Osteomalacia refers to a number of disorders in adults in which

bones are inadequately mineralized. The lower limbs tend to develop mediolat-
eral bowing because they are not strong enough to support body weight.
Osteoporosis A group of diseases in which bone resorption outpaces bone
deposition is referred to as osteoporosis. Bone becomes porous and light and
fractures increase, particularly in the spine, wrist, and hip. It is a common
condition of postmenopausal women but is not exclusive to women. Osteoporo-
sis is the underlying cause of the typical “dowager’s hump” as well as Colles
fractures of the wrist and femoral neck fractures. Such fractures are slow to
heal and often leave misshapen bones in spite of medical care. The anterior part
of the vertebral discs compresses more than the posterior part, causing greater
curvature of the spine and permanent loss of height.
Paget’s disease Paget’s disease is characterized by excessive rates of bone
deposition and reabsorption. The newly formed bone has an abnormally high
amount of immature woven bone and little mature compact bone. It is also less
mineralized than normal bone; thus it is soft and weak. It is a disease of the
elderly, progresses slowly, and is seldom life threatening. Paget’s disease may
affect only one bone, even a single vertebra. If the tibia is involved, it becomes
“saber shaped.” The legs may bow.

NUTRITION- AND METABOLISM-RELATED CONDITIONS

Cribra orbitalia Cribra orbitalia is bilateral pitting of the orbital roofs of
the frontal bone. It is produced by simultaneous bone lysis (pitting) and new
bone formation (thickening). Like porotic hyperostosis, cribra orbitalia is
related to anemia.

Figure 13.22
Cribra Orbitalia—
A Peruvian Man
Pitting in the superior orbital wall
is a typical response to anemia.
In this person, anemia may have
been altitude-related.
 Laboratory Analysis Chapter 13 213

Enamel hypoplasia Enamel hypoplasia is seen as horizontal striations in

tooth enamel. It results from inconsistent nutrition during formative years.
Seasonal swings in food supply may cause regular enamel lines. Serious
childhood illnesses may result in irregularly spaced lines.

Porotic or spongy hyperostosis Porotoc or spongy hyperostosis appears as

lesions on the surface of the cranial vault and a “hair-on-end” trabecular pattern
within the diploë of the cranial vault. It can be caused by anemia—usually iron
deficiency anemia, or one of the congenital hemolytic anemias (e.g., thalassemia
and sickle cell disease).

Rickets Rickets in children is analogous to osteomalacia in adults. The bones are

inadequately mineralized and the limbs tend to bow. It is caused by inadequate
amounts of vitamin D. Narrow tibia (“saber shins”) can also be the result of rickets.

BACTERIAL INFECTIONS
Osteomyelitis A general term given to a bacterial infection of bone and bone
marrow is osteomyelitis. It can enter from infections in surrounding tissues or
through the blood stream. It can also follow a compound fracture.
Periostitis Periostitis (or periosteitis) is a general term for a bone infection
with involvement of the periosteum. The periosteum is the membrane enveloping
the bone.

Syphilis Syphilis is an infection caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum.

The effects vary depending upon the age of acquisition. If the infection is estab-
lished in the fetus, it is “congenital syphilis.” The skull, radius, ulna, and tibia
are usually involved. Saber tibia is one of the resulting deformations.
Sexually transmitted syphilis is “acquired syphilis.” Skeletal effects
include gummata of the medullary cavity or the periosteum. Primary sites
include the frontal bone and the proximal ends of the tibia and humerus.
Syphilis should not be dismissed as a disease of the past. According to
scientists at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Atlanta,
syphilis is still present in the world (including the United States). There is a
new outbreak every seven to ten years. Syphilis responds well to antibiotic
treatment, but there is no vaccine. Unfortunately, cultural inhibitions result in
reluctance to seek immediate treatment (St. Louis & Wasserheit, 1998).

Skeletal tuberculosis Skeletal tuberculosis is caused by the bacterium

Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Lesions caused by M. tuberculosis are most often
found in the vertebral column (T6 to L3), the hip, and the knee.

Leprosy Leprosy is caused by Mycobacterium leprae, a member of the same

bacterial family as tuberculosis, Mycobacteriaceae. The bones of the hands and
feet are most affected in leprosy. The phalanges first appear to sharpen, then
resorb into distorted stumps.
214 Chapter 13 Laboratory Analysis

evidence of infection

Figure 13.23
Periostitis in the Distal Shaft of an Ulna
The surface of the distal shaft of the ulna is elevated and pitted in reaction to a subperiosteal
infection. The infection is localized. The rest of the bone shaft and the other bones of the
body appear normal. (Reactive bone is porous, but it looks very different from a fracture-re-
lated bony callus.)

NEOPLASMS
Osteoma An Osteoma is a benign bone tumor. Osteomas are common, and
many classification systems exist. Basically, they are dense, circumscribed, non-
proliferating, and symptomless. Osteomas may be caused by trauma and/or
excess callus formation. Most osteomas occur on the inner and outer surfaces
of the cranium and mandible, but some are found in the postcranial skeleton,
particularly in areas prone to injury.

Osteosarcoma An osteosarcoma (osteoid sarcoma) is a highly malignant

tumor containing bony tissue. It is formed by proliferation of mesodermal cells
and is more commonly known as bone cancer. Osteosarcomas primarily affect
young people between 10 and 25 years of age.
 Laboratory Analysis Chapter 13 215

QUALITY CHECK FOR SKELETAL ANALYSIS

Before moving from analysis to identification, go over every detail to be sure
that all possible information has been considered. Use this checklist as a guide.

AGE CHANGES
✓ Were developmental changes ongoing at the time of death? Give details.
✓ Were degenerative changes apparent at the time of death? Give details.

SEXUAL VARIATION
✓ Consider the pelvis: Is it wide or narrow? Specify areas.
■ Pubis elongation
■ Subpubic angle
■ Ventral arc
■ Sciatic notch
■ Preauricular groove

✓ Consider the skull: Is it rugged or gracile? Specify areas.

■ Mastoids and nuchal area—male–female comparison
■ Supraorbital ridge and frontal—male–female comparison

■ Mandible—male–female comparison

RACIAL VARIATION (See Chapter 14)

✓ Consider the skull: What is the most prominent feature of the face—the
mouth, the nose, or the cheeks? What details correspond to known racial
characteristics?
■ Nasal aperture—width in relation to length

■ Nasal spine—present or absent, size

■ Nasal guttering—present or absent, degree

■ Degree of maxillary prognathicism

■ Zygomatic position in relation to the maxilla—on the same plane or

posterior to that plane
■ Zygomatic suture form—S-shaped, Z-shaped, or straight

■ Dental arch shape—rounded or V-shaped

✓ Consider the teeth: Are there any obvious racial characteristics?

(See Chapter 11)
■ Shovel-shaped incisors—the maxillary centrals and laterals

■ Carabelli’s cusp—on the maxillary first molars

STATURE ESTIMATION
✓ Look over the entire skeleton for consistency: Are the limbs of the same
general length? Is the bone density consistent throughout the skeleton? Is
there evidence of scoliosis or anything else that would create inconsistency
between long bone measurement and actual height?
■ Measure the long bones

■ Use the most recent formulae or computer analysis

■ Account for incongruities when possible

TRAUMA
✓ Have you examined every bone for evidence of traumatic incidents?
✓ Can you explain anomalies in terms of the bone dynamics?
✓ Will radiographs be useful?

DISEASE
✓ Is there any evidence of systemic disease, infection, or poor nutrition?
✓ Will radiographs or other analysis such as microscopy be useful?
216 Chapter 13 Laboratory Analysis

HUMAN IDENTIFICATION (ID)

SKELETAL IDENTIFICATION: THE CHALLENGE
Frequently, skeletonized remains are not identified. They are labeled “John or
Jane Doe,” boxed, buried, or cremated, and written off as “unidentifiable.” The
families of the missing live out their lives in limbo between hope and grief, and
the murderers go undetected and unpunished. The whole problem is compounded
by silence—the unidentified body doesn’t complain, the family doesn’t know
where to complain, the public is indifferent unless a serial killer is involved, and
the murderer certainly stays silent.
Nancy Ritter of the National Institute of Justice reports that missing per-
sons and unidentified human remains constitute our nation’s “silent mass
disaster.” Tens of thousands of persons disappear under suspicious circum-
stances each year, and there are as many as 100,000 active missing persons
cases on any given day (Ritter, 2007).
The challenge is identification of the “unidentifiable.” The solution is good
analysis and description of the remains, good comparative information about
the missing, and ways to efficiently store and retrieve the information.
Over the last twenty-five years, death investigators have become more
willing to devote time to searching for comparative information from long-term
missing persons. Success has led to more success and many medical examiner’s
offices now work closely with anthropologists. The result is better descriptions
of skeletal cases and more access to identifications.

IDENTIFICATION LEVELS
Usually, the process of identification (ID) proceeds through a sequence of levels—
tentative, presumptive, and positive—and may not ever reach the highest level.
Each level says something about the reliability of the ID, but the actual numeri-
cal probability is a function of the specific method used (e.g., fingerprints or
DNA). Table 13.3 provides examples of identification levels and the possible
types of evidence for each.
The distinction between one level of identification and the next tends to
be blurred, and the final decision regarding a contested identification is left to
the courts.
TENTATIVE ID
Tentative identification comes first. Any available clue whatsoever can pro-
vide a tentative ID—clothing, jewelry, pocket contents, body location, and so on.
Tentative identification is important because it allows the investigator to focus
the search for more information. If the tentative ID turns out to be wrong,
another direction can always be taken.
PRESUMPTIVE ID
Presumptive identification is the next level. It is also called “possible” or
“probable” identification. Presumptive ID is achieved in two different ways—by
excluding all other possibilities or by piling up a lot of unrelated evidence in
favor of the same identification. The first is called “identification by exclusion,”
and the second, “identification by preponderance of evidence.” Neither is the
same as a positive identification, but either can be presented and decided upon
in a court of law.
POSITIVE ID
Positive identification is supposed to be faultless. Ideally, it results from infor-
mation that is exclusive to one and only one individual such as fingerprints and
radiographs, dental or skeletal. These are both developmentally determined and
the randomness of development assures variation, even between identical twins.
 Laboratory Analysis Chapter 13 217

Table 13.3 Levels of Certainty in Identification

LEVEL OF ID BASIS FOR ID

TENTATIVE IDENTIFICATION clothing
possessions
location of body
verbal testimony
ABO blood type
PRESUMPTIVE IDENTIFICATION BY multiple factors, none of which could stand alone skeletal
PREPONDERANCE OF EVIDENCE anomalies (known, but unrecorded) photo superimposition
PRESUMPTIVE IDENTIFICATION everybody else is identified (and no evidence contradicts
BY EXCLUSION the identification)
POSITIVE IDENTIFICATION dental identification
radiographic identification
mummified fingerprints
prosthetic identification (with serial number)
DNA analysis
unique skeletal anomalies (with written records)

Even DNA, based on genetic rather than developmental differences,

can’t provide the ultimate level of certainty, but most IDs are accepted as
positive on the basis of statistics. A positive DNA identification may be
based on the fact that the haplotype of the unidentified individual occurs
in only 1 in 400 persons within a specific population. That information,
together with correct sex, stature, age, and race, makes an excellent positive
identification (but not perfect).

METHODS OF IDENTIFICATION
There are many useful identification methods, and the best method for any
specific case depends on the condition of the remains and the availability of
comparative information. Many methods are in general use by forensic
laboratories, and others are only available through specialized laboratories with
state-of-the-art equipment. A growing number of nongovernmental laboratories
are equipped for specialized high-tech analyses.
The following is a partial list of methods used in identification. Each is a
study in and of itself.

■ Blood typing (ABO system together with Rh factor)

■ DNA analysis (nuclear or mitochondrial)
■ Radiographic analysis (antemortem/postmortem comparison, dental,
or other)
■ Elemental analysis (information about nutrition, disease, or origin)
■ Isotope analysis (information about year of death based on “bomb-
spike” data)
■ Microstructural analysis of bone or teeth (information about age at death)
■ Hair analysis (race, age, and toxicological analysis)
■ Fingerprint (antemortem/postmortem comparison)
■ Photo superimposition (antemortem/postmortem comparison)
■ Prostheses, surgical hardware (serial number identification)

More types of analyses are also possible, and each is useful in its own way.
The requirements of the specific case dictate the route to follow and the experts
to seek.
218 Chapter 13 Laboratory Analysis

RADIOGRAPHIC IDENTIFICATION
First, note the difference between an x-ray and a radiograph. An x-ray is elec-
tromagnetic radiation of very short wavelength and very high energy. X-rays
can penetrate soft tissues, but not bony tissue. A radiograph is a permanent
image, on photographic film or as a digital image, produced by x-rays. Physicists
study x-rays; osteologists study radiographs.
Almost any radiograph—dental, cranial, or postcranial—can be useful for
positive identification if it shows bony detail. In societies with advanced health
care, dental radiographs are common. Dental restorations are clearly visible
and usually well documented. Even without restorations, dental radiographs
provide individual detail of root morphology, alveolar bone configuration,
vascular channels, and sinuses.
The chief impediments to radiographic identification are major bony
changes over time and inaccurate angulation of the postmortem comparison
radiographs. Angulation is simply a matter of orienting a three-dimensional
item so that it can be represented in two dimensions. The slightest change in
angle can change the two-dimensional picture. Usually several comparison
radiographs are preferred.

PHOTO SUPERIMPOSITION
Photo superimposition, also known as video superimposition, can be a convincing
method for presumptive identification when all else is lacking. It is accom-
plished by photographically superimposing a carefully positioned skull on a
facial photograph. Angulation is a challenge here just as it is with radiographic
comparisons.
Photo superimposition is most easily done with the use of two video cam-
eras, but it can also be accomplished with as little as one camera, a piece of glass
in a vertical stand, and two separate light sources.
Numerous points of reference should be visible on both the photograph
and the skull. For example, it should be possible to match the following points
and curvatures:

■ Bridge of nose
■ Length of nose
■ Width of nose
■ Distance between eyes
■ Lip line
■ Any visible teeth
■ Chin—lowest point
■ Chin—most forward point
■ Angle of jaw
■ Ear canal

Photo superimposition has been shown to be most successful if two photo-

graphs are used (Austin-Smith & Maples, 1994). The photos should show the indi-
vidual from different perspectives such as frontal and profile. A physical anomaly
such as a broken nose is very useful if it is apparent in the photograph.
Laboratory Analysis Chapter 13 219

Figure 13.24
Photo Superimposition
In this case, the missing individual
had a long, narrow face, and his
nose was broken and healed with a
decided deviation to the right side of
the face. The photograph is superim-
posed over the image of the skull
with all reference points in agree-
ment, including the bridge of the
nose. This does not stand alone as a
positive identification, but it supports
other information to increase the
probability of the identification.
220 Chapter 13 Laboratory Analysis

CASE EXAMPLE: “POSITIVE IDENTIFICATION” IS NOT ALWAYS ENOUGH

Convincing yourself and the investigator is not always enough. The jury and the family must also be
convinced. Jurors may lack the education or experience to easily grasp the methodology used for identifica-
tion. This can usually be overcome by introducing good teaching techniques in the courtroom.
The family is another problem entirely. In my experience, most families want answers. They want an end
to the nightmare of not knowing what has happened to their loved one. But there are times when members of
the deceased’s family simply do not want to believe the evidence. They choose to turn their backs on the evi-
dence and go on hoping that the loved one is still alive.
One family in Georgia was notified of the identification of its missing grandfather. The identification was
made by radiographic records, but the family refused to accept the remains. One family member said, “We
won’t bury some stranger!”
The missing man had been found almost completely skeletonized, and the family didn’t believe that he
could have decomposed so quickly. (In fact, a body can be reduced to a skeletal state within two weeks in
a hot Georgia summer. A few days are adequate if animals have access to the body.)
In an effort to provide the family members with information that they would be willing to accept, I filmed
a superimposition of the skull with two separate photos of the missing man (frontal and lateral views). The
family was invited to a private viewing of the video in the medical examiner’s office. Afterward, the family
quietly accepted the remains for burial and the case was closed.

DNA IDENTIFICATION
DNA technology is advancing rapidly and becoming increasingly more prac-
tical for human identifications. It is possible to extract and amplify DNA
from ever smaller, older, and more degraded samples. In the 1990s, mito-
chondrial DNA was all that could be expected from old bone samples. Now,
nuclear DNA is frequently extracted and utilized.
Research in DNA phenotyping is also advancing. It is predicted that
the time will come when a full physical description of an individual can be
generated with the use of a few skin cells. Eye color is already fairly well
deciphered through the IrisPlex System (Walsh et al., 2011). And hair color
discrimination will soon be available (Branicki et al., 2011). There is no doubt
that other physical descriptors will also be deciphered within the genetic code.
A few years ago, DNA technology, although theoretically promising, was
criticized for being inaccessible, ineffective, cumbersome to use, and costly—
both in price and time. All of these problems have since been addressed. There
are new laboratories dedicated to human identification, e.g., the Center for
Human Identification at the University of North Texas; major DNA databases
are available, e.g., the National DNA Index System (NDIS); and effective
tools exist for assembling and comparing data, e.g., the Combined DNA Index
System for Missing Persons (CODIS(mp)).
In the past, attempts at DNA comparisons were not initiated until an
unidentified body was found. Now, missing person protocols recommend that a
DNA sample be obtained if the missing person is not found within thirty days.
The sample can be from a personal item such as a toothbrush belonging to the
missing person or from a close relative. (Non-invasive cheek swabs are simple
to obtain.) Even cost is decreasing as robotics have been introduced in DNA
analysis. The FBI’s nuclear DNA lab at Quantico, Virginia, uses robots to ana-
lyze more than 500 samples per day.
With all the progress in DNA identification, the frequently asked question
is, “Why bother with other methods? Why not just use DNA?” The answer is not
complicated. Even if the system is working well, the match is not always there.
The only way the system can positively identify every unidentified person is to
database DNA samples from every person alive, but right now, even the collec-
tion of samples for reported missing persons is a goal, not a reality.
 Laboratory Analysis Chapter 13 221

There is one other aspect of human identification that people don’t often
think about. The nonscientific community is not always convinced by scientific
findings. Frequently, there is the need to convince families and persuade courts
by multiple means.

CASE EXAMPLE: A DNA IDENTIFICATION IN HAITI

A clandestine grave on a beach in Haiti revealed the skeletonized remains of a young man. Reports
suggested that he was one of many killed while trying to escape to boats during a massacre of civilians.
The identification might have been easy if his relatives had reported him missing and were willing to provide
samples for DNA testing. But there was no report and no samples. The political situation was such that the
local people were afraid to be associated with the victim, regardless of their desire for truth or justice.
In the end, the whole identification hinged on the fact that the dead man had a badly rusted key in his
pants pocket. When news of the key became generally known, a survivor came forward to say that he had
loaned a key to his shore-side shack to a man who disappeared at the time of the massacre. The cleaned-
up key fit the door of the shack, and a tentative identification resulted. The tentative identification led
to friends who were willing to provide a description of the victim, including visible dental characteristics.
The description provided a presumptive identification that supported the decision to go ahead with
DNA extraction in case a relative could be found. Once the presumptive identification was generally known
in the village, a local priest finally persuaded the family to come forward, and a positive identification
was made by DNA comparison. In this supposedly easy identification, years passed between the death,
the exhumation, and each level of identification. The science was available, but extensive investigation,
patience, and persuasion were required before the science could be useful.
CHAPTER 14

Race and Cranial Measurements

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Introduction
Nonmetric Variation in Skull Morphology
Craniometry
Metric Variation in Skull Morphology
Postcranial Traits

222
 Race and Cranial Measurements Chapter 14 223

INTRODUCTION
This chapter is separate from the skull chapter and the laboratory analysis
chapter (Chapters 3 and 13) because the subject—race—is both complicated
and controversial, even when the evidence is nothing but bare bones. This is a
presentation of the effort to extract racial information from human remains
through general morphological observations and metric methods, as well as a
short discussion of possibilities for the future.

RACE—BIOLOGY AND CULTURE

Anthropologists have long worked to organize, describe, and explain variation
in humankind. They have explored the globe, recorded differences in language,
religion, ethnicity, and physical forms. They have also tried to explain physical
differences between one group and the next by the phenomenon of genetic
change through both time and space. The passage of time allows for genetic drift
through mutation and natural selection, and the wandering of humankind
across continents increases the intermixing of genes. Geographic (or cultural)
isolation promotes the formation of racial types by separating populations, and
migration dissolves the divisions by combining populations.
Just as with sexual characteristics, racial traits are continuous, not dis-
crete. Sex, however, has only one dividing line—the one between male and
female. It is admittedly a blurry line, but, at least, it is biologically based on the
presence or absence of a Y chromosome. Race is not so simple. The dividing lines
are many, and the definitions are varied. Many so-called “races” are not even
based on biology. Studies of the human genome demonstrate clearly that racial
categories do not accurately represent genetic truth. Rosenberg et al., (2002)
report that within-population differences among individuals account for 93 to
95 percent of genetic variation whereas differences among major groups consti-
tute only 3 to 5 percent. Region-specific alleles are rare. The observed differ-
ences between populations are the result of differences in the frequencies of
shared alleles.
The words we use to distinguish races are culturally, not biologically, con-
structed. Each society creates its own ethnocentric definitions for the “others”
of the world. These racial profiles help the people within a single culture to
communicate mental images of human phenotypes, but they do not work well
between disparate cultures. Native Africans see mixed race people as “whites”;
Americans and Europeans see them as “light-skinned blacks.”
In spite of all the confusion regarding race, basic racial traits provide a
means to describe people during the process of identification. Groups of physical
traits differ in frequency from one major region of the world to another and help
to determine ancestry. For this purpose, the Fordisc program (Ousley & Jantz,
1993, 1996, 2005) is one of the more useful tools, and it may possibly become
even more useful as the database increases in size and additional populations
are included. (See the section on discriminant function analysis.)
For purposes of more accurate physical description, this section focuses on
characteristics that appear to have existed on each of the major continents prior
to the Age of (European) Discovery and subsequent extensive migration.
Familiarize yourself with the traditional racial types and use the knowledge of
individual traits to move toward a physical description of the persons during
life. Only three groups are discussed: Asian, European, and African. (More pre-
cisely, they are East Asian, Northern European, and Central or Western
African.) Native Americans are most similar to the Asian group.
224 Chapter 14 Race and Cranial Measurements

THE FUTURE OF RACE DETERMINATION

Identification through analysis of DNA has become almost standard procedure,
but until recently, DNA technology did not provide a way to describe an unidenti-
fied person. DNA was only useful if a tentative identification was established and
a comparative sample was available. Without that comparative sample, the DNA
could only be catalogued and stored. The first advances in decoding the human
genome were monopolized by the medical sciences in the effort to locate genes
correlated with various disease conditions. The genes contributing to simple
descriptors like eye and hair color did not merit research funds. However, we know
the potential is there.
In the future, the emerging science of DNA phenotyping will probably be
able to provide enough physical descriptors to describe how a person actually
looked (the phenotype). A good description should make racial identification or,
at least, racial approximation, possible. Right now, eye color is the first of the
standard physical descriptors to be deciphered. The researchers and developers
of the IrisPlex system claim to be able to distinguish brown from blue eyes from
minute DNA samples with over 90 percent precision (Walsh, 2011a,b). Hair
color is predicted to be the next descriptor to be deciphered. After that, there
will be more—possibly even height and facial morphology—but years of research
will be required before the goal is reached (Kayser 2011).

NONMETRIC VARIATION IN SKULL MORPHOLOGY

FACIAL TRAITS
The following set of illustrations shows the classical morphological traits attrib-
uted to skulls from major geographical regions. All of these features can be
assessed rapidly, without measurements. As a group, these traits focus attention
on differences in facial features and provide a broad view of the most obvious
differences between the extremes of racial types. None of these traits can be
relied on to correlate perfectly with self-reported race or the race as perceived
by outside observers. It is a good idea to list morphological traits and then follow
up with measurements and discriminant function analysis.
When comparing skulls, begin by evaluating the extent of the projection
of the maxilla and mandible in relation to the nose. A more forward-projecting
mouth is called prognathic; a non-projecting mouth is orthognathic. Then
compare the width of the nasal aperture and form of the nasal sill. Finally,
evaluate the projection of the zygomas in relation to the nose and the mouth
regions. Note that the African group can be recognized by the prominence of
the mouth in relation to the rest of the face (prognathism). The European group
can be distinguished by the prominence of the nose. It is often narrow and
projects more than Asian or African noses. The Asian group can be distin-
guished by the prominence of the cheeks. They are more anteriorly placed,
giving the Asian face a broader, flatter appearance. Each prominent feature
affects the rest of the face. For instance, prognathism results in a change in
the shape of the nasal sill.
 Race and Cranial Measurements Chapter 14 225

Asian (and Native

American) Origin
• orthognathic profile
• moderate nasal spine
• forward-projecting zygoma
• tubercle on inferior zygomatic
margin
• sometimes edge-to-edge
malar tubercle occlusion

forward-projecting
zygoma

Figure 14.1a and 14.1b

Frontal and Lateral Views of Asian Skull

European Origin
• orthognathic profile
• prominent nasal spine
• narrow nasal aperture
• single, sharp inferior
nasal margin
• more overbite
• more crowded dentition

sharp nasal sill

nasal spine

Figure 14.2a and 14.2b

Frontal and Lateral Views of European Skull

African Origin
• prognathic profile
• little or no nasal spine
• wide nasal aperture
• double (guttered) inferior
nasal margin
• dentition not crowded

forward-projecting
guttered nasal sill
maxilla & mandible

Figure 14.3a and 14.3b

Frontal and Lateral View of African Skull
226 Chapter 14 Race and Cranial Measurements

PALATAL TRAITS
The following set of illustrations shows the classical morphological traits attrib-
uted to skulls from major geographical regions. As with the facial traits, these
features can be assessed rapidly, without measurements. The palatal traits
reflect the differences in the face. A wider face of Asian origin results in a broad
dental row with little, if any, overbite whereas the narrower European face
displays parabolic dental row with greater tendency toward dental crowding
and overbite. It is useful to record palatal traits, consider them in relation to
other information from the skeleton, and follow up with measurements and
discriminant function analysis.

Asian Origin
• wide palate
• simple elliptical curve of
dental row
• shovel-shaped incisors
• straight palatal suture
(The reduced third molars are not
a racial trait.)

Figure 14.4
Palatal View of Asian Cranium

European Origin
• narrower palate
• parabolic curve of dental row
• no shovel-shaped incisors
• palatine suture is arched or
jagged, but not straight
(This individual is missing third
molars, a more common
occurrence among Europeans.)

Figure 14.5
Palatal View of European Cranium

African Origin
• intermediate palatal width
• hyperbolic dental row, more
U-shaped than the other
two forms
• no shovel-shaped incisors
• palatine suture is not straight
(This individual is also missing
third molars, an unusual
occurrence among Africans.)

Figure 14.6
Palatal View of African Cranium
 Race and Cranial Measurements Chapter 14 227

SUTURAL BONES
Individual variation can be seen in extra bones and/or sutures. Sutural bones
(also called Wormian bones or ossicles) develop from separate centers of ossi-
fication isolated within skull sutures. They are most common in the lamdoid
suture and occur also in areas where more than one suture meets, such as
pterion and bregma. A large sutural bone at lambda is called an Inca bone. It
is sometimes found in Native American skulls along with posterior cranial
deformation (flattening of the back of the skull).

Inca bone

Figure 14.7
Posterior View of Skull with Sutural Bones
An Inca bone, a complicated lambdoid suture, and
posterior cranial deformation (flattening) are character-
istic of American Indian remains.

Table 14.1 Nonmetric Racial Cranial Traits

ELEMENTS OF DIFFERENCE ASIAN ORIGIN EUROPEAN ORIGIN AFRICAN ORIGIN
MAXILLARY INCISORS shovel-shaped blade-shaped blade-shaped
MAXILLARY MOLARS simple, 4 cusps Carabelli’s cusp simple, 4 cusps
DENTITION not crowded crowded with frequently not crowded
impacted third molars
ZYGOMATIC (MALAR) robust and flaring, with malar small, retreating small, retreating
tubercle
OS JAPONICUM 2- or 3-part zygoma (extra single zygoma single zygoma
bone(s))
PROFILE moderate alveolar prognathism orthognathic prognathic
PALATAL SHAPE elliptic (rounded) parabolic U-shaped
PALATAL SUTURE straight not straight not straight
CRANIAL SUTURES complex and/or with sutural simple simple
bones
NASAL APERTURE medium narrow wide
NASAL SPINE medium, tilted large, long little or none
NASAL SILL single, sharp single, sharp double, guttered
CHIN blunt chin square, projecting retreating
CRANIUM low, sloping high low, with post-bregmatic
depression
HAIR FORM straight round cross section wavy oval cross section curly or kinky flat cross section
Adapted from Gill, 1995.
228 Chapter 14 Race and Cranial Measurements

CRANIOMETRY
No matter what we look at, we see the grand picture before we see the details.
When the grand picture is familiar, we unconsciously begin sorting through
minutiae. When it is unfamiliar, we never even start sorting. Details of the faces
that we see every day are so well known that the briefest glance is sufficient for
recognition, but the details of unfamiliar races tend to be overlooked with the
comment, “They all look the same to me.”
The process of seeing and interpreting details takes time and effort. With
skeletal material, instrumentation can speed up the process and help the
observer to focus on significant differences. Exact measurements can also serve
to support or refute hunches, suspicions, or intuitions about differences.
Anthropometry or anthropometrics is a broad term for the physical
measurement of humankind. It includes several subsets of measurements.
When the body is alive or still fleshed, measurements of the body are called
somatometrics, and measurements of the head and face are cephalometrics.
When only the skeleton is measured, the term is osteometrics, and, if only the
skull is measured, the term is craniometrics.
General osteometrics are used most frequently to quantify sexual dimor-
phism and estimate stature. A few measurements, such as anterior curvature
of the femur (Stewart, 1962; Trudell, 1999) have been used in racial determina-
tion. Craniometrics are used for sex determination, and they are employed more
effectively than any other group of measurements for estimation of racial affin-
ity. This could be because facial morphology is the main skeletally-based criteria
used by groups of people to recognize and categorize other groups or races.

CRANIOMETRIC POINTS OR LANDMARKS

Craniometric points are well-defined, named, landmarks on the skull. Some are
single points on the midsagittal plane of the skull, and others are bilaterally
paired points. Sets of points are used for precise, reproducible measurements. For
example, the measurement from basion to bregma is the maximum cranial height.
Craniometric points are also used as a way to identify specific areas of the
skull. For example, the gonial angle of the mandible is the general area that
contains the point, gonion, at the outer corner of the angle of the mandible.
Each of the commonly used points can be found in the accompanying illus-
trations, and all are listed in the table of major cranial measurements (Table 14.2).
Definitions are in the glossary. It is easiest to learn the points by using them.
 Race and Cranial Measurements Chapter 14 229

Table 14.2 Measurements for the Cranium and Mandible

The names and abbreviations are from FORDISC 2.0 and 3.0 (Ousley & Jantz, 1996 and 2005). If no points are given, the
measurement can be made from the description alone.

ABBREVIATION MEASUREMENT NAME FROM THIS POINT TO THIS POINT

1 GOL maximum cranial length glabella (g) opisthocranion (op)
2 XCB maximum cranial breadth euryon (eu) euryon (eu)
3 ZYB bizygomatic breadth zygion (zy) zygion (zy)
4 BBH maximum cranial height basion (ba) bregma (b)
(basion-bregma height)
5 BNL cranial base length basion (ba) nasion (n)
6 BPL basion-prosthion length basion (ba) prosthion (pr)
7 MAB maxillo-alveolar breadth ectomolare (ecm) ectomolare (ecm)
8 MAL maxillo-alveolar length prosthion (pr) alveolon (al)
9 AUB biauricular breadth root of zygomatic process root of zygomatic process
10 UFHT upper facial height nasion (n) prosthion (pr)
11 WFB minimum frontal breadth frontotemporale (ft) frontotemporale (ft)
12 UFBR upper facial breadth fronto-zygomatic suture fronto-zygomatic suture
13 NLH nasal height nasion (n) nasospinale (ns)
14 NLB nasal breadth alare (al) alare (al)
15 OBB orbital breadth dacryon (d) ectoconchion (ec)
16 OBH orbital height superior margin inferior margin
17 EKB biorbital breadth ectoconchion (ec) ectoconchion (ec)
18 DKB interorbital breadth dacryon (d) dacryon (d)
19 FRC frontal chord nasion (n) bregma (b)
20 PAC parietal chord bregma (b) lambda (l)
21 OCC occipital chord lambda (l) opisthion (o)
22 FOL foramen magnum length opisthion (o) basion (ba)
23 FOB foramen magnum breadth most lateral point of foramen most lateral point of foramen
magnum magnum
24 MDH mastoid length porion mastoidale
25 ASB biasterion breadth asterion asterion
26 ZMB zygomaxillary breadth
27 MOW midorbital width
28 gn-id chin height gnathion infradentale
29 body height at mental foramen
30 body thickness at mental foramen
31 cdl-cdl bicondylar breadth condylion condylion
32 go-go bigonial breadth gonion gonion
33 minimum ramus breadth
34 maximum ramus height* gonion superior condylar surface
35 mandible length*
36 mandible angle*
*Use a mandibulometer for these measurements.
230 Chapter 14 Race and Cranial Measurements

INSTRUCTIONS FOR ACCURATE MEASUREMENTS

Begin by considering the measurement name. It usually tells the general loca-
tion of the measurement, its direction, and its purpose. Height is measured in
a superior-inferior direction. Breadth is measured in a lateral-medial direction.
Thickness is measured as defined for the specific bone.
Next, consider whether the measurement points are easy to locate by ana-
tomical landmarks or if they can only be found with the use of a measuring
device. For example, bregma is at the intersection of two easy-to-locate sutures—
the coronal and the sagittal. It is therefore anatomically determined. Euryon,
however, can only be located by a careful search with spreading calipers. It is
the most lateral point on the neurocranium and can be found either on the
parietal or on temporal bone. It is therefore instrumentally determined.
Reliable measurements take practice. The goal is consistent results that can
be duplicated by others (interobserver reliability) and by yourself at different
times (intraobserver reliability). It is important to use the best instrument for the
measurement, and determine the most effective way to hold both the instrument
and the item to be measured. It is easiest to learn with an experienced person.
Test yourself by comparing your results with the results recorded by others. When
the measurements differ by more than a millimeter or two, find out why.

SKULL MEASUREMENTS
Most skull measurements are self-explanatory, but the exact locations of the
measurement points may be confusing. (See Table 14.2 for measurement names
and points.) The illustrations are most effective when they are used together
with the written definitions in the glossary.
The following are guidelines for dealing with common problems:

■ Points that lie at the intersection of sutures should be measured from the
external surface of the bone, not from the groove within the suture. This
may require moving the point to the closest surface available, e.g., the
anteromedial corner of the parietal for bregma.
■ Lambda can be difficult to locate if the lambdoid suture is extremely con-
voluted or further complicated by sutural bones. In such a case, use your
best judgment. Ideally, lambda should be on the midline at the most supe-
rior extent of the occipital.
■ Any point that requires a decision should be marked with pencil so that
the same point can be relocated for use with multiple measurements.
 Race and Cranial Measurements Chapter 14 231

bregma

glabella
nasion

frontotemporale

euryon

ectoconchion

orbitale
zygion

alare

nasospinale

gonion

pogonion
gnathion

Figure 14.8
Craniometric Points, Frontal View

bregma vertex apex

pterion

frontotemporale lambda

glabella opisthocranion

nasion

ectoconchion

FRANKFURT PLANE—
orbitale to porion
alare
nasospinale
prosthion
mastoidale
incison
infradentale
ectomolare
gonion
pogonion Figure 14.9
Craniometric Points, Lateral View
232 Chapter 14 Race and Cranial Measurements

orale endomolare

ectomolare

alveolon
staphylion

basion

opisthion

inion

opisthocranion

Figure 14.10
Craniometric Points, Basilar View glabella

zygion

bregma

euryon

lambda

Figure 14.11
Craniometric Points, Coronal View
 Race and Cranial Measurements Chapter 14 233

ORBITAL MEASUREMENTS
It is difficult to see the exact measurement points for the orbit on a full-skull
diagram, so they are enlarged here. Use extremely great care with calipers on
the thin bone of the orbits. Be gentle.
The following measurements are applicable to the orbital area:

■ Orbital height: Orbitale to the superior orbital border while perpendicular

to the natural horizontal axis of the orbit. Some orbits are naturally ori-
ented on a horizontal plane, but most are angled with the lateral border
inferior to the medial border.
■ Orbital breadth: Dacryon to ectoconchion—the greatest width of the orbit.
■ Biorbital breadth: Ectoconchion to ectoconchion—the distance across both
orbits.
■ Interorbital breadth: Dacryon to dacryon—the distance between the
eye orbits.

dacryon

maxillofrontale

ectoconchion

Figure 14.12
orbitale Craniometric Points, Medial Orbital Wall

FRANKFURT PLANE
Consider the orientation of the skull. When a bare skull is placed on a flat sur-
face, it appears to be looking upward. If the mandible is absent, the upward
angle is even greater. But the skull was in a very different position in the living
person. Most people carry their heads with the chin below the base of the skull.
A line drawn through the ear openings is about the same distance from the floor
as a line drawn between the shadows under each eye. If you connect the ear line
with the under-eye line, a plane is formed that is parallel to the floor.
In the bare skull, the anatomically correct position is defined by three
cranial points—the left and right porion and the left orbitale. (These points are
explained in the next section.) Thus, the external ear openings and the lower
edge of the left eye orbit provide a standardized plane for a “normal” skull
position. This is called the Frankfurt Plane, Frankfort Horizontal, or
auriculo-orbital plane. It is a worldwide standard in physical anthropology, Figure 14.13
first accepted in 1877 by the International Congress of Anthropologists in
Frankfurt Plane
Frankfurt, Germany. (See Figures 14.8 and 14.10.)
234 Chapter 14 Race and Cranial Measurements

PALATAL MEASUREMENTS
The difficult part about measuring the palate is finding the three transverse
lines. They can usually be visualized by sighting down on the two arms of the
sliding caliper. For the post-alveolar line, a rubber band can be stretched around
the alveolar ridge. It should form a straight line behind the two distal extents
of the alveolar ridge. The measurement can be taken from the anterior edge of
the rubber band where it crosses the medial palatal suture.
The following measurements are applicable to the palate:

■ Maximum alveolar length: Prosthion to alveolon—from the most anterior

point of the alveolar ridge to the intersection of the midline and a line drawn
behind the alveolar ridge (regardless of the presence of absence of teeth)
■ Maximum alveolar breadth: Ectomolare to ectomolare—the greatest width
of the alveolar ridge, measured at the second molar
■ Palatal length: Orale to staphylion
■ Palatal breadth: Endomolare to endomolare
prosthion

orale

POST-CENTRAL LINE

ectomolare

endomolare

POST-ALVEOLAR LINE
POST-PALATAL LINE

alveolon

staphylion

Figure 14.14
Craniometric Points, Palate

CHORD MEASUREMENTS
The chord is a standardized method for obtaining a straight-line measurement
from a curved surface. The curvature is not important, only the direct distance
from beginning point to end point. There are three common chord
measurements:

■ Frontal chord (frontal bone): Nasion to bregma (illustrated)

■ Parietal chord (parietal bone): Bregma to lambda (illustrated)
■ Occipital chord (occipital bone): Lambda to opisthion

Figure 14.15
Frontal and Parietal Chord Measurements
 Race and Cranial Measurements Chapter 14 235

MANDIBULAR MEASUREMENTS
There are only nine useful measurements for the mandible, and three of them
require an extra piece of equipment—a mandibulometer. It is designed to mea-
sure the angle of the ramus to the body of the mandible and is also used to
obtain reliable measurements of the height of the ramus and the length of
the body.
The following measurements can be made without a mandibulometer.

■ Bicondylar width: Condylion to condylion—the greatest width of the

mandible
■ Bigonial width: Gonion to gonion—the width from one angle to the other
■ Mandibular symphysis height: Gnathion to infradentale
■ Body height at mental foramen
■ Body thickness at mental foramen

condylion

gonion

max. ramus
infradentale breadth
mental foramen

gnathion
min. ramus
breadth

mandibular
symphysis
height

body height at
mental foramen

Figure 14.16
Craniometric Points, Mandible
236 Chapter 14 Race and Cranial Measurements

METRIC VARIATION IN SKULL MORPHOLOGY

A person with a long, narrow head looks quite different from a person with a
wide, round head, and populations tend to share the same general head shape.
For this reason, early physical anthropologists tried many methods to describe
heads by measuring skulls. They puzzled over the relevance of each measure-
ment result in relation to topics such as sex, race, intelligence, and evolution.

CEPHALIC INDEX
Statistical approaches to the problem were advanced in the nineteenth century.
A French anthropologist, Paul Topinard, recommended the use of the cephalic
index—a simple ratio of cranial measurements—to describe the general shape
of a skull and the general appearance of the face in life.
Cranial Index Formula: maximum cranial breadth/maximum cranial
length x 100

■ 74.99 or less is a long, narrow head (dolichocranic)

■ 75.00 to 79.99 is an average head (mesocranic)
■ 80.00 to 84.00 is a broad, round head (brachycranic)
■ 85.00 or more is a very broad, round head (hyperbrachycranic)

EARLY DISCRIMINANT FUNCTION ANALYSIS

In the twentieth century, more complex statistical approaches were tried out,
and more individual measurements were utilized. By the 1950s and 1960s,
discriminant function analysis had become popular. This is a statistical method
for distinguishing (discriminating) one naturally occurring group from another
(e.g., males and females). Discriminant function analysis starts with an assort-
ment of variables, selects the best predictors for the specific group, and weighs
the variables according to importance. In skeletal analysis, the variables are
sets of well-defined measurements.
Discriminant function analysis has been used to evaluate crania, man-
dibulae, and long bones. The best known “pioneering” studies are those of
Eugene Giles and Orville Elliot. They compared cranial measurements with
race (1962) and sex (1963) and stressed the utility of their work for forensic
applications. Discriminant function analysis provides not only answers, but
also a measure of the reliability of those answers. Both are essential in
forensic work.

FORDISC
The advent of accessible computers revolutionized skeletal analysis along with
everything else. Computerized analyses provide much more flexibility and
greater precision. Databases are available to a wider group of scientists and can
be regularly augmented. Programs are modified and updated to reflect ongoing
research and improved statistical procedures. When used according to the direc-
tions and recommendations of the authors, computer analysis is far more effec-
tive than the standardized formulae of the past. Skeletal analysis has grown
more complex, but more effective, or so it would seem.
Fordisc is a Windows-based software program designed by Stephen Ousley
and Richard Jantz (1993, 1996, 2005). It has become a standard tool for race
assessment as well as sex and stature estimation. It is more effective than
earlier methods because the analysis is multivariate, and the sample population
is diverse and dynamic. Fordisc utilizes discriminant function analysis devel-
oped from a large database of skeletal measurements. Much of the sample is
 Race and Cranial Measurements Chapter 14 237

from the Forensic Data Bank at University of Tennessee, but other institutions
and individuals have contributed (and continue to contribute). The program is
interactive and user friendly. The measurements are described and illustrated
within the Help files.
Fordisc 3.1 is available at the time of this printing. The reference group
sample size is larger than in earlier versions of Fordisc. More measurements
are used and more statistical methods are available. It is also capable of incor-
porating other data sets (Ousley & Jantz 2005).
One final word of caution: Don’t rely on the predictions of any method,
computerized or other, without considering and reporting the statistical reli-
ability of the results. In the pursuit of a “perfect” physical description, don’t
lose track of the fact that race is not even definable in living persons. The goal
is to produce a better, more thorough description of an unidentified person.
If that means showing possible affinity to a well-described racial group, then
it may be useful. If it overly narrows a description to exclude the person, it
is counterproductive.

Figure 14.17
Measurement of
Bizygomatic Breadth
Interobserver errors are reduced
when images are used together
with measurement descriptions.
This photograph is an example
of the type of images available
in the Fordisc Program help files.
238 Chapter 14 Race and Cranial Measurements

POSTCRANIAL TRAITS
Most postcranial research has focused on the femur. Persuasive traits include
anterior curvature of the femoral shaft (Stewart, 1962; Trudell, 1999), shape of
the proximal diaphysis (Gilbert & Gill, 1990), and the depth of the intercondylar
notch (Baker et al., 1990). Refer to the original papers for methological details
and values.

Table 14.3 Racial Differences in the Femur

ASIAN ORIGIN (INCL. NATIVE AM) EUROPEAN ORIGIN AFRICAN ORIGIN

ANTERIOR CURVATURE straighter more curved straighter
PROXIMAL DIAPHYSIS SHAPE anteroposterior flattening rounder rounder
INTERCONDYLAR NOTCH DEPTH undetermined shallower deeper

Another method uses postcranial osteometrics related to overall body

shape. The hypothesis follows the observations of Bergmann (1847) and Allen
(1877) regarding body shape and environment. Bergmann’s Rule states that
body mass increases in inhabitants of colder climates. They tend to have short,
wide bodies and short limbs. Allen’s rule states that extremities increase in
length in warmer climates. The people tend to have long, narrow bodies and
long limbs. Holliday and Falsetti (1999) published discriminant function coef-
ficients for seven postcranial measurements distinguishing African American
males and females from European American males and females. 82 percent of
a male independent test population was correctly classified. Only 57 percent of
a female test population was correctly classified, but the sample may have been
too small for adequate evaluation. This work should be further tested. It pro-
vides a way to assess body form, if not actual race.
Duray and colleagues (1999) reported that the C3–C6 spinous processes
show a higher frequency of bifidity in whites than in blacks. It’s one more thing
to consider.
CHAPTER 15

Field Methods

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Introduction
Preplanning for Field Work
Antemortem Information
Preparation for Excavation and Disinterment
Burial Location and Scene Investigation
Burial Classification
The Excavation/Exhumation
Postmortem Interval (Time since Death) and Forensic
Taphonomy
Quality Check for Field Work

239
240 Chapter 15 Field Methods

INTRODUCTION
Traditional anthropologists, both physical anthropologists and archaeologists,
analyse and study the remains of ancient humans and the sites of ancient and
historic occupation. Their methods have proved to be ideal for use in modern
crime scenes as well, such as clandestine burials, mass graves, and disaster
sites. The archaeologist is usually responsible for excavation and mapping, and
the physical anthropologist/human osteologist is responsible for collection and
analysis of the human remains.
Field work is any investigation that takes place outside or away from the
home laboratory or office. The purpose of field work is retrieval of information
by whatever means are allowed. Archaeological field work involves activities
like surveying, mapping, and excavating. Sociocultural field work involves inter-
views, written questionnaires, and cultural research. The usefulness of the
information is decided later, during the analysis phase.
In forensic anthropology, field work takes many forms. A shallow one-body
grave in Iowa is quite different from a mass disaster in New York City or a plane
wreck in the Andes. There is no way to cover it all within the scope of this book.
This chapter simply provides an overview of the concerns and the work that
goes into planning and carrying out field investigations. I have included basic
methods for interviewing survivors to obtain antemortem information and exca-
vating human graves for physical evidence.

PREPLANNING FOR FIELD WORK

The unexpected is normal in field work. It can take the form of unusual weather,
Success depends on serious
equipment breakdown, shortage of supplies, injury, illness, theft, and more. If
preparation and on-the-spot
ingenuity. the work site is close to a modern city, it is possible to send for help. However,
most field work is conducted far from supply sources, and most budgets have to
be planned far in advance of the actual work. Thorough preparation offers few
thrills and little sense of adventure, but it is essential. The time spent in prepa-
ration is well rewarded in productivity.

OBJECTIVES
Begin by considering the objectives of the field work. Usually, there are two
major objectives: recovery of all physical evidence, including human remains,
and identification of the dead. There are situations in which one or the other
objective will take precedence. In a situation such as an unmarked graveyard
in the middle of a construction project, identification is unlikely. The primary
objective is respectful recovery and reburial of the remains. In a situation such
as a war-related mass grave, the circumstances of death are well known. The
primary objective is identification.

LEGAL PERMISSION
Legal requirements vary from state to state and country to country. It is impera-
tive that persons planning to recover or excavate a human body be aware of the
governing law and adhere to the appropriate legal procedures.
For example, in the United States, initial custody of human remains is
with the responding police officer, who has the duty to notify the appropriate
authority. Depending on the jurisdiction, the coroner’s office or the medical
examiner’s office takes custody from the police officer, investigates the case
further, and orders any necessary procedures. The coroner may send the body
for autopsy whereas the medical examiner has both legal and medical respon-
sibility within the same office. The coroner or medical examiner issues a death
 Field Methods Chapter 15 241

certificate and releases the body for disposition—usually to a funeral home.

Later, if a disinterment is requested, the order must be issued by the appropri-
ate office within that jurisdiction.
Legal permission for disinterment includes specific requirements, such as
who must be present at the exhumation and how the body is to be reintered.
The coroner or medical examiner is usually required to be present. Police offi-
cers may also be required. If the grave is in a cemetery, the cemetery regulations
may specify that a cemetery official be present. Funeral directors and religious
personnel may also be necessary, if not legally required.

FUNDING
Funding is not usually a problem for full-time employees of governmental law
enforcement agencies in the United States. However, private consultants and
contractors need to budget carefully and request adequate funds to ensure
completion of a thorough job. All costs must be researched and budgeted, from
the planning stage through the final report preparation. Time in the field is only
part of the whole cost. Analysis may or may not be budgeted separately.
The source of funds is just as important as the quantity. If the excava-
tion is part of an investigation that reflects on a political entity, the political
motivation of the funding source will affect the general reception of the report
and the results of any subsequent legal proceedings. This is particularly
important in international human rights work. Private or international
funds backed by general human rights interests are to be preferred over
single-government funds.

INSURANCE
Make sure that both the workers and the equipment are adequately insured
against risk of injury and property loss.

SECURITY AND STORAGE

Security is always an issue for the site, the evidence, and the workers. The site
itself should be treated as a crime scene from the very beginning. A perimeter
should be established before any work begins. Circumstances determine the
size of the perimeter. A crime scene with scattered remains may cover an entire
hillside in the country or a complete vacant lot in a city. A cemetery disinter-
ment requires only the area of the grave and whatever more is necessary for
restriction of onlookers and media. A person should be assigned to maintain a
record of everyone allowed within the perimeter. If the excavation process takes
more than one day, even in a rural setting, a night guard is essential.
The excavation record should be able to contradict claims of unauthorized
disturbances. Photography provides a simple method for documenting distur-
bances. Establish and mark a specific point or several points from which the
entire site can be observed. Take a photograph from the point(s) at the begin-
ning and end of each work day (as well as significant times during the day). Use
a tripod (or at least a photographer of the same height) to ensure that angula-
tion is identical from one photograph to the next.
Plan to store all evidence—both human remains and other physical evi-
dence—in a dry, secure area during all phases of the work. Refrigeration may
be necessary if decomposition is a problem. Never leave evidence unguarded or
unlocked—even for lunch or coffee break. Lack of security damages the chain
of custody, and thereby, the legitimacy of the evidence.
In the not-so-distant past, anthropological work took place years after the
critical event. At that time, it was necessary to guard the evidence, but the
safety of the workers was not an issue. Today, forensic anthropologists are work-
ing in active war zones and worker safety is a vital issue.
242 Chapter 15 Field Methods

ANTEMORTEM INFORMATION
Exhumations and disinterments can take place without antemortem informa-
tion, but if identification is a primary goal, it is a good idea to have as much
information as possible before beginning. We all like to think that our excava-
tion techniques are flawless, but we will never know what we missed. If, for
example, workers know they are looking for a pregnant female in a mass grave,
they are more likely to locate and recover the fragile fetal remains.
There are two phases in the collection of antemortem information. The
first phase precedes the field work. It consists of gathering information from
personal interviews, medical records, and government records. The goal is a full
description of the missing person(s), including details that may survive
interment.
The second phase follows the field and laboratory work. It consists of
follow-up interviews and renewed searches. The goal is to fill in missing infor-
mation and resolve any discrepancies between the descriptions of the missing
persons and the descriptions of the unidentified remains.

THE INTERVIEW
There are circumstances under which the personal interview is the sole means
of obtaining crucial information about the deceased. Plan ahead for optimal
communication; I have found it helpful to have a trusted person such as a priest
or other community figure present during the interview. In international set-
tings, local translators are essential. They are more likely to understand
nuances in communication. Also, be prepared with interview tools such as the
following:

QUESTIONNAIRES
Use standardized questionnaires that can be adapted to computerized database
programs whenever possible. Programs for matching missing and unidentified
persons are available in the United States from several organizations, including
the National Disaster Medical System and the National Crime Information
Center. A sample questionnaire is included in the Appendix. It is designed for
use by families and friends of victims.

VISUAL AIDS
Use visual aids wherever possible. Memory is enhanced with the use of pictures,
and fewer left–right errors and translation errors occur when the interviewee
can communicate without ambiguity by pointing or drawing.
If scars or amputations are mentioned, provide diagrams of faces or full-
body diagrams. The location of the identifying characteristic can be drawn on
Examples of Useful the diagram and included with the file. When teeth are discussed, use full-
Medical Records mouth dental casts or drawings of teeth. It is easier to point to the location of
• dental radiographs the missing or broken tooth than to try to describe it.
• cranial radiographs If clothing is described, offer color charts and record the number of the
showing frontal sinuses color for each article of clothing. Color is notoriously difficult to communicate,
• radiographs of broken or even between people of the same culture and language group. Cloth samples
healed bones
• radiographs of arthritic
can also be useful. (Samples can be collected from a local tailor or dressmaker’s
joints shop.) The samples should be representative of the types of cloth used in the
• any radiograph that area (e.g., several different weights and textures of cotton or wool).
demonstrates the trabecular
pattern in calcified tissue
• information about prosthe-
MEDICAL RECORDS
ses and implants Almost any medical records can be useful, but radiographs are preferred for
• written descriptions of
identification of skeletal remains. Positive identifications can be made from
physical problems
comparisons of antemortem and postmortem radiographs of almost any type.
 Field Methods Chapter 15 243

ANTEMORTEM PHOTOGRAPHS
A clear photograph can help to define distinctive traits of the missing individ-
ual, but photographs must be used with analytical skill and common sense. A
smiling photo is particularly useful because the dentition can be observed
directly in the skull. Anterior teeth may be missing, chipped, or out of alignment
(crooked). A profile photo reveals the curvature of the forehead, brow, and upper
part of the nose. The same curvatures can be observed on the frontal bones, the
supraorbital ridge, and the nasal bones. A three-quarter view portrait photo or
a photo with side lighting may reveal a trait such as a broken nose, a deeply
cleft chin, or large frontal bossing. Most photos without unusual dental traits
provide tentative, not positive, identification.

PREPARATION FOR EXCAVATION AND DISINTERMENT

NUMBERING SYSTEM
Plan a numbering system to use for all the evidence. An effective long-term num-
bering system incorporates useful information from the following categories:

AGENCY OR CONSULTANT
The name or abbreviation of the agency or institution responsible for recovery
of the evidence is usually placed at the beginning. Initials or a specific code for
the individual responsible for the recovery can also be incorporated here.

DATE
The date of recovery or the date of accessioning should be included in the num-
ber. It is necessary to decide how much of the date is required—just the year,
the year and the month, or the entire date (yyyy-mm-dd). In some cases, time
of day is also important.

SITE OR LOCATION
Include the site name or an abbreviation of the site name. The abbreviations
employed by the law enforcement or military in a particular area may be useful
because of the need to communicate with other organizations. If no other system
is in effect in a particular area, grid coordinates can be used.

SPECIFIC UNIT NUMBER

The identification code must include a unique number for each set of individual
remains and each piece of evidence. Ideally, the numbers are assigned in
sequence of recovery. If, however, there are no numbers assigned at recovery,
numbers are assigned in order of receipt in the laboratory. (See “Evidence
Management” in Chapter 13 for more information on numbering systems.)

DATA RECORD FORMS

Forms are provided in the Appendix for specific categories of tasks. Use them as
they are or use them as a starting point from which to develop new forms to fit
the specific project needs. The major categories of field forms include burial site
information forms, skeletal diagrams, skull diagrams, and dental diagrams.

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES

As mentioned before, every project is different. There is no such thing as the
“perfect field kit” for every situation. However, that is no reason to be unpre-
pared. Gather as much site information as possible and think through what
may or may not be needed. This section provides a guide based on experience.
244 Chapter 15 Field Methods

Some items are essential and some are optional but nice to have on hand.
Sometimes the optional items prove to be essential. Each year brings new expe-
riences and new ideas. Begin your own lists and use your own creativity.
A T-shaped metal probe, sometimes called a tile probe, is commonly used to
locate solid surfaces, such as pipes underground, but the probe serves just as well
to perceive differences in soil density associated with ground disturbances such as
graves. The point of the probe is closed, not hollow.
Leaf rakes are useful for removing debris from the soil surface. However,
if you choose to rake the area, watch the ground carefully while raking. Hair
and other small, light evidence is easily caught up and removed within the leafy
debris. If evidence is anticipated on the surface rather than in a burial, it may
be necessary to go through the leaf litter by hand.
Shovels are essential, but not just any shovel will do. A standard rounded
point shovel is easy to find in a hardware store, but it is no good for an

Table 15.1 Equipment and Supplies for Work in the Field

EQUIPMENT SUPPLIES

ESSENTIAL compass wooden stakes

measuring tape string
probe paper bags
flat, square shovels cardboard boxes
metal file for tool sharpening indelible ink pens
trowels pencils
saw and/or root clippers waterproof paper for mapping
paint brushes—large and small notebook
whisk broom clipboard
plastic tools for close work insect repellant
buckets photographic film or digital storage
screens—0.5, 0.25, 0.125 in. mesh gloves—cloth and plastic
camera—with zoom and macro lenses body bags and protective clothing if
decomposing remains are expected
gauge for photographs
Figure 15.1
calipers—small and large
Tile Probe
Nupla Corporation canvas or heavy plastic sheets
container for drinking water
OPTIONAL metal detector flags for marking
leaf rake spray paint for gridding
small blackboard (for ID numbers in 4 × 6 cards for tags
photos)
Figure 15.2 colanders background cloth for photos
Marshalltown Trowel water sprayer (typical garden use) protective clothing
notebook computer plastic bags for temporary storage
tripod for camera
folding tables, or saw horses and
plywood
tents
 Field Methods Chapter 15 245

archaeologically sound excavation. The objective of a forensic excavation is not

only to dig a hole, but to locate and maximize information. A sharp, square
point shovel can shave the dirt horizontally and make stains, outlines, and
interrelationships of features visible.
The basic hand tool is the trowel. It must be small enough to be manipu-
lated easily and it must be pointed with straight sides and a sharp edge. (The
Marshalltown Company makes the traditional “archaeology trowel.”) Brushes
are useful if the soil is dry. Dental tools and thin plastic scrapers are better if
the soil is damp and sticking to the brushes. Dental tools can also used (with
great care) when the earth around the remains is extremely hard (e.g., sun-
baked clay).

BURIAL LOCATION AND SCENE INVESTIGATION

The process of locating human remains, buried or scattered, is both a crime
scene investigation and an archaeological site survey at the same time. The
entire site should be searched in the process of locating a grave. Any evidence
or suspected evidence should be flagged and left in situ until after photographs
and maps can be completed.
Verbal testimony may help but details can be easily distorted. The move-
ments of earth, wind, and water are enough to befuddle the clearest of memo-
ries. Add in the action of plants and animals, or the work of devious (or
well-meaning) persons, and the picture keeps changing.

REMOTE SENSING
Remote sensing is the preferred method for investigation under many circum-
stances. Ideally, search areas can be focused and hidden evidence can be located,
all while maintaining the integrity of the site. Remote sensing can lead to
increased productivity in the field, particularly in remote areas where field work
may be expensive and security is a problem. Data from remote sensing can pro-
vide the proof necessary to obtain legal permissions and funds to continue, or it
can provide the reason to discontinue and move to another location.
Ground-penetrating radar and metal detectors are commonly used for
small areas. They are a practical alternative to excavation when ground distur-
bance is inadvisable or forbidden. For large-area searches, aerial photography
and satellite remote imaging is effective. They can show change over time and
reveal patterns that are not apparent without sufficient perspective. Computer-
enhanced satellite images can reveal the presence of features that seem totally
invisible during ground searches.
Archaeologists are using satellite prospection to locate ancient archaeo-
logical sites and identify archaic land-use patterns. The same methods are being

CASE EXAMPLE: LOCATING A DISTURBED GRAVE

I once worked a scene that had been fully described and mapped for the police by an informant. The map
included the location (and species) of trees in relation to a dirt road and a fence. It should have been easy
to find the grave, but I arrived to discover that the entire area had been bulldozed flat—no road, no trees,
no fence. The grave was finally found by a systematic survey. The entire area was gridded into 3-meter
squares; each square was probed for differences in soil density; and suspect areas were carefully scraped
with a flat-edged shovel. The soil was dry and no color differences were apparent, but misting each area
with a water sprayer revealed slight color differences in the area where topsoil had been mixed with subsoil.
246 Chapter 15 Field Methods

used to find inconsistent or inappropriate land-use patterns associated with

crimes against humanity (Madden & Ross, 2009). Satellite images (and aerial
photographs) of an area can be compared over a period of years, and suspect
areas of land can be identified and circumscribed. These methods are being used
to investigate the evidence of genocide in the Darfur area of Sudan. For more
information, explore The American Association for the Advancement of Science
(AAAS) and Human Rights Program’s Geospatial Technologies and Human
Rights Project.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR BEFORE DISTURBING THE SURFACE

SURFACE IRREGULARITIES
There are numerous methods of locating graves. The appropriate method
depends on the age and type of the grave and the environmental conditions. It
may be possible to locate a grave visually. A person accustomed to the landscape
can recognize irregularities in both the vegetation and the ground surface.

VEGETATION CHANGES
The plants over a burial are often out of synchronization with surrounding
plants. This is due to disruption in the natural succession of plant species,
changes in soil nutrients, or the introduction of foreign elements. Increased
nutrients from a decomposing body and increased moisture from a burial
depression result in more lush vegetation. In one rather unusual case, the mur-
derer sowed the clandestine grave of his victim with grass seed—a strange sight
in the middle of a brushy thicket!
Sometimes the plants over a burial are stunted or dying. This may be the
result of decreased access to nutrients caused by impermeable synthetic materi-
als within the grave. It may also be caused by harmful chemicals introduced to
the soil at the time of burial.

CHANGES IN SOIL DENSITY

After completing a thorough visual search of the suspected area, a test of soil
density provides additional information. This is accomplished with a simple
metal probe (a tile probe).
The fill dirt within a grave is more loosely compacted than surrounding
soil. It is easy to feel in an otherwise undisturbed area. It is more difficult to
differentiate in a disturbed area such as a plowed field, a construction site, or
a dump site. Probing should be carried out in a regular pattern. When the edge
of a grave fill is found, search for the outline of the disturbance and avoid prob-
ing through the middle of the pit. It is not good to find probe holes in essential
pieces of evidence when the excavation begins.

ANYTHING ELSE: SEARCH THE ENTIRE AREA

Even if the location of the grave is known, a search of the entire area is neces-
sary before beginning the excavation. Evidence on the ground surface is often
destroyed or distorted by human activity after the excavation begins. Look for
any inconsistencies on the ground—footprints, tire tracks, damaged vegetation,
spent cartridges, garbage, or etc.
Look above and within the ground surface. Rodents, carnivores, and birds
are known to carry off both food items and nesting materials. Check animal
burrows (carefully) and nests. Fibers or hairs become entangled on branches or
tree bark. Stray bullets embed in tree trunks, embankments, and buildings.
 Field Methods Chapter 15 247

CASE EXAMPLE: AN UNUSUAL CRIME SCENE SEARCH

I have participated in many large-area searches for scattered remains. One that stands out was conducted
on a forested slope. The skull and a few other major skeletal elements were recovered. The skull would prob-
ably provide a positive identification, but no trauma was apparent on any of the bones, so we lacked clues
about the events around the time of death. If we could find the original site of deposition and decomposition,
we might have more information, but the steep terrain and heavy leaf litter made the search difficult. The light
was fading before we gave up and sat down to consider our options. It was then that I finally looked up. A
nearby tree had blue wool fibers stuck in the bark of one side. The missing woman had been wearing a blue
sweater when last seen. Her earrings and miscellaneous small bones were found at the base of the tree along
with rope fragments. The soil was filled with insect puparia (Order Diptera) characteristic of a decomposition
site. It appeared that the woman had been alive when she was tied to the tree and slid down the side of the
tree during decomposition. We found the site and the information by looking up, not down.

BURIAL CLASSIFICATION
When the burial is found, begin the record of the grave by describing and clas-
sifying the type of grave. The burial classification is part of the complete descrip-
tion of the grave. It is useful in communicating the reasons for the methods used
and the type of results expected.

SURFACE BURIAL OR BELOW-SURFACE BURIAL

Surface burial sounds like a contradiction or an oxymoron, but it is, in fact,
common usage. A surface burial is a “non-interment.” The remains are left to
decompose on the surface of the ground. It is not uncommon for surface burials
to be disturbed or destroyed by carnivores and scavengers. Usually the degree
of disturbance is directly related to the size of the animals.

■ Insects feed on soft tissues and cause little or no positional disturbance.

■ Small animals such as rodents feed on both soft and hard tissues. They
sometimes carry away the small bones of fingers and toes. Shiny items
such as rings may be found in rodent nests.
■ Scavenger birds feed on soft tissues in situ. They may also carry off smaller
parts to perches. The bones may then be dropped from the perch. Birds are
known to collect hair to use for nesting material.
■ Large mammals such as dogs and pigs carry sections of bodies for long
distances. They also do the most destructive damage to larger bones.
■ Exception: I once watched an entire quarter of a lamb (including long
bones) completely disappear through the persistent efforts of coconut
crabs in their hermit stage, each no more than four inches long, including
the “borrowed” shell!

The word burial, by itself, usually refers to a standard below-ground

interment. The depth is of no importance in the classification. The body can be
with or without clothing, shroud, coffin, casket, or vault. Burials also include
above-ground interments. These are crypts built on, instead of in, the ground.
Above-ground interments are more consistent with below-ground interments
than with surface burials. They are found mainly in coastal or lowland areas
where the water table is high and water erosion is common. The body is enclosed
in a vault of brick, stone, or concrete. Decomposition takes place under protected
conditions and the condition of the remains is likely to be quite good.
248 Chapter 15 Field Methods

INDIVIDUAL OR COMMINGLED BURIAL

An individual burial is the burial of a single person in a single location, above
or below the surface of the ground.
A commingled burial contains more than one person buried in the same
location. It can be two persons, such as mother and child buried in a single
grave, or it can be a mass grave created by a bulldozer and containing thou-
sands of intermingled bodies. The commingled remains may have been buried
at the same time or at different times. A burial in the site of another burial is
called an intrusive burial.

ISOLATED OR ADJACENT BURIAL

Isolated burials share no walls with other graves. Adjacent burials share
at least one wall with another grave.
This classification is important when choosing an appropriate excavation
method. Isolated graves can be excavated without concern about encroaching
upon other graves, but adjacent graves such as those within crowded cemeteries
require special excavation techniques. Since the wall of an adjacent grave is
shared, disturbance of the wall disturbs the other grave as well. (Adjacent buri-
als can be quite challenging.)

PRIMARY OR SECONDARY BURIAL

The primary burial is the initial resting place of the remains. The secondary
burial is any subsequent burial. The remains may be disinterred many times,
but each new burial is called a secondary burial.

DISTURBED OR UNDISTURBED BURIAL

An undisturbed burial is unchanged (except by natural processes) since the
time of primary burial.
A disturbed burial is one that has been altered by man or animals some-
time after the time of burial. The disturbance may be accidental or intentional.
Sometimes the remains are not moved to a new place, but they are not in the
original burial position, either. Disturbances may be caused by burrowing ani-
mals, grave diggers in the process of digging other graves, looters searching for
bones or grave goods, or any number of other incidents. Land clearing and
development are a major source of grave disturbance. All secondary burials are,
by definition, disturbed burials.

THE EXCAVATION/EXHUMATION
A successful excavation is the result of teamwork, planning, and good field
methods. One person needs to take responsibility for the overall operation and
everyone should be clear about who that person is. The field director need not
be dictatorial but does need to be capable of making and communicating
decisions.

DUTY ASSIGNMENTS
Before a single shovel is lifted, the field director assigns auxiliary duties. The
entire team is usually involved in the excavation process, but several of the more
reliable team members also have extra duties and responsibilities. The work
flows more smoothly and the results are more complete when duties are
assigned in the planning session and not after the work is in progress.
 Field Methods Chapter 15 249

RECORDER(S)
The recorder maintains a chronological written record of the progress of the
excavation. Depending on the size of the excavation, it may be necessary to have
more than one recorder and further divide the duties according to records: (1) the
participant log—focus on the perimeter and keep track of all participants, includ-
ing visitors and press; (2) the excavation log—focus on the work itself and keep
track of workers and the sequence of recoveries; and (3) the evidence log—assign
numbers, record, pack, and store evidence. If evidence for DNA analysis is antici-
pated, one team member should be assigned exclusively to its collection. That
person is responsible for keeping DNA collection kits on hand and following
prescribed collection protocols, including maintaining sterile procedures. This
person can be working on other tasks until called to the primary duty.
I like to maintain two types of records: (1) a simple daily log consisting of
the date, starting and stopping times, persons present, burial numbers, and
evidence numbers; and (2) a detailed account of each and every phase of the
work, including field description of burials and evidence. This record can be
compiled every night from the daily log together with the individual logs or
reports filled out by all workers.

MAPPER
The mapper plans and maintains both two-dimensional and three-dimensional
maps of the excavation as it progresses. First the site is measured and a grid
system is planned. The entire system is reduced and drawn. Any permanent
features of the landscape are recorded. Natural features such as rivers, streams,
large rocks and boulders, and large trees should be included along with man-
made features such as roads, walls, water towers, power lines, and buildings.
Include as many things as possible for reference points.

Figure 15.3
An Excavation Ready for Mapping
The area around the suspected grave site is cordoned off with crime scene tape, allowing space
for the work to take place. Vegetation was removed from the excavation area and the ground
was leveled to reveal the grave outline. The excavation area is staked and delineated by string.
Source: EQUITAS, Bogota, Colombia.
250 Chapter 15 Field Methods

Use GPS (Global Positioning System) if possible, but be aware that GPS
coordinates may not be as accurate as expected. Read the equipment specifica-
tions carefully and test for accuracy. Take measurements at known points, check
for repeatability at a specific point, and compare measurements with other GPS
users. A local fixed base station may be necessary.
The mapper also maintains a record of each feature or piece of evidence
as it is found. Cooperation is necessary. The workers stop whenever the mapper
requests and provide measurements on all coordinates.

PHOTOGRAPHER
The photographer has the task of maintaining a photographic record of the site
and the evidence. If it is not possible to hire a professional, one person should
be assigned the task of maintaining a photographic
record above all other tasks. This includes photo-
graphing the site, the evidence, and the work in
progress, as well as maintaining a log of date, time,
and subject for each photo.
Other workers should be able to concentrate
on their specific tasks and rely on the photographer
to be ready when needed. In this way, neither the
work nor the photographic record is compromised.
The photographer may need an assistant to main-
tain the photographic log.

EVERYONE ELSE
The rest of the excavation team handles the shov-
els, trowels, brushes, buckets, and screens. Students
or large groups of workers benefit from oversight
and assigned and/or rotating duties, but relatively
small, well-established teams tends to sort them-
selves out without interference. Good team mem-
bers settle into the jobs they are most suited for and
take responsibility for the work and the well-being
of their teammates.

EXCAVATION METHODS
There are several effective excavation methods. The
best method for the job depends on the type of burial
(e.g., below-surface, individual, isolated, primary,
undisturbed), the location of the burial (e.g., forest,
cemetery, house floor), the condition of the soil (e.g.,
loose or well packed, wet or dry), and the depth of the
burial. Assess the conditions, establish priorities, and
determine to be practical and flexible.
Figure 15.4
An Exhumation in Progress Near Chajul, El Quiche,
Guatemala
The forensic anthropologists of the Guatemalan Archbishop’s Human
Rights Office (ODHAG) Exhumation Project demonstrate teamwork
as they complete the exhumation, record and photograph all evi-
dence, and collect the remains for laboratory analysis. They also
spend time with the families of the victims, discussing items of cloth-
ing and any items not covered in the pre-exhumation interviews. In
addition to doing the exhumation work, the team members are con-
tinuously respectful of religious rituals and expressions of grief.
(Lancerio López)
 Field Methods Chapter 15 251

A model excavation is presented on the following pages (Figures 15.5a–g).

It is a single individual grave in a remote setting. The general location of the
grave was provided by an informant, and the exact location was determined by
changes in soil density and vegetation. The area around the grave is undis-
turbed; the soil is firm and dry; and the depth of the burial is approximately
one meter.
The entire area of this model excavation was mapped by GPS. Markers
(stakes) were placed in the ground to enable the excavation mapper to detail
the position of the grave and its contents with the use of fixed points. Directional
coordinates and major points of reference (e.g., large trees, buildings, and fences)
were included in the map.
In this type of excavation, the excavation walls are placed outside the walls
of the original grave pit. (Some excavation methods require that excavation
follow the walls of the original grave pit.) The surface area of the excavation is
delineated with string and stakes, and the stakes are positioned outside (not
on) the corners of the excavation wall, two per corner. The string is stretched as
close to the ground as possible along the edge of the proposed excavation. (The
string should aid the mapper without tripping the excavators.)

Documentation is critical at every step of an excavation. It is stressed

here because it is too frequently omitted in the intensity of the moment. To
document means to stop work, photograph, map, and make a written record.
Experienced archaeologists and crime scene investigators know when to stop
moving forward and document what has been accomplished before the infor-
mation is contaminated, lost, or forgotten. Each break for documentation pro-
vides an opportunity to step back from the present task, assess the overall
progress of the work, and notice what might have been overlooked. It is essen-
tial time.

A MODEL EXCAVATION
The following six diagrams represent a model excavation of a single, isolated
grave. The objective is to demonstrate a standard method for revealing the
contents of the grave in situ, without disturbing or destroying evidence.
The perspective is a vertical cross section of the grave (a cut from the left
wall to the right wall) at the level of the skull. The uppermost layer represents
topsoil; the gray area is undisturbed subsoil; and the cross hatching is the grave
fill dirt. The stippling beneath the skull is the organic stain resulting from seep-
age of decompositional fluids into the grave floor.
252 Chapter 15 Field Methods

Figure 15.5a–g
Model Excavation of an Isolated Individual Grave

1. Remove the litter and vegetation.

topsoil

■ Begin by carefully removing the leaf litter and the sur-

face vegetation. Watch for hair, clothing, or any items
fill dirt
that may indicate the human activity in the area.
■ Probe to locate and delineate the grave walls.
■ Flag the approximate location of the grave and any
skull surface evidence.

organic stain

subsoil

2. Remove the topsoil and locate the grave outline.

topsoil removed, grave outline revealed

■ Scrape the soil surface horizontally with a flat shovel

until the topsoil is removed.
■ Examine the soil for changes in coloration that can be
the result of mixed topsoil and subsoil. If color differ-
ences are slight, spray lightly with water to darken
organic matter and intensify color differences.
■ When the grave outline is fully visible, measure, photo-
graph, and map it.
■ Examine the outline for information about the size and
shape of the original digging tools (e.g., shovels, pick
axes, power machinery).

3. Remove the overburden.

■ Continue to remove the overburden of earth, including
the grave fill.
■ Work horizontally, peeling off thin layers of dirt and
horizontal excavation maintaining a flat working surface.
■ Work with care to avoid dislodging and damaging under-
lying evidence.
■ If you notice changes in the density, color, or texture
of the soil, change from a shovel to a trowel for finer
control. If an object appears, change to a brush to avoid
tool marks.
■ Sift the soil, level by level in sequence. Evidence can be
found in the grave fill dirt. (e.g., cigarette butts, trash,
projectiles, cartridges, ropes, hair).
 Field Methods Chapter 15 253

4. Pedestal each feature.

■ Circumscribe the body by digging on all sides to the
lowest level of the body (approximately 30 cm). This is
similar to digging a ditch around the body. The result
takes the form of a pedestal. The common archaeologi-
pedestal cal term for this method is “pedestaling.” The objective
is to see what is going on before disturbing anything
and to make room to work carefully. Pedestal artifacts
in the same way.
■ If there is no room to dig around the body, do the best you
can. It may be necessary to extend (sacrifice) one wall of
the excavation to make extra room to maneuver on the
excavation floor.

5. Expose everything without disturbing the evidence.

■ Expose the remains and associated evidence by moving
in laterally, using a soft brush and small tools. Do not
use a brush on fabric, as it may destroy fiber evidence.
■ Examine the soil around the skull for hair. Place this
complete soil in a bag for laboratory study.
exposure
■ If the remains are from an adult female, be alert to the
possibility of associated fetal remains.
■ Patience is essential. The remains may be fragile,
and the interrelationships of elements may be easily
disrupted.

6. Disinter the remains and all associated evidence.

■ If there is any chance that the bones will break upon
removal, measure the remains while in the ground. The
measurements should be appropriate for estimation of
stature.
■ Remove the remains carefully and do a basic inventory
of everything. Note the condition of the remains. Bag
original grave floor each hand and each foot separately. Include fingernails
if they are found. Take extreme care with facial bones.
Check to see if teeth are loose and be sure none are lost.
■ Remove and record all evidence associated with the remains.
This includes such items as clothing, buttons, ornaments,
weapons, bullets, hair pins, and eyeglasses. Some of the evi-
dence may help identify the victim or the perpetrator, and
some may help to reveal perimortem events.

7. Continue until “sterile” soil is reached.

■ Do not stop until “sterile” soil is reached. In other words, continue exca-
vating the grave floor until unstained and undisturbed soil is reached.
■ Screen everything. Watch for additional evidence that has shifted
downward with the tunneling activity of invertebrate necrophages
(necrophytes). Hair, buttons, projectiles, loose teeth, tooth restorations,
coins, and jewelry are just a few of the items that may be recovered.
254 Chapter 15 Field Methods

8. Pack carefully.
■ Use paper bags and cardboard boxes to facilitate drying. Plastic bags
encourage mold growth, causing further organic destruction.
■ Mark evidence numbers clearly on all containers with indelible ink.
Include the name of the site and the date if they are not part of the
evidence numbers.
9. Finish the job.
■ Backfill the excavation pit and clean up the site. Consider the local
conditions and terrain then burn, bury, or carry out all trash. You will
leave the area, but the residents of the area will remember you by what
you leave behind.
10. Document the completed project.
■ Photograph the area upon departure. The final photographs are the
evidence of completion of a professional job. They also serve to protect
the team from culpability for any subsequent vandalism.

Figure 15.6
Trace Evidence
This excavation was completed
with a minimum of equipment,
using the original excavation walls
as a guide instead of a squared-
off excavation pit. The pointed
handle of the brush was used to
indicate north for photos. The
paper label contained the date,
location, and burial number. No
clothing is apparent on the body,
but careful excavation revealed
synthetic threads from seams still in
place along each leg.

CASE EXAMPLE: TRACE EVIDENCE IN IRAQ

When the remains of a human body are found, frenzy usually follows. The body may have been quietly
interred for decades, but suddenly something has to be done and it has to be now. Questions come tumbling
out. The first is, “Who is it?” Then later, “What happened? How did this person die?” Unfortunately, the
physical evidence doesn’t cooperate by presenting itself in the same sequence.
If the remains are ripped out of the ground and sent to the lab for immediate identification, contextual
information is lost and the value of associated evidence is diminished. All evidence—the body and associ-
ated evidence—must be treated with the same care. The associated evidence may be all we have to answer
the question, “What happened?”
In Iraqi Kurdistan, a skeleton was exposed in an unmarked grave on a military base. It was necessary
to know if the grave preceded the military base or if it contained one of the many “disappeared” of the war.
The burial itself contained the answer to the question. Muslim burials are conducted by the family. The
women wash the body and wrap it in a simple shroud without clothing. The men bury the body on its side
facing Mecca. A body found buried on its back or with clothing would not have been buried by the family.
The skeleton in question had been buried on its side facing Mecca. No clothing was apparent. However,
careful examination revealed a double thread on both sides of both legs. The fabric of the pants, probably
wool, had decomposed with the soft tissues of the body. But the cotton-polyester thread of the pants seams
remained in place. The victim was not buried by his family; hence he was most probably one of the Kurds
executed on the military base. (The top of the skull contained a bullet entry wound.)
The information provided by simple dirt-stained threads proved invaluable.
 Field Methods Chapter 15 255

POSTMORTEM INTERVAL (TIME SINCE DEATH) AND

FORENSIC TAPHONOMY
When a body is found in unexpected circumstances, one of the first questions is,
“How long has this person been dead?” This is called the postmortem interval
(PMI) or the time that has passed between death and the attempt to determine
the time of death. The information is important to both the identification process
and the death investigation itself. The PMI helps the investigator to differentiate
forensic from historic or ancient cases. It can also be used to search missing per-
sons reports for likely matches, and it can help link suspects to a particular time
and place. Unfortunately, this essential information is somewhat elusive.
Research has helped to define the parameters, but there are no easy answers.
Forensic taphonomy is the multidisciplinary study of the postmortem inter-
val. By definition, taphonomy is the study of the fate of the remains of organisms
after they die. Until recently, the word taphonomy was used almost exclusively by
paleontologists studying the fossilization process. Forensic scientists now use the
term for the earlier part of the process—decomposition. Taphonomic research for
forensic purposes was first based on case studies and comparative animal stud-
ies—many using pigs as models for human decomposition. Then, in 1972, William
Bass established the Anthropological Research Facility at the University of
Tennessee and began accepting body donations for research purposes. After the
initial shock of seeing human bodies laid out to decompose for science, the forensic
community recognized the significance of the research. By the 1980s, research
articles were appearing regularly in scientific publications.
Forensic taphonomy is now a standard subject in the forensic sciences,
and, like everything else forensic, research and application benefit from a mul-
tidisciplinary approach. Specialists include anthropologists, entomologists,
botanists, and a variety of other experts, including soil scientists and preserva-
tion specialists. The following section explores what this group of scientists has
learned about the process of decomposition and lists the factors—both environ-
mental and cultural—that affect the rate of decomposition and hence, the esti-
mation of time since death.

IMMEDIATE POSTMORTEM CHANGES

Most bodies are processed within the first few hours of death, and forensic medical
investigators are all very familiar with the first postmortem changes—algor mor-
tis, livor mortis, and rigor mortis. Algor mortis is simply the cooling of the body.
It begins immediately upon death. Livor mortis is the purple coloration that
develops in the skin of the underside of the body (except in compressed areas). It
results from the gravitational movement of blood and appears within one and a
half to two hours of death. Rigor mortis is muscular stiffening caused by chemi-
cal changes in the tissue. It begins in the small muscles as early as ten minutes
after death and progresses throughout the body. Rigor mortis is complete by twelve
to twenty-four hours and then slowly disappears (beginning again with the small
muscles) over the next one to two days as decomposition begins. More precise
estimates can be made if ambient temperature and muscle mass are known.

THE PROCESS OF DECOMPOSITION

Decomposition begins with autolysis, or “self-digestion.” The enzymes produced
within the cells destroy the cells. The cellular structure of the tissue breaks
down and the tissues soften. Putrefaction follows. As the cell membranes are
destroyed, tissues that provide barriers within the body are breached.
256 Chapter 15 Field Methods

Microorganisms that serve the digestive process spill out into the body cavity,
where they feed on the organic matter, especially protein, of the body. Metabolic
gases are soon trapped within the body, producing a foul odor and causing the
body, mainly the abdomen, to bloat.
A long sequence of events follows the beginning of putrefaction. The most
visible of the early changes include skin slippage, hair loss, and skin discolor-
ation. Skin slippage is caused by fluid building up under the outer layer of skin
and causing it to separate, almost like blistering after a bad sunburn. The skin
sloughs off in the direction of gravity. It can look like a loose glove or stretched-
out stockings. The hair falls out easily, usually with skin attached. The skin
turns a greenish to blackish color. (Green is one of the color changes that red
blood goes through as it breaks down.)
During this time, bloating continues and fluids drain from the body. When
the gases are released, the body deflates and the skin tends to drape over the
skeleton. Some of the bones are exposed. Ligaments, cartilage, and dried (mum-
mified) skin are the last of the soft tissues to survive.
When bone is first exposed, it is yellow and greasy. The bone continues to
change long after exposure. The oils leach out slowly, and the bones bleach white
in sunlight or stain the color of the substrate. In time, the bony cortex cracks, flakes,
and exfoliates, exposing the inner cancellous bone. In an acidic substrate, the bone
slowly decalcifies and is destroyed. In high-mineral conditions, the natural bone
minerals may be replaced in the very slow process leading to fossilization.

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS (CLIMATE)

Moisture and oxygen are fundamental to decomposition because they are essen-
tial for life. After the chemical process of autolysis, all of the rest of decomposi-
tion depends on the digestive processes of one life form or another. The
temperature range has to be conducive to life (not burning or freezing). Within
“Immediate postmortem
change may be viewed essen-
that range, more heat speeds up digestion and less heat slows it down.
tially as a competition between With those simple facts in mind, it is easy to see why warm, humid cli-
decomposition (decay and mates are good for decomposition, and cool, dry climates are good for preserva-
putrefaction) and desiccation.” tion. The next step is to notice that neither warmth nor moisture is good enough
M. Micozzi, 1986 alone. Warm, dry conditions (deserts, dry-heated rooms) bring about desiccation
and mummification. The organisms that digest the body run out of moisture
before they run out of nutrients, so they don’t finish the job.
Cool, wet conditions (rivers, water-filled coffins) result in the production
of adipocere. Adipocere (grave wax) is composed of insoluble fatty acids result-
ing from the slow hydrolysis of the body’s fats in water (Mellen et al., 1993;
Hobischak, 2002). Certain bacteria consume adipocere, but slowly.
Some wet conditions (peat bogs, silted-over deep river bottoms) may bring
about preservation. The missing ingredient here is oxygen. The bacteria respon-
sible for most of the decomposition can’t survive without oxygen. If the tempera-
ture is low enough, even the anaerobic microbes within the body don’t succeed.
In such conditions, even extremely fragile soft tissue may survive. Brain tissue
was found preserved in skulls of the crew of the H. L. Hunley, a Civil War sub-
marine (press release by Dr. Robert Neyland, Project Director, Hunley
Commission, May 10, 2001). The oxygen had been used up by the crew and their
death was followed by complete silting-in of the submarine compartment on the
cool ocean floor.
Several studies have been carried out on decomposition rates in different
climates and seasons, including moist, warm conditions (Bass, 1997); hot, arid
conditions (Galloway et al., 1989); and “cold,” dry conditions (Komar, 1998;
Weitzel, 2005). (The cold conditions are from Canadian summer, not winter;
therefore, the temperatures are moderate.) Unfortunately, the studies are dif-
ficult to compare because decomposition is multifactorial and continuous, grave
types differ, and investigators tend to define and delineate the stages of decom-
position slightly differently. (Weitzel uses Galloway’s standards.) Rather than
 Field Methods Chapter 15 257

present all of the studies, I use Dr. Bass’s Tennessee summer decomposition
information as a model and describe the deviations to expect under different
environmental conditions. It is best to read the studies in their entirety and
relate them to local environmental conditions and grave type.
In Knoxville, Tennessee, mid-summer average temperatures range from
68 to 87 degrees Fahrenheit (F) (20 to 31 degrees Celsius). Mid-winter average
temperatures range from 30 to 47 degrees F (−1 to 8 degrees C). The average
annual precipitation is about 50 inches (127 cm). (Information provided by the
National Weather Service.)
As long as moisture and temperature are constant, the decomposition
rate can be relatively constant. In a dead body, with a cellular water content
of 70 to 85 percent, it is a lot easier to maintain moisture than it is to maintain
heat. For that reason, the early decomposition of a body in a warm, arid envi-
ronment is about the same as that of a body in a warm, moist environment.
Inside of the body, the conditions are the same. The differences show up when
the body begins to desiccate. Rapid desiccation results in mummification. Slow
desiccation results in more thorough decomposition.
Table 15.2 is based on surface burials and naked bodies—in other words,
complete exposure. Add shade, clothing, protective covering, or burial and the
rate of decomposition changes. Lowering the amount of exposure can either
decrease or increase decomposition, depending on moisture, temperature, and
one more thing—access of scavengers to the body.
Shean et al., (1993) demonstrated that exposed remains decompose faster
than shaded remains. Temperature differential was the primary factor. Maggots
are more active in warmer places. They slow down in the shade. Be careful
applying this premise to just any shaded area. The inside of a car, for instance,
may be shaded, but it can also be much warmer.
Clothing and other coverings can provide protection for the body itself—or
protection for the animals feeding on the body. A completely impermeable cover-
ing can exclude insects and other carrion feeders, leaving the rate of decomposi-
tion to be determined by the bacteria alone. But if the insects can enter the

Table 15.2 Decay Rates in a Warm, Moist Environment

Large mammals and birds are excluded; major differences in wet and dry environments are added in parentheses.

TIME PERIOD
AND DEFINING
CHARACTERISTICS ANIMALS SKIN AND HAIR GAS AND FLUIDS MOLDS AND PLANTS BONES

FIRST 24 fly egg masses blue or dark fluids seep from

HOURS; EGG appear like fine green veins openings
MASSES white sawdust
2–7 DAYS; maggots hatch skin slips; hair falls abdomen bloats; molds begin to appear; facial bones are
MAGGOTS AND and feed; beetles out; skin darkens fluids drain from volatile fatty acids kill exposed
BLOATING first appear openings surrounding vegetation
2–4 WEEKS; less maggots; skin drapes and bloating passes; molds spread over other bones are
BEETLES AND more beetles becomes leathery; fluids cease; body everything; plants exposed, yellow,
DECAYING (adipocere develops begins to dry can’t grow and oily
in wet environments)
2–12 MONTHS; rodents gnaw skin disappears (skin drying completes moss and green algae oils leach; bones
DRYING AND bone; small may mummify in dry appear; plants begin bleach in sunlight,
FULL SKELETON animals nest in environments, hot or stain in the ground,
cavities “cold”) and/or turn green
with algae in shade
2–10 YEARS; further gnawing roots and plants invade bone surfaces begin
BONE the now nutrient-rich soil to crack and
BREAKDOWN exfoliate
Source: Based on information from Bass, 1997.
258 Chapter 15 Field Methods

covering long enough to lay eggs, the maggots have even better conditions for
feeding because of the shelter, heat, and moisture. The covering takes the place
of the skin, so maggots eat the skin that they would have avoided if exposed.
Bone is exposed much more quickly under these conditions.
The type of fabric influences the extent of protection. Natural fibers offer
very little protection because they are digestible and inviting when soaked with
organic fluids. They are also permeable and allow moisture to evaporate.
Artificial fibers are less permeable, mostly indigestible, and decay more slowly.
Even greater protection is provided by burial. Rodriguez and Bass (1985)
buried six unembalmed cadavers at depths of 1, 2, and 4 feet. The cadavers were
exhumed and examined at intervals up to one year. It was demonstrated that
the rate of decomposition is much slower in buried remains. The main factors
are lack (or reduction) of carrion-eating insects and lower temperatures. Deeper
burials resulted in greater preservation.

CARRION FEEDERS
Flies and beetles are the major carrion feeders, but there are many more also.
Other arthropods are attracted to carrion because of the opportunity to prey on
the carrion feeders. Spiders, mites, scorpions, and centipedes are just a few
examples (Catts & Haskell, 1990). Some of the best information about the
postmortem interval comes from studies of arthropod life cycles. A forensic
entomologist is the best person to collect and analyze the information, but if
none is available, collect samples from the body, beneath the body, and in the
surrounding ground. Study a field guide for proper collection procedures (Catts
& Haskell, 1990; Haskell et al., 1997).
Postmortem interval is just part of the information available from carrion-
feeding insects. Some have been used successfully to test for drugs and poisons
ingested with the tissues of the dead body (Gunatilake & Goff, 1989; Bourel
et al., 1999).
Following the flies and beetles, there is a wide assortment of larger carrion
feeders. Some are specialists, such as vultures; others, like raccoons, are oppor-
tunists. In North America, remains are usually scavenged by crows, vultures,
canids, and rodents. In coastal areas, crabs can be voracious carrion eaters.
Where present, pigs may compete with canids. I have worked cases consumed
and scattered by wild pigs in both Haiti and Fiji. Any of the larger scavengers
can disrupt a carefully researched decomposition timetable.
Bird scavengers usually do little to damage bone. Small mammals, such
as rodents, gnaw on them long after the flesh is gone. Larger mammals, such
as dogs, disarticulate the body, carry parts to different locations, and break or
pulverize the bones. Each animal leaves evidence of its presence—tooth marks
are the most obvious. Large scavengers can reduce a body to fragments in a very
short time and play havoc with postmortem interval estimates. Several years
ago in the state of Florida, a woman died in an apartment also occupied by four
large pet dogs. Only fragments of her skeleton were found just one week later.

ASSOCIATED PLANTS
In the initial stages of decomposition, surrounding plants are destroyed by the
volatile fatty acids released by the body. When the acids dissipate, the plants
return. They then make use of the natural fertilizer provided by the body, and
exuberant growth may follow. It is easier for most of us to use this plant growth
to locate a grave than to estimate postmortem interval. Professional forensic
botanists may be needed to extract additional information.
David Hall, a forensic botanist, writes, “Any plant part touching or buried
with human remains can be valuable” (1997). He recommends photographing
the plants in the vicinity of the grave and collecting the evidence for future
analysis. Control samples should be collected from the surrounding area, and
 Field Methods Chapter 15 259

evidence samples from the area around the body—including above and below
ground. The samples should include stems, branches, leaves, roots, and flowers
(including pollen). Study a field guide for proper collection procedures (Hall,
1997; Coyle, 2005).
If a perennial plant such as a tree is found growing through the remains
or in the grave fill, annual rings from the stem or roots can provide information
about the minimum (not actual) number of years since the deposition of the body.
The plant parts must be demonstrably associated with the remains (Willey &
Heilman, 1987). Roots or stems can be growing through the clothing, into bony
foramina, or clearly disturbed by the excavation or the placement of the body.
Roots are common in graves, and root clippers are a standard excavation
tool. But sometimes roots completely consume the body, and their existence
may be the only evidence remaining. I once excavated a grave of a young child
in a crushed coral substrate. A few scrubby bushes existed in the area, but
nothing over the grave. Only small root fragments were observed during the
four-foot-deep excavation. However, the burial itself consisted of a nearly solid
coffin-shaped mass of small roots. Time since death was already known, but I
wonder what more a forensic botanist might have determined from the com-
pact evidence.
Pollen analysis shows promise for determining the season (not the year)
of burial. Pollen lasts for hundreds of thousands of years, and its use is already
well-established in palaeogeographical research, but there are few reported
forensic cases. One example is reported by Szibor and colleagues (1998). A mass
grave found in Magdeburg, Germany, could have resulted from one of two known
massacres—one in early spring and another in mid-summer. Pollen was filtered
from the nasal passages of the skulls. The analysis showed it to be from plants
that bloom in summer, not spring. (It may be good practice to routinely save a
sample of dirt from nasal passages, just in case it is needed.)

FUNERARY PRACTICES
The rate of decomposition can be slowed or nearly halted by various funerary
practices. Preservation of the dead has been carried out in various ways since
ancient times, but present-day embalming methods were devised during the
seventeenth century for the purpose of preserving anatomical specimens for
study. The practice of embalming human bodies destined for burial is a modern
phenomenon, gaining popularity in the United States around the time of the Civil
War, when bodies of soldiers were shipped home for burial (Johnson et al., 2000).
Embalming is practiced in other parts of the world, but the United States is prob-
ably the only country that routinely embalms corpses for immediate burial.
Embalming fluid is an antibacterial agent. It is injected into the body
through the vascular system as the blood is drained out. It is also injected
directly into organs and pumped into the body cavity. This is especially impor-
tant for effective preservation when the vascular system is compromised. The
main ingredient of embalming fluid is formalin, an aqueous solution of the gas
formaldehyde. Other ingredients may include alcohol, silicone, lanolin, coloring,
fragrances, and more. The formulae vary in composition depending on the man-
ufacturer, the date manufactured, and the length of time since manufacture. In
addition, different components decay at different rates, changing the composi-
tion of the residual. Embalming is easy to recognize in a fleshed body, but the
residual is difficult to identify in skeletal remains unless it contains a detectable
ingredient such as a heavy metal.
Heavy metals such as arsenic, lead, and mercury have excellent antibacte-
rial properties and were used in embalming fluids during the late nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries. The results are amazing. (See the story of Elmer
McCurdy in the accompanying box.) Unfortunately, a good preservative works
on living tissues as well as dead ones. Heavy metals are poisonous to living
260 Chapter 15 Field Methods

CASE EXAMPLE: ELMER MCCURDY, AN AMERICAN OUTLAW

(This is a story you should read in the original. I can give you the facts, but the culture and humor of the
story is pure Clyde Snow.)
In 1977, an arm fell off a hanging dummy in a southern California house of horrors. This would have
been no big deal, but a human bone jutted out. As Dr. Snow put it, the “dummy was, in fact, a mummy”!
The shock of the discovery resulted in a police investigation that spanned sixty-six years and half the conti-
nent. The trail ended in Oklahoma, where the body of Elmer McCurdy had been embalmed in 1911. Elmer
was a train robber who had been killed in a gun battle with law enforcement and deposited at the nearest
funeral home. When the proprietor discovered that Elmer had no next of kin, he saw a profitable opportunity.
He embalmed Elmer “heavily” with arsenic and put him on display in the back room. The curious could come
in and view a “real outlaw” for just a nickel. A carnival operator got the body next, and Elmer toured the
west before ending up as just another dummy in the Laugh in the Dark Funhouse.
I’m not sure which is more amazing—the tale of Elmer’s life after death or the embalming that made it
possible. On autopsy, it was discovered that the tissue preservation was excellent. Cells and fibers appeared
normal. Blood cells were intact. Sections of the brain revealed recognizable neurons. Only the lung tissue
was damaged, and that may have been due to antemortem circumstances.

Source: Summarized from Snow and Reyman, 1984.

things, even at very low concentrations, and they tend to accumulate in the food
chain. For this reason, they are now regulated by agencies of the federal govern-
ment and they are not legal for embalming purposes.
Embalming is just the beginning of the funerary practices used to preserve
human remains. The encasement of the body is next. The ancient burial shroud
was replaced by a wooden coffin. A coffin is easier to handle than a body in a
shroud, but not too much different for long-term preservation. The wood decays
and the body is surrounded by earth, just a little later than it would be without
a coffin. Then metal caskets were introduced. They last for years, depending on
the construction. Concrete burial vaults and grave liners were added to protect
the caskets and keep the surface of the ground from sinking in over a grave.
The embalmed remains I have seen from casket/vault graves are usually
damp and thick with mold decades after death. One exception in my experience
was the remains of a young woman buried in the late nineteenth century in a
bullet-shaped lead coffin. Her skin was essentially unchanged in color and tex-
ture and there was no mold visible. (The lead coffin provided very effective
preservation.)

OTHER PRESERVATION FACTORS

Aside from embalming, there are many nontoxic ways of preserving bodies. In
fact, everything used to preserve food can be used for bodies also—drying, freez-
ing, salting, and smoking. The results are not as cosmetically acceptable, but
that’s not so important in most forensic settings.
I’m sure you have heard of well-preserved frozen bodies, but few know that
many of the victims of the World Trade Center disaster were somewhat pre-
served by smoke. Fires burned deep beneath the World Trade Center wreckage
for three months after the events of 9/11. Smoke filtered up through the rubble
just as it would in a smoke house, providing an antimicrobial atmosphere. The
bits and pieces of bodies that arrived at the processing site were often well
preserved months after the disaster. There was little odor of decomposition and
friction ridge patterns were clearly visible on the hands.
 Field Methods Chapter 15 261

Figure 15.7
A Printable Hand from a Disaster Site

OTHER EVIDENCE OF FUNERARY PRACTICES

Even without soft tissue preservation, evidence of the embalmer’s work is often
present. Plastic eye caps are used to keep the eyelids from sinking, plastic
inserts keep the mouth shaped without teeth in place, and close fitting plastic
garments are used to prevent seepage under the clothing. Small metal nails are
inserted into the maxilla and mandible to attach wires and hold the mouth
closed, lips are sewn or glued together, incisions are plugged with plastic trochar
“buttons,” and so on. Wax and clay may also be found with the remains. Anyone
who needs to be able to sort criminal from noncriminal burials should familiar-
ize themselves with the assortment of funerary items seldom seen by the public.
For more information, see the publications by Berryman and colleagues (1991
and 1997).
262 Chapter 15 Field Methods

QUALITY CHECK FOR FIELD WORK

HAS THE ENTIRE SCENE BEEN SEARCHED AND SAMPLED?
✔ Artifacts collected from the surface and within the burial
✔ Insect samples collected from the surrounding soil
✔ Nests and burrows searched
✔ Plant samples taken from the grave surface, grave fill, and
surrounding area

ARE ALL HUMAN REMAINS RECOGNIZED AND RECOVERED?

✔ All fifty-four hand bones, left and right separated
✔ All fifty-two foot bones, left and right separated
✔ The hyoid, all three parts
✔ The coccyx
✔ All teeth, including single-rooted teeth
✔ Infant or fetal skeletons
✔ Epiphyses of sub-adults
✔ Broken bone fragments
✔ Hair, fibers, fingernails, and artifacts

IS THE WRITTEN DOCUMENTATION COMPLETE?

✔ Write notes in narrative style.
✔ Include dates and times.
✔ List all participants.
✔ Number features consecutively.
✔ Map location of features, include scale. Figure 15.8
✔ Sketch positions of features. Perspective Drawings of a Grave
✔ Inventory and measure features.
✔ Include source material where necessary.
✔ Sign and date report.

CAN THE SCENE AND SEQUENCE OF RECOVERY BE RECONSTRUCTED FROM

THE PHOTOGRAPHIC DOCUMENTATION?
✔ Maintain a photographic log.
✔ Vary lighting, flash, and lens settings.
✔ Photograph items in situ and in the lab.
✔ Include scale and identification in photo.
✔ Include an arrow (or trowel) indicating north.
✔ Photograph the entire scene with visible points
of reference.
✔ For context and orientation of each feature, use a zoom lens
to “move in” on the subject with several photos in sequence
from the same position.
✔ For security, photograph the scene from the same position at
the beginning and end of each work day.
CHAPTER 16

Professional Results

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Introduction
Record Keeping
Report Writing
The Foundation
Depositions and Demonstrative Evidence
Basic Ethics
Final Preparation and Courtroom Testimony
Professional Associations

263
264 Chapter 16 Professional Results

INTRODUCTION
Professionalism is about expectations—high expectations concerning methods,
standards, and character. A “professional” is a person who adheres to profes-
sional standards and produces high-quality results. A professional accepts
responsibility for his or her own work and the work of subordinates.
Professional methods for forensic anthropology have been introduced in
the chapters on laboratory analysis and field methods (Chapters 13 and 15,
respectively). This chapter is a view of the final product—the culmination of
osteological study, field work, and laboratory analysis. It is all brought together
with a review of the records, a well-written final report, expert witness consulta-
tions, courtroom testimony, and a reexamination of ethics.

RECORD KEEPING
There can be no professional report without accurate notes and records, and
usually there is only one opportunity to record information before it is
altered, destroyed, or forgotten. Record everything as it happens and main-
tain the records as if your professional reputation depends on them—as
indeed it does.
Begin planning the final report at the initiation of the case. When the
report is due, review everything to be sure that reliable records exist for each
of the following categories.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION
■ Name of the person responsible for the report
■ Title, address, telephone number
■ Name of the agency or party to receive the report

SIGNIFICANT DATES
■ Date of initial contact
■ Date(s) of recovery
■ Date(s) of entry into official records for each piece of evidence
■ Date(s) of examination
■ Date of report

CHAIN OF CUSTODY
■ Who gave the evidence to you? When and where?
■ Did you sign for it? Do you have the record?
■ To whom did you release it? When and where?
■ Did the recipient sign for it? Do you have the record?

NOTES
Always err on the side of inclusiveness. Keep notes of everything—events,
people, evidence recovered or received, evidence analyzed, results of analysis,
disposition. Do not try to decide what is important during the work itself.
Wait until later to decide what belongs in the final report and what may be
extraneous observations.
 Professional Results Chapter 16 265

Keep notes written in pen in bound notebooks with plenty of margin.

Do not erase anything. Simply add in changes and corrections (with date
and initials) so that you can see the evolution of your thought and the
history of methods.

REPORT WRITING
Write the final report as if amnesia were a foregone conclusion. Months or years
may pass before the case goes to court or is reopened for further investigation.
Many other cases will have come and gone by then, but you will be expected to
remember the details of this case as if you had done the work today.
The case report becomes the permanent record of the investigator’s work.
It should reflect overall knowledge about the case, specific findings, well-
supported conclusions, and recommendations. It must be clear, accurate, and
complete. Be careful to use standard English. This is especially important in
international, multicultural cases.
Note that the case report is not the same as an academic paper. Academic
papers are usually written for professional peers—people with the same special-
ized knowledge and vocabulary. The forensic report is written for investigators,
attorneys, judges, and other nonscientific specialists. Use language that com-
municates with the intended audience. If technical vocabulary and jargon are
necessary, explain the terms.
Agencies usually have standard report formats for their employees, but
independent consultants tend to develop formats to suit their own practice.
Regardless of the format, typical forensic reports include the following catego-
ries of information: case background, description of the evidence upon receipt,
inventory, anthropological description, conclusions, recommendations, disposi-
tion of the evidence, and an appendix of maps or photos, if useful for accurate
communication. Forensic reports are always signed and dated.

COVER PAGE
The cover page should include the case number (and name of the case, if appro-
priate); the date; the name, title and address of the recipient; and all contact
information for the expert (the person signing the report).
266 Chapter 16 Professional Results

CASE BACKGROUND
In narrative form, give a brief history of the case as you understand it. Include
names, dates, places, and events. Be very careful to differentiate between first-
hand and second-hand information. First-hand information is based on your
own experience and observations. Second-hand information is hearsay—
include the source.

CONDITION OF THE EVIDENCE (PRE-PROCESSING APPEARANCE)

In narrative form, describe the condition of the evidence when it comes into your
custody. Include packaging, identification labels, and so on. The evidence
includes all human remains as well as any associated physical evidence. This
is all first impression information, not the careful inventory. For example,
describe bony evidence by answering the following questions:

■ Is it intact, broken, fragmented, or … ?

■ Is it wet, dry, greasy, or … ? What does it smell like?
■ Is it well-calcified and strong, demineralized and friable, or … ?
■ Is it sun-bleached, stained, or a combination of both?
■ Is it clean or dirty? What kind of dirt?

Append any forms or photographs that will help convey information about
the original condition of the evidence.

INVENTORY
Use forms and diagrams to inventory the remains and all other associated
physical evidence. This is a careful description of the elements. Include any
changes from the original condition. It may have been necessary to clean the
evidence in order to inventory it. The inventory typically includes the following:

■ Human remains (usually bones) together with basic descriptive informa-

tion; use skeletal diagrams to show pertinent areas
■ Teeth with basic descriptive information; use dental charts or diagrams
■ All other items received (e.g., hair, nails, clothing, shoes, bullets, casings,
plant life, insects, etc.)

ANTHROPOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION
The anthropological description is the result of the skeletal analysis. It is the
description of the unidentified individual(s). Support the description with
specific evidence. Include the methods used and the reliability of each method.
Include references.

■ Sex—based on traits such as pelvic or skull morphology, size, or

muscularity
■ Race—based on traits such as skull morphology, hair, or dental traits
■ Age at death—based on evidence such as epiphyses, pubic symphysis, rib
morphology, or osteoarthritis
■ Stature—based on bone measurements (state which bones)
■ Handedness—based on evidence such as glenoid beveling, arm length, or
muscle attachment sites
 Professional Results Chapter 16 267

OTHER OBSERVATIONS
■ Evidence of antemortem disease and injury. Describe the evidence both
verbally and graphically. Use diagrams to indicate the location of the
evidence and photograph the evidence.
■ Evidence of perimortem trauma. Describe the evidence verbally and
graphically. Use diagrams to indicate the location of the evidence and
photograph the evidence.
■ Evidence of postmortem damage. Describe the effects of burial, reburial,
disinterment, carnivore activity, and anything else that may have
happened to the remains after death. As much as possible, differentiate
postmortem effects from antemortem or perimortem effects.

CONCLUSIONS
In clear, easy-to-read narrative form, summarize the description of the indi-
vidual, the possible time of death, and any other significant findings. Do not say
anything you cannot defend with data unless it is qualified as an opinion. Keep
in mind that cause of death is a medical determination and manner of death is
a legal determination. The anthropologist has the responsibility to state all
findings, but does not have the authority to state cause and manner of death.

RECOMMENDATIONS
If it is advisable to perform tests beyond the scope of your laboratory, state your
recommendations clearly. Add any information that may be useful to the final
resolution of the case.

DISPOSITION OF THE REMAINS

State where the remains have been deposited, with whom, and when.

SIGNATURE AND DATE

Sign and date the report, and initial each page if requested. (If you send a report
electronically, convert files into a non-editable format.)

APPENDIX
Clearly number and initial all diagrams, drawings, maps, and photographs that
are referenced in the report. Include them at the point of reference or append
them to the end of the report. Include bibliographic references.

THE FOUNDATION
The final report may be well written and full of information, but it has little
value if it cannot be admitted as evidence in a court of law. To achieve a judg-
ment on admissibility, the attorney must lay a foundation for the court by
showing the qualifications of the expert witness and the relevance and
authenticity of the physical evidence. This part is relatively straightforward.
The real complications set in when the court must rule on the admissibility
of the science behind the testimony.
268 Chapter 16 Professional Results

QUALIFICATION OF THE EXPERT

An expert witness is a person qualified to testify in a specific legal proceeding
because of special knowledge acquired through education, training, or experi-
ence. An expert witness may be called upon to give testimony in relation to
scientific, technical, or professional matters.
After swearing to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth,
the expert is seated and questioned about his or her qualifications. The court
has to be convinced that the expert has the knowledge, skills, and experience
to analyze the physical evidence correctly and provide testimony accurately. The
basic questions are standard. It is much like reciting your resume to a room full
of strangers. This is a time to be thorough and accurate while avoiding sounding
pompous. Try not to understate or overstate qualifications.
The witness should be prepared to answer questions about each of the
following topics:

1. Academic background: schools, degrees, major areas of study

2. Awards and/or scholarships
3. Specific training and continuing education
4. Certification by professional organizations and peers
5. Employment: title and grade, length of employment, duties, supervision
6. Professional activities: memberships, participation, presentations
7. Relevant publications
8. Relevant teaching experience
9. Previous testimony as an expert witness
10. Amount of experience relevant to the present case

When the attorney feels that a sufficient foundation is laid, he or she will
offer the witness as an expert. The opposing attorney may object or ask more
foundational questions. Testimony about the evidence doesn’t begin until the
judge rules that the expert is “qualified.” This may take hours, or it may be over
in a few minutes. (Once, a prosecuting attorney was in the middle of establish-
ing my qualifications when an impatient judge peered down over his glasses at
the attorney and said, “She’s obviously an expert in something. Let her talk!”
The qualifying was over.)

AUTHENTICITY OF THE PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

The attorney lays a foundation for the physical evidence through the testimony
of each person in custody of the evidence. He or she must establish that the
evidence was collected properly and has been in safe and continuous custody
ever since. The chain of custody must be documented in writing, with signatures
and dates at each transferal. Any break in the chain, including faulty security
while in the custody of a single person in the chain, results in inadmissible
evidence. If the physical evidence is not admitted, no further testimony about
the evidence is allowed.

EXPERT WITNESS TESTIMONY (SOMETHING TO THINK ABOUT)

People may lie or prevaricate, but the physical evidence is expected to tell the truth. It should need nothing
more than an honest translator—the expert witness. But experts don’t always agree. If facts are facts, some-
one must be wrong, but who? And sometimes experts do agree, but then change their testimony two years
later. If facts are facts, why are they changing? Is the expert wrong or are the scientific methods wrong?
What is the court supposed to believe and why?
 Professional Results Chapter 16 269

ADMISSIBILITY OF EXPERT WITNESS TESTIMONY

Before 1923, the general rule for expert witness testimony was simple. If the
question before the court was not within the range of common knowledge or
experience, a witness with special knowledge or skills was required. The witness
had only to satisfy the court that he or she possessed the necessary knowledge
or experience and the testimony was admissible.
As scientific knowledge and methods increased in complexity, courts were
faced with conflicts in the acceptance of “scientific evidence.” The foundations laid
for the expert and the physical evidence are not enough to allow for novel or
highly technical testimony. The most recent tests for expert testimony have rested
on decisions from two significant trials. The first was Frye v. the United States
(1923), and the second, Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc. (1993).

FRYE V. THE UNITED STATES

The Frye test was the main standard for admissibility of expert witness
testimony from 1923 to 1993. The decision came from the Court of Appeals of
the District of Columbia. It rejected admissibility of a new systolic blood
pressure deception test (a forerunner of the polygraph test) and set a standard
for accepting expert witness testimony.
The Frye decision states, “Just when a scientific principle or discovery
crosses the line between the experimental and demonstrable stages is difficult
to define. Somewhere in this twilight zone the evidential force of the principle
must be recognized, and while courts will go a long way in admitting expert
testimony deduced from a well-recognized scientific principle or discovery, the
thing from which the deduction is made must be sufficiently established to
have gained general acceptance in the particular field in which it belongs”
(Frye v. the United States, 54 App. D. C. 46, 293 F. 1013 No. 3968, 1923).
The Frye test of “general acceptance” was the standard for seventy years
in spite of three basic problems: (1) How do we know when “the thing from
which the deduction is made” is “sufficiently established”? (2) Who decides when
“general acceptance” is reached? and (3) What is the proper definition of “the
particular field in which it belongs”?

FEDERAL RULES OF EVIDENCE

The Federal Rules of Evidence (FRE) are a set of admissibility standards
for federal courts first published in 1937. The FRE was updated in 1975, and
federal judges were given more discretion in making admissibility determina-
tions for all kinds of evidence. Rule 702, known as the “gatekeeper rule,”
requires the judge to determine if testimony will actually assist the court to
understand the evidence or come to a conclusion. If so, a witness qualified as
an expert may testify, but there are qualifications on the testimony: (1) It must
be based upon sufficient facts or data; (2) it must be a product of reliable
principles and methods; and (3) the witness must have applied the principles
and methods reliably to the facts of the case (Article VII: Opinions and Expert
Testimony, Rule 702).
Between 1975 and 1993, the Federal Rules of Evidence were not generally
recognized by state courts. The Frye test persisted as the standard until after
the Daubert decision.

DAUBERT V. MERRELL DOW PHARMACEUTICALS

The 1993 Daubert decision was a result of a product liability case. The plain-
tiff claimed that prenatal use of a drug manufactured by Dow Pharmaceuticals
caused serious birth defects. Dow offered several scientific studies showing the
absence of relationship between its drug and the birth defects. The plaintiff
tried to counter with its own experts, but the judge refused to accept the plain-
tiff’s witnesses’ expertise.
270 Chapter 16 Professional Results

The case was eventually heard by the Supreme Court. The primary legal
issue was whether the Federal Rules of Evidence (specifically FRE 702) replaced,
or supplemented, previous rules—in particular, the Frye test. In other words,
did the judge have the right to refuse the testimony of the plaintiff ’s expert
witnesses?
The Justices ruled that the FRE replaces previous rules. They essentially
redefined the use of science in court in the effort to separate legitimate science
from “junk” science. The fact that a scientific principle is new or novel is no
longer an issue. “General acceptance” is of little consequence under Daubert. All
scientific evidence must be weighed the same, whether it is based on a new or
an established principle.
Trial judges now have the task of assessing the scientific nature of pro-
posed testimony. They must make a preliminary assessment of whether the
testimony’s underlying reasoning and/or methodology is scientifically valid and
properly applied to the facts at issue. The Supreme Court suggested the follow-
ing questions:

1. Has the theory or technique been tested?

2. Has it been subjected to peer review or publication?
3. What is its known or potential accuracy limitation or error rate?
4. Do standards exist for the technique or operation?
5. Has the theory or technique acquired widespread acceptance within a
relevant scientific community? (This is carried over from the Frye test.)

The Court also allowed that other factors not listed by them might be
considered in the future. The Court encouraged judges to watch for more ways
to test the validity of expert witness testimony. The evolution of the Daubert
decision has become a study in and of itself.
Daubert has had an enormous impact on expert witnesses. Under Frye, the
witness had only to show that he or she applied the generally accepted methods.
Under Daubert, the expert witness must be prepared to provide validation for
any and all methods used.

DEPOSITIONS AND DEMONSTRATIVE EVIDENCE

Courtroom testimony is just part of the role of an expert witness. He or she is
also expected to provide relevant information to the attorney during preparation
of the case. The attorney may need an introduction to the science behind the
testimony or an assessment of the technical strengths and weaknesses of the
case. The attorney may also need help preparing for effective cross examination
of the opposing expert witnesses. This can include reviewing the opposing
expert’s report and deposition.

DEPOSITION
The deposition is a pre-trial opportunity for an attorney to ask questions of the
opposing counsel’s witnesses. The expert must be prepared to present all evidence
at that time, and there should be no change in testimony without notification
between the time of the deposition and the trial. The deposition often takes place
in an attorney’s office or conference room. It is given under oath with a court
reporter and both attorneys present. The opposing attorney may use the deposi-
tion as an opportunity to assess the strengths and weakness of the opposing
expert. (The expert also learns what to expect from the attorney.)
 Professional Results Chapter 16 271

DEMONSTRATIVE EVIDENCE
It is the responsibility of the expert witness, not the attorney, to present
Path of Projectile
the evidence so that it can be fully understood by the fact-finder. Information
can be communicated verbally or through demonstrative evidence.
Demonstrative evidence is any tangible object used to illustrate, explain,
or emphasize specific aspects of physical evidence.
The use of demonstrative evidence in a courtroom is very much like
teaching aids in a classroom. Good visual images attract attention and get
the point across. Some people tend to remember more of what they see, and
others, what they hear. By engaging more than one of the senses, more
information can be communicated to more people. Some jurors also benefit
from actually handling demonstrative evidence. People tend to remember
more with combined sensory input than with visual or auditory stimuli
alone. Expert witnesses use maps, charts, graphs, diagrams, models, mock-
ups, photographs, and anything else appropriate for the material at hand.
I have used slide shows, large sketch pads, and even tables of bones as
demonstrative evidence.
There are several foundational requirements for demonstrative evi-
dence in a court of law. As with all evidence, it must be relevant and it must
be a fair and accurate depiction of what it purports to show. It must not
conflict with the rules of evidence or create unfair prejudice.
There are also several practical requirements. Demonstrative evi-
dence is effective only if it is error-free, clearly visible, attractive, and
professional-looking. It should be planned well in advance of trial, and the
courtroom should be checked for compatibility and auxiliary equipment. (I once
had all the equipment ready for a slide show, only to discover that there was no
way to darken the room.)

BASIC ETHICS
In the context of professional life, ethics is the body of rules related to moral
principles, duty, and obligation. Ethics define and determine standards of
conduct. It is standard practice for each professional organization to provide a
code of ethics for its members. (The Code of Ethics and Conduct of the American
Academy of Forensic Sciences can be found in the back section of the annual
Membership Directory. It is Article II of the Bylaws.)
Professional codes of ethics are usually based on three fundamental
requirements—respect, honesty, and confidentiality. Many ethical problems
result from disregard for one or more of these fundamentals.

RESPECT
Any work in the forensic sciences requires respect for one’s fellow human and
the rule of law. The work of forensic anthropologists involves human remains;
it therefore tends to tread on personal, emotional, and religious aspects of life.
It cannot be approached callously.

HONESTY
Honesty is basic to any type of scientific endeavor. It is also the foundation of
the application of forensic science to human rights. There are plenty of situa-
tions that call for silence, but there is never a time to lie.
Honesty includes the willingness to readily admit ignorance, mistakes, or
failures. It is counterproductive to yield to shame or to fabricate excuses.
272 Chapter 16 Professional Results

CONFIDENTIALITY
Confidentiality is essential. This means not talking about
cases until the legal process is complete and general permis-
sion is given. Silence applies not only to news media but also
to close friends and relatives.
People never fail to be amazed when they hear their
own words come back to them distorted. If you wish to
maintain integrity, don’t talk about a case prior to the
formal release of the report or the completion of the judi-
cial process. Let the written report, released by the
authority in charge of the case, do the talking for you.

HIERARCHY OF OBLIGATIONS
Obligations sometimes get in the way of the best ethical
intentions. Without even thinking about it, most of us
struggle from day to day with the conflict between our obli-
gations to others and our commitments to ourselves. The courtroom magni-
fies the struggle. The system is designed to reveal and support the truth, but
the court wants the truth in black and white. Each attorney wants the truth
to advocate for his or her own client, and the expert witness wants the truth
to confirm him or her as an “expert.”
A forensic psychologist, Stanley Brodsky (1999), proposes an effective
way to deal with the conflict by defining a four-level hierarchy of obligations.
The highest level is the ethical responsibility to the evidence itself. The whole
truth of the findings, as you, the witness, understand them, is foremost. (Note
that the obligation to the evidence preempts obligations to the hiring
attorney.)
The second level is your codified obligations to the court. The court
demands that the witness conform to a specific structure of inquiry and
behavior, and the court decides which evidence is admissible and which is
prohibited.
The third level is your responsibility to the defendant and to both sets of
attorneys. The witness is obligated to be honest and forthcoming about the
quality and limits of the scientific results. The expert witness does not “win”
or “lose” a case and must maintain a psychological distance from the
outcome.
The fourth level is your obligation to yourself and your profession. There
is a natural tendency to want to look good. You are qualified as an expert and
want to live up to expectations. The pitfall is to overstate your knowledge.

FINAL PREPARATION AND COURTROOM TESTIMONY

There are many books written on the subject of appropriate courtroom testi-
mony (e.g., McKasson & Richards, 1998; Brodsky, 1999; Matson, 2004). Basically,
the experts advise that you be well prepared and ethical. The following is a
short exposition condensed from the advice of the experts.
 Professional Results Chapter 16 273

BE WELL PREPARED
■ Know your own credentials. You must be “qualified” as an expert witness
before there is any chance for your testimony to be heard.
■ Discuss all issues with the attorney prior to the hearing of the case—
including possible weak points.
■ Review the details of your findings and reports.
■ If you must use notes, ask permission and expect them to be entered into
evidence.
■ Review the scientific background for any and all methods (see Daubert
requirements).
■ Have visual aids (demonstrative evidence) prepared and tested.

DEMONSTRATE HONESTY
■ Report findings accurately. Never go beyond the limits of the evidence or
your experience. If you do not know an answer, say so. Do not guess.
■ Keep in mind the hierarchy of obligations. The expert witness represents
the physical evidence first and foremost.

SHOW RESPECT
■ Dress appropriately. If there is some question about what is appropriate,
ask the attorney for instructions.
■ Use proper language. Courtrooms are usually conducted in a formal
manner. Any informality whatsoever is seen as disrespect. Never joke.
■ Listen carefully to the question and think before responding. Refuse to be
misled by leading questions or cross examination. Give the attorney time
to object.
■ Speak to the person or persons with decision-making authority. If a jury is
present, address the answers to the jury, not to the attorney who asked the
question. If the decisions are to be made by the judge, speak to the judge.
■ Request permission of the judge to elaborate on or clarify a point if it is
necessary for accurate communication. The testimony may have been
curtailed prematurely or led off track, but the expert witness still has the
responsibility to convey information accurately and completely. (Permission
may be denied.)
■ Request permission of the judge to step down from the witness chair, even
if leaving the chair is required for the presentation of testimony.

PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS
Professional associations exist to further the interests of a particular profession.
Most are nonprofit organizations. They provide educational and professional
enhancement opportunities through publications, meetings, and workshops.
They establish and promote ethical standards for members, offer public infor-
mation about the profession, and many serve as a source for information on job
opportunities.
274 Chapter 16 Professional Results

The principal professional organization for forensic anthropologists is the

American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS). It is composed of ten sec-
tions representing a wide variety of forensic specialties, including physical
anthropology. The following is the statement of purpose from the American
Academy of Forensic Sciences,

“As a professional society dedicated to the application of science to the law,

the AAFS is committed to the promotion of education and the elevation of
accuracy, precision, and specificity in the forensic sciences. It does so via
the Journal of Forensic Sciences (its internationally recognized scientific
journal), newsletters, its annual scientific meeting, the conduct of semi-
nars and meetings, and the initiation of actions and reactions to various
issues of concern. As the world’s most prestigious forensic science organi-
zation, the AAFS represents its members to the public and serves as the
focal point for public information concerning the forensic science profes-
sion.” (AAFS Directory of Members and Affiliates)

Other major organizations including forensic anthropologists in their

membership are the International Association for Identification (IAI), the
American Association of Physical Anthropologists, and the American
Anthropological Association. There are also several area-specific groups in
the United States, including the southeast Mountain, Swamp and Beach
Forensic Anthropologists; the Midwest Bioarchaeology and Forensic
Anthropology Association; and the southwest Mountain, Desert, and Coastal
Forensic Anthropologists.
Latin Americans formed the Latin American Forensic Anthropology
Association (ALAF) in 2003. It has quickly become a very active association
with members from Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Guatemala, Mexico, Peru, and
Venezuela. In addition to the standard objectives of a professional organization,
ALAF promotes the protection of its members and their families from the added
risks of working in some of the Latin American countries.
 Professional Results Chapter 16 275

Table 16.1 Basic Expert Witness Vocabulary

TERM DEFINITION
ADVOCATE Attorney, lawyer, solicitor, legal representative. The term is a reminder that the legal system
acknowledges differing points of view, each requiring an argument and someone to present that
argument.
ARGUMENT Assertion accompanied by logical reasoning.
CIRCUMSTANTIAL Proves something by inference, conclusion, or deduction (compare with direct evidence).
EVIDENCE

CROSS EXAMINATION The formal questioning of a witness by the party opposed to the party that called the witness to testify
(see direct examination).
DAUBERT Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc. (1993). A product liability case that resulted in a Supreme
Court decision in which the Federal Rules of Evidence (specifically FRE 702) replaced the Frye test. Trial
judges were assigned the task of assessing the scientific nature of proposed testimony.
DEPOSITION Testimony under oath taken before trial. A person “gives a deposition” when he or she, accompanied by
an attorney, answers questions put by the other side’s attorney regarding the facts of a case. Depositions
generally take place in an attorney’s office. A court reporter is present and everything that is said is
recorded and can be used during the trial.
DIRECT EVIDENCE Proves something on its own. It is obvious to the observer (compare with circumstantial evidence).
DIRECT EXAMINATION Questioning of a witness in a trial or other legal proceeding, conducted by the party who called the
witness to testify (compare with cross examination).
DISCOVERY The process of gathering information in preparation for trial.
EVIDENCE Something that tends to establish or disprove a fact. Types of evidence are physical (real), verbal
(testimonial), and demonstrative (used only to teach or explain). Physical and verbal evidence can be
direct or circumstantial.
EXPERT TESTIMONY Statements made in judicial proceedings by a person who is qualified to render an opinion on the issue
under consideration.
EXPERT WITNESS A person who, because of his or her knowledge, experience, and expertise, is qualified to render an
opinion on the issue under consideration in a judicial proceeding.
FOUNDATION As in “to lay a foundation”—to provide to the judge the qualifications of the witness (particularly an
expert witness) or the authenticity of a piece of evidence.
FRYE TEST Frye v. The United States (1923). A case involving the acceptance of new or novel scientific principles.
The admissibility of expert witness testimony is based on the test of “general acceptance” within the
relevant scientific community.
GOOD FAITH The intention to honestly meet an obligation.
IMPEACH With respect to an expert witness, a process to challenge the truthfulness or bias of a witness while
giving testimony under oath.
OATH A verbal obligation to tell the truth in a judicial proceeding.
PROOF Confirmation of a fact by evidence. Proof is sufficient evidence to satisfy the trier of fact (jury or judge). In
criminal prosecution, the standard of proof is “beyond a reasonable doubt.” In civil cases, the standard
of proof is “a preponderance of the evidence.”
QUALIFY To make or consider eligible or fit. “His training and experience qualified him as an expert witness.”
REPLICABILITY In science, the concept that the outcome of a particular study will occur again if the study is repeated by
another investigator. A scientific finding that cannot be replicated is easily discredited.
TESTIMONY A statement or statements made by a witness under oath in a legal proceeding.
TRIER OF FACT The authority at a trial who decides what the truth is. If there is a jury, it is the trier of fact. If there is no
jury, the judge is the trier of fact.
 CHAPTER 17

Large-Scale Applications

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Introduction
Disasters and Mass Fatality Incidents
Human Rights Work
POW/MIA Repatriation

276
 Large-Scale Applications Chapter 17 277

INTRODUCTION
The previous chapters have been based on the “typical” forensic case in the
United States—a single set of bones in a cardboard box or an isolated grave.
The single-body case is usually handled by a lone forensic anthropologist work-
ing for a medical examiner’s office or hired on a case-by-case basis. Large-scale
operations involving mass fatalities are very different. They require more per-
sonnel, more teamwork, a command structure, and a larger infrastructure. In
addition, large-scale operations are rarely local. They usually involve travel and
a wide assortment of living and working conditions.
In individual, case-by-case work, the quality of the work and the final
report reflects on the individual. Poor work may be damaging, but the effect is
localized. In large-scale operations, the organization itself publishes the report
and bears the primary responsibility for the quality of the work. Poor work
reflects on the entire organization and may affect whole communities and
nations. Therefore, large-scale operations typically publish standards for work
and safety. Acceptance of and adherence to the standards are part of the contrac-
tual obligations of the employee-scientist.
Anthropologists tend to divide large-scale operations into disaster work,
human rights work, and POW/MIA identification. This is artificial because all
human death is a human rights concern, and all cases of mass mortality are
disasters. The lines are drawn as they are because of other factors, such as
hiring agencies, venue, and degree of urgency. Hiring agencies can be either
governmental or nongovernmental, national or international. The venue can
be within the United States or abroad, close to cultural amenities or remote.
The degree of urgency is an awkward factor because it remains the same for
most families of missing and unidentified persons. The response by the agen-
cies tasked with the work is, however, largely dependent on time, money, and
legal consequence. Disaster work is the most urgent of all the large-scale
operations. In the United States, the national government hires forensic
anthropologists to work as part of regionally-administered federal disaster
teams. These teams respond to any disaster—natural or man-made—involving
large numbers of casualties (mass fatality incidents). The work is episodic and
intense. It may be conflict related, as it was with the 9/11 events, but the
response is carried out in the same way as it is for floods and earthquakes.
Human rights work focuses on civilian casualties of recent conflicts. The
funding is either multinational or nongovernmental. The degree of urgency is
less than with disaster work only because human rights abuses are committed
by governments or would-be governments. Recovery efforts are necessarily
delayed until there is a change in or recovery of political control. If the work is
called “human rights work,” it is usually conducted on non-U.S. soil and involves
multicultural challenges. (This is just a convention; it does not mean that the
United States has never experienced human rights abuse.)
POW/MIA identification is the long postwar recovery and repatriation
of remains of soldiers missing in action and buried on foreign soil (some of whom
were also prisoners of war). It is funded by the U.S. military. The venue is mul-
tinational, but the effort does not involve the same type of multicultural chal-
lenges presented by human rights work. The sense of urgency is the lowest of
the three types of large-scale applications. It is lessened by the passage of time
and the unlikelihood of legal consequence.

DISASTERS AND MASS FATALITY INCIDENTS

A disaster is a sudden, extraordinary event that involves substantial loss of
life and/or property. Disasters involving large numbers of casualties are called
mass fatality incidents (MFIs) simply because the focus is on the number of
278 Chapter 17 Large-Scale Applications

deaths. Loss of property may or may not accompany the loss of life. Disasters
are broadly categorized as natural or man-made. Natural disasters include
hurricanes, tornados, floods, earthquakes, volcanoes, and tsunamis. (Fires may
be either natural or man-made.) Man-made disasters include major transporta-
tion accidents, technological disasters, criminal acts, and acts of terrorism,
including weapons of mass destruction events. Unexpected acts of war (e.g.,
Pearl Harbor), and mass suicides (e.g., Jonestown) are also included. There are
a few disastrous events, such as cemetery floods and the Tri-State Crematory
incident, that do not quite fit the standard definition of MFIs because there are
no fatalities—the bodies were dead before the incident began. They are nonethe-
less handled as MFIs.

THE FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGIST’S ROLE IN DISASTERS

“A forensic anthropologist has specialized training, education, and experience in the recovery, sorting, and
analysis of human and nonhuman remains, especially those that are burned, commingled, and traumatically
fragmented.” Mass Fatality Incidents: A Guide for Human Forensic Identification, National Institute of Justice
Special Report, NCJ 199758, June 2005.

MFI RESPONSE WITHIN U.S. GOVERNMENT JURISDICTION

If the local government is overwhelmed by the number of casualties, federal
assistance may be requested. The exact number of casualties is not the issue.
The important question is whether or not the local government can handle the
work alone. The rural township of Bourbonnais, Illinois, was not prepared to
handle eleven casualties from the 1998 Amtrak crash. New York City would
have had no trouble handling the eleven casualties, but it was not ready for
2792 casualties from the 2001 World Trade Center incident. Both incidents
required federal assistance.
In the United States, mass fatality incident response is handled through
the offices of the National Disaster Medical System (NDMS) which is
administered by the Department of Health & Human Services, Assistant
Secretary for Preparedness and Response. NDMS manages and coordinates
medical-related responses to major emergencies and federally declared
disasters.
Many well-known nongovernmental groups, including the American Red
Cross and the Salvation Army, also respond to disasters. They help to support
the federal teams as well as the survivors and their communities.

DMORT
Disaster Mortuary Operational Response Teams (DMORTs) are one
part of the overall NDMS operation. Most of the NDMS provides medical aid
to the living, but DMORT is assigned the task of recovering, identifying, and
processing the dead. DMORT grew out of the work of a nonprofit group of
volunteers from the National Funeral Directors Association in the 1980s. The
funeral directors recognized the need for efficient processing of bodies follow-
ing mass fatality incidents. They conceived the idea of a portable morgue and
put the first one into operation. In time, they saw that a multidisciplinary
approach would work even better by facilitating identification as part of the
postmortem processing of “unidentifiable” remains. Recovery of the dead was
also improved.
In the early 1990s DMORT was incorporated into the federal govern-
ment and ten regional teams were formed, each with a regional coordinator.
 Large-Scale Applications Chapter 17 279

CASE EXAMPLE: TRI-STATE CREMATORY DISASTER

Tri-State Crematory was a small-town crematory in North Georgia. Over a period of several years, the
owner, Ray Brent Marsh, accepted over 300 bodies from funeral homes in Georgia, Tennessee, and
Alabama and dumped them on his own property instead of cremating them. He returned boxes of concrete
mix to funeral homes rather than cremains. When the crime was uncovered in 2002, help was requested
from the federal government, and DMORT helped the Georgia Bureau of Investigation to recover and
identify the corpses. Marsh was charged with theft by deception, abusing a corpse, burial service–related
fraud, and giving false statements. He is serving twelve years in prison. (Marsh had no morbid interest in
the bodies, and he made no serious effort to hide the bodies. This appears to be an ultimate example of
falling behind in work.)

DMORT teams include forensic anthropologists, pathologists, odontologists,

fingerprint specialists, radiologists, and computer specialists in addition to
funeral directors, morticians, family assistance personnel, and a large group
of support personnel.
When a request for emergency aid is accepted by the U.S. government, a
response operation is immediately set in motion. DMORT personnel are selected
and notified on the basis of team membership and specialty area. Local area
team members are asked to respond first. All team members are required to be
packed and ready to go before the call is issued. A standard deployment is two
weeks with no time off. Teams work seven days a week in twelve-hour shifts.
Most morgues operate only one shift per day, but some operations, such as the
World Trade Center processing at Fresh Kills Landfill, ran nonstop, two shifts
per day until the work was declared done.

Figure 17.1
Part of a Portable Morgue Stored on Pallets
DMORT maintains two complete portable morgue units, ready to be transported rapidly to
any disaster site.
280 Chapter 17 Large-Scale Applications

At the disaster site, local law enforcement has control of the scene and
the local coroner or medical examiner is in charge of the dead. When DMORT
administrators arrive, they work with the local officials to find locations for a
temporary morgue and a family assistance center. Electricity and running
water are essential for the morgue. A large, adaptable structure (such as an
airplane hanger) is preferred, but the entire morgue can be constructed of
tents if no suitable building is available. Large trailers can be used for office
space. Refrigeration trucks are used to store the remains before and after
processing. Flexibility and on-the-spot creativity are important in the initial
setup process.
DMORT maintains two portable morgue units. They are warehoused
in Maryland and California when not in use. The entire contents of a morgue,
including partitions, furniture, equipment, and supplies, are strapped to pallets
and can be transported efficiently by truck or air. Even reference materials—
specific to each specialty—are packed in trunks and labeled by section. It is like
having an entire laboratory ready to be up and running within hours in a
remote location.
The morgue is organized with separate areas for each of the major
operations—admittance, photography, radiology, pathology, forensic anthropol-
ogy, odontology, fingerprints, and casketing. Partitions are set up between the
areas with a wide central hallway for rolling gurneys between stations.

THE ROLE OF THE FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGIST IN DISASTER OPERATIONS

Forensic anthropologists work in both field recovery and morgue operations.
Recovery is a special challenge in disaster situations because of the instability
of the disaster site and the extreme commingling and/or disarticulation and
fragmentation of the remains. Ideally, each body would be placed in a body bag
in the field, transported to the morgue, and processed as a single unit. In reality,
each body bag may contain fragments of one body, a part of a body, several bod-
ies, or entirely nonhuman remains. (At the World Trade Center, many of the
bones were from restaurants, not victims. Other “bones” were assorted man-
made items such as toys and plastic pipes.) Forensic anthropologists are capable
of making many decisions in the field to help eliminate problems later in the
morgue. It is easier to reassociate bodies in context and more efficient to sepa-
rate out nonhuman material in the field.
In the morgue, the work of the forensic anthropologist is standard labora-
tory analysis. The following is a list of duties summarized from the National
Institute of Justice’s special report on mass fatality incidents (June 2005). The
forensic anthropologist is expected to:

■ Evaluate and document the condition of the remains.

■ Separate obviously commingled remains; calculate the minimum number
of individuals.
■ Analyze the remains to determine sex, age at death, race, stature, trauma,
and disease conditions.
■ Determine the need for additional analysis by other disciplines (e.g., radi-
ology, odontology).
■ Maintain a log of incomplete remains to facilitate reassociation.
■ Document, remove, and save nonhuman and/or nonbiological materials for
proper disposal.
■ Obtain DNA samples.
■ Interpret radiographs.
■ Compare antemortem and postmortem records.
■ Maintain communication with the other identification specialists.
 Large-Scale Applications Chapter 17 281

In this list, the only duty that may seem out of the ordinary is the log of
incomplete remains. This log is not mandatory in the typical archaeological lab,
where everything is laid out on a series of tables for repeated viewing. But it is
essential in the disaster scene, where there is one, and possibly only one, oppor-
tunity to view and analyze each component before it is packaged and stored.
Reassociation is a serious challenge.

DMORT PROCESSING AND TEMPORARY MORGUE STATIONS

Each body bag that enters the temporary morgue is processed in sequence. The
processing always begins at Admitting and ends at what is called Casketing.
The intermediate steps depend on the setup of the morgue and the require-
ments of the individual case. A body may be returned to radiology for additional
radiographs or sent among the pathologists, anthropologists, and dentists for
consultation on shared concerns such as disassociated parts, broken bones, and
exfoliated teeth.
The following is the general sequence of stations for a single gurney and
escort.

1. Admitting: The admitting section is responsible for the chain of custody of

the remains and all associated materials. Each case is entered into the
DMORT computer program and assigned mortuary reference numbers for
all individual items. A microchip may be inserted into the body at this
time. The admitting station also assigns an escort and generates a victim
identification packet (VIP). The packet contains a tracking form and
special forms for each of the morgue stations, including Anthropology. One
escort accompanies the contents of a single body bag throughout the entire
process of analysis and maintains control of the victim identification
packet. The escort system is excellent because it ensures continuity,
increases efficiency, and lessens the likelihood of errors.

Figure 17.2
Portable Morgue Ready for Processing Bodies
DMORT uses a system of partitioned space for each identification specialty, all within the same
large structure or tent. The DNA area is pictured.
282 Chapter 17 Large-Scale Applications

2. Photography and Personal Effects: This is essentially part of the admitting

process. The contents of the body bag are photographed and all personal
effects are removed, documented, and stored. The role of the photographer
may change from one deployment to another. I have served in DMORT
operations where the photographer is available to all sections for photo-
graphs related to the analysis, and in others where the photographer is
restricted to nonbiological evidence.
3. Radiology: The whole body bag is radiographed. Sometimes this is the first
real view of the remains. Mud, charred flesh, or other debris may have
obscured the full contents until this point. Radiographs can reveal projectiles,
shrapnel, and other foreign objects as well as bony parts and prosthetics.
4. Pathology: Forensic pathologists autopsy the remains and try to determine
cause and manner of death. Saul and Saul (2003) point out that cause of
death may not be obvious, even in an airline crash. A homicide may have
preceded the crash and, in fact, the death may have been the cause of the
crash rather than its result. As with all forensic work, assumptions should
be avoided.
5. Anthropology: (The role of the anthropologist is described previously.) The
VIP Anthropology Examination Form is not a full analysis form; it is
designed only for computer entry and comparison with antemortem infor-
mation to establish a tentative identification. If time allows, the full
anthropological analysis is written up separately and attached to the
anthropology form. In a disaster situation, this usually means that the
remains are re-examined after a tentative identification is generated.
6. Odontology (dental unit): Forensic odontologists radiograph all dental struc-
tures and chart the teeth. If teeth are not present, other oral structures,
anomalies, and evidence of disease can be just as useful for identification.
Dental teams use a specialized computer program called WinID to match a
missing person to unidentified remains through dental comparisons. The
program was developed to run on Windows systems and store data in a
Microsoft Access Database. Like the other specialized forensic programs (e.g.,
AFIS, CODIS, IBIS), it increases the efficiency of forensic dentists by sorting
large databases of records and locating the most likely matches for direct
comparison based on basic dental and anthropometric characteristics.
7. Fingerprinting: Fingerprint experts obtain prints from the remains for
comparison with reference prints from the files of law enforcement agen-
cies and employers. Comparison prints can also be obtained from personal
items. The DMORT fingerprint experts use a variety of special techniques
to obtain fingerprints from burned and decomposing remains. They also
use the Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS), to store,
locate, and match digital images of fingerprints.
8. DNA: The Armed Forces DNA Identification Laboratory (AFDIL), part of
the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology in Rockville, Maryland, processes
DNA samples for DMORT. AFDIL sometimes responds to mass fatality
incidents alongside DMORT. If not, it relies on the DMORT DNA core
group, represented by pathology, anthropology, and odontology, to collect
samples. The DNA samples are stored for later use if identification cannot
be obtained by conventional means. DNA is also used to to help reassociate
parts of bodies. The Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) is used for
sharing and comparing DNA information with other agencies.
9. Embalming and casketing: Morticians handle all of the preparations for
storage and/or release of the remains. The morticians are fully prepared
to embalm and prepare a body for a standard funeral, but in mass fatality
incidents this is frequently not possible. Stabilization and storage are
more important than viewing when remains are in poor condition and
unidentified.
 Large-Scale Applications Chapter 17 283

Figure 17.3
Unrecognizable Human Remains from a Disaster Site
This is one of the more complete bodies recovered at the processing site for the World Trade
Center disaster. The flesh is partially preserved by smoke and contents of pockets are still present.

10. Information Resource Center (IRC): The whole operation is brought

together by the DMORT team members at the IRC. Data from the victim
identification packets are entered into the DMORT VIP computer program
together with antemortem information collected from the families at the
family assistance center. The system is designed to match postmortem
records generated from the morgue with antemortem records. Tentative
identifications can then be selected for further comparison and (hopefully)
final identification.

The release of the remains to the family-designated funeral home can be

complicated by missing and disassociated parts. Some families want to be
informed every time a portion of a fragmented body is identified. Others want
to be able to have a single memorial service and move on without further noti-
fication. The alternatives must be clearly communicated and the wishes left in
writing. Some identification processes, such as the World Trade Center effort,
continue for years.

DISCUSSION
Disasters present enormous challenges. Resources are strained beyond their
limits and general panic leads to unwarranted conflict and irrational decisions.
The only way to keep a bad situation from getting worse is by thorough advance
planning and preparation. It’s not easy to prepare for the unknown, and it is
hard to find the incentive when no obvious threat is present. But experience
is worth listening to. The U.S. national disaster plans work fairly well.
Professionals are hired and trained before they are needed; a good communica-
tion network is in place; disaster teams and their entire infrastructure are
ready for deployment at all times; the employers and families of team members
are prepared; and the whole system is maintained and strengthened through
annual meetings, continuing education, and regular newsletters.
When we make the effort to be prepared for the expected, we have a better
chance of withstanding the unexpected. But events the enormity of Hurricane
Katrina will always push the limits. (And in spite of the general confusion,
DMORT performed very well in both Louisiana and Mississippi.)
284 Chapter 17 Large-Scale Applications

HUMAN RIGHTS WORK

INTRODUCTION: THE SCOPE OF THE PROBLEM
Think back over international events of the past decade. Is there any question
about the widespread disregard for human rights? Thanks to twenty-four hour
cable news and the Internet, reports of violent death and human displacement
come to us every minute of the day. In all of these conflicts, armed groups dis-
regard human rights in the pursuit of political, economic, religious, and/or eth-
nic goals. The result is large numbers of civilian deaths through political mass
murder and genocide.
In 2001, the Center for International Development and Conflict
Management at the University of Maryland began publishing a series of
reports called Peace and Conflict. The reports provide statistics and commen-
tary on major trends in armed conflict, self-determination movements, and
democracy. They also evaluate each country’s capacity for peace-building and
risk for conflict.
The first report documented a global decline in armed conflict during the
latter part of the 1990s. This was attributed to the growing number of democratic
regimes and the success of international efforts at containing conflicts and
negotiating settlements (Gurr et al., 2001). In the 2005 report, they continued
to be optimistic and attributed gains in peace to the “persistent and coordinated
efforts at peace-building by civil society organizations, national leaders, non-
governmental organizations, and international bodies” (Marshall & Gurr, 2005).
However, by 2008, they reported a reverse in the trend and pointed out
that thirty-one of the thirty-nine different conflicts erupting in the previous ten
years had been recurrences of old conflicts. Interestingly, they placed the blame
on a “conflict syndrome” of instability and state failure instead of the organiza-
tions credited with supporting peace. War leaves countries in a weakened condi-
tion. When suffering is not alleviated, more violence erupts and the cycle
continues (Hewitt, 2010).
The size of the problem is hard to imagine. It is difficult to obtain accurate
death counts, partially because combat-related deaths are only part of the sta-
tistic. Many die because of war-related displacement or economic disruption,
resulting in starvation and disease. Large numbers of dead are simply never
accounted for. They are the war-time “disappeared.” It is obvious that the peace-
building organizations need to continue working in the face of rising violence.
Humanitarian work is as important as economic and political action in the
effort to heal the cycle of recurring conflict. I’m grateful that many anthropolo-
gists are playing a role in the peace-building process by applying their knowl-
edge and skills to international human rights work.

THE DISAPPEARED

The verb to disappear can be used to mean to arrest, imprison, or kill someone secretly. Missing
and unidentified persons that result from internal conflicts such as the dirty wars of Argentina and
Guatemala are known as “the disappeared.” They are also called “disappeared persons” or “forced
disappearances.”
When viewed from the perspective of international humanitarian law, disappearance involves the
commission of acts defined as war crimes. These include unlawful confinement, failure to allow due
process, and failure to allow communication between the arrested person and the outside world.
Disappearance may also involve torture and cruel and inhuman treatment as well as murder (Based on
Gutman & Rieff, 1999).
 Large-Scale Applications Chapter 17 285

GENOCIDE

“In 1994, Rwanda, a country of just 8 million, experienced the numerical equivalent of more than two
World Trade Center attacks every single day for 100 days. On an American scale this would mean
23 million people murdered in three months. When, on September 12, 2001, the United States turned for
help to its friends around the world, Americans were gratified by the overwhelming response. When the
Tutsi cried out, by contrast, every country in the world turned away” (Samantha Power, 2002). (Estimates
of the number of dead in Rwanda range from 500,000 to 1 million.)

HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE LAW

Human rights are the rights individuals have simply by virtue of being human.
Such rights are considered to be universal and nonconditional. States, govern-
ments, and private actors are expected to respect these rights, but few people
can actually define them. They are nonetheless available for all to read in the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948).
After the horrors of World War II, the international community was ready
to develop international standards. It hoped to find ways to prevent further
gross violations of human rights. The United Nations (UN) was formed, and in
drafting the UN Charter, some states wanted members to be required to safe-
guard and protect human rights. (Instead, today, they are only required to “pro-
mote” human rights.) In response to this request, the UN Human Rights
Commission was created. The Commission crafted the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights, which stands as a shining example of how things ought to be.
It was adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1948 with forty-eight votes in
favor and eight abstentions from the communist bloc, South Africa, and Saudi
Arabia.
There are thirty articles in the Declaration. Briefly stated, they establish
rights to a fair and public hearing, presumption of innocence until proven guilty,

Figure 17.4
Blindfolded Skull
The blindfold is still in place on the skull of a teenaged boy who was executed with many of his
friends in the city of Erbil, Iraq. The boys’ only crime was that they were Kurds. The city’s leader
executed the boys as a show of force in order to gain greater control over the local population.
286 Chapter 17 Large-Scale Applications

privacy, freedom of movement, nationality, family, the right to own property,

freedom of thought, religion, opinion, expression, association, assembly, work,
rest, health, education, and culture. The Articles also include freedom from
discrimination, slavery, torture, arbitrary arrest, detention, or exile.
All this being said, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is not law.
In the six decades since the end of World War II, the international community
has struggled with the question of how to make the realization of human rights
a global reality. The United Nations can adopt and promote standards for the
world, nations can sanction other nations by refusing trade or economic aid, but
in the end, the national governments establish their own law. Even within
nations, secular and religious views of human rights are often divided and reli-
gious law may conflict with state law.
Crimes of War (Gutman & Rieff, 1999) and the website of the Crimes of
War Project (http://www.crimesofwar.org) are sources for information on major
international humanitarian law, including conventions, declarations, protocols,
resolutions, and statues.

THE ROLE OF THE SCIENTIST

Investigations into major human rights abuses usually take place following
large governmental upheavals. The size and scope of the investigation depends
on the authority of the investigatory body—nongovernmental, national, or
international. Sometimes information from short-term, limited investigations
by nongovernmental agencies, such as Human Rights Watch or Amnesty
International, can lead to the establishment of truth commissions and commis-
sions of inquiry with broader powers to investigate. (See the section titled
“Critical Organizers, Funders, and Participants.”)
Scientists are hired by most of the various investigative bodies to provide
technical expertise. They are employed to collect evidence for war crimes inves-
tigations, recover and identify victims, provide education and training for local
citizens, and offer expert witness testimony.

PHYSICAL EVIDENCE
When war is involved, careful scene investigation and analysis is usually not
an option, at least not near to the time of the event. If there are human rights
violations, evidence may come solely from the verbal testimony of victims or
witnesses. There is no doubt about the importance of verbal testimony, but it is
far more effective if it is corroborated by physical evidence.
Physical evidence is even more important if testimonies conflict or if no
verbal evidence is forthcoming. When there is conflicting testimony, the physical
evidence can be used to support or contradict the witness. When the events were
not witnessed by a living person or the witnesses are too fearful come forward
(as is often the case in human rights abuses), the physical evidence may be the
only path to truth. It may also provide the psychological support needed to bring
a witness into the open.
Forensic science brings valuable objectivity to an investigation. Through
their work, forensic scientists become advocates for the evidence. Even in the
worst of conditions, a well-trained forensic scientist is at least able to collect
and preserve evidence so that it can be useful in the future.

PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS AND COMMITTEES

For many scientists, involvement in human rights issues begins with participa-
tion in professional organizations. In the United States, numerous organiza-
tions have formed committees to investigate human rights issues related to
specific disciplines. Physicians, lawyers, psychiatrists, psychologists, political
scientists, and linguists are among the scientists who have formally committed
to aiding human rights causes. These committees analyze data, review and
 Large-Scale Applications Chapter 17 287

Figure 17.5
Secondary Burials
Prior to the arrival of the anthropologists, the Kurds of Erbil, Iraq, had dug up unidentified
remains, removed the clothing, reburied the remains, and anchored the clothing to the graves
with rocks. Families visited the grave sites to view the clothing in hopes of recognizing something
belonging to a lost loved one. The graves were now secondary burials and less likely to yield
full sets of remains.

write reports, and testify in courts of law or before commissions of inquiry. Some
participate in letter-writing campaigns to encourage governments to intercede
on behalf of colleagues in other countries.
The Minnesota Lawyers International Human Rights Committee recog-
nized a major need for information in international death investigation. It orga-
nized a group of forensic scientists in 1986 to write the document now known
as the Minnesota Protocol, which was designed to serve as an aid to death
investigation throughout the world. The Minnesota Protocol was adopted by the
United Nations in 1991 and was republished in numerous languages under the
title Manual on the Effective Prevention and Investigation of Extra-Legal,
Arbitrary and Summary Executions. It was a good start toward worldwide use
of the forensic sciences in human rights cases.
Another example is the Science and Human Rights Program (SHR) of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). The SHR was
established in 1977. Its mission is to assist in protecting the human rights of
scientists around the world and to make the tools and knowledge of science
available to benefit the field of human rights. Among its many projects are the
AAAS Human Rights Action Network and the Science and Human Rights
Coalition. The Human Rights Data Analysis Group (HRDAG), initiated by
AAAS, has moved to Benetech, a nonprofit organization that provides technical
support to large-scale human rights data projects. Benetech maintains backup
and security for sensitive human rights databases and handles advanced sta-
tistical analysis of mass atrocities. (For more on Benetech, see Ball, 1996; Ball
& colleagues, 1997; Ball & colleagues, 2000.)

CONTRIBUTIONS OF FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGISTS

Forensic anthropologists (both physical anthropologists and archaeologists) join
with physicians, odontologists, radiologists, criminalists, and other forensic sci-
entists in revealing evidence of mass murder, genocide, torture, summary
288 Chapter 17 Large-Scale Applications

execution, and political “disappearances.” Anthropologists are best utilized in

cases requiring disinterment, personal identification, and trauma analysis. No
other forensic specialist is trained to carry out careful archaeological excavation
and osteological analysis. There is, however, a cultural component of the work
where human rights workers and forensic anthropologists overlap.
The very nature of human rights work requires sensitivity and flexibility in
the face of cultural and linguistic differences. Anthropologists are ideally suited
for this work. For example, it is necessary to be able to recognize normal burial
customs before it is possible to assess what may be abnormal or criminal. In the
United States, we bury our dead in full clothing lying face up in coffins or caskets.
If a body were found buried on its side without clothing or coffin, criminal activity
would be suspected. In Islamic countries, however, the custom is to bury the dead
on the right side, facing Mecca, wrapped only in a cotton shroud that quickly
deteriorates. Under such cultural conditions, criminal activity is suspected if the
body is found clothed or facing in a direction other than toward Mecca.
Anthropological training is also useful in conducting interviews to obtain
antemortem information. Most anthropologists recognize the pitfalls associated
with cross-cultural communication and search for ways to learn and adjust for more
effective communication. Many things do not translate, no matter how expert the
translator. Color is one example. It is far better to use a color chart, point to the
color, and record it by number than to try to translate it from one language to

Figure 17.6
Kurdish Burial
Knowledge of local burial practices is essential to accurate interpretation of exhumation data.
Muslims are usually buried on the right side, wrapped in a shroud, and facing toward Mecca.
 Large-Scale Applications Chapter 17 289

With his famous facility for sizing up a problem, Clyde C. Snow exposed one of the major differences
between forensic work in the United States and international human rights work. Dr. Snow was in Bolivia
to analyze skeletal remains from the cemetery of a work camp. The dead were all street kids, petty thieves,
and vagrants. They had never been formally charged, tried, or sentenced, but they had been imprisoned
and forced to work until they died. After examining the remains, Snow commented, “Back in 1979, I was
pulled into a case where I had to identify a bunch of boys killed by a psychopath in Chicago. I never
imagined that ten years later I’d be down here doing pretty much the same thing. But there’s a big differ-
ence in this case. Camacho [the camp commander] and his men murdered those kids with the power of the
state behind them. Now for me, that’s the worst crime of all” (Joyce & Stover, 1991).

another. The use of left and right in relation to the body can also be difficult.
Pictures and diagrams serve to facilitate orientation to parts of the body.
Anthropologists should be able and willing to accommodate local customs
and laws. These can be disconcerting to anyone solely accustomed to police
procedures within the United States. In some countries, the judge assigned to
the case must be present at all times during an investigation. In many places,
the full community insists on being involved in the work of the exhumation, and
it is normal to have whole families in attendance and grieving loudly. In Latin
American countries it is not unusual for religious ceremonies to be conducted
alongside a disinterment in progress.

HISTORY: THE MISSION IN ARGENTINA AND THE EAAF

The first well-publicized use of forensic anthropology in a human rights mission
occurred in 1984. A group of scientists from the United States were asked to
evaluate the possibility of identifying victims of the Argentine “Dirty War”
(1974–1983). Clyde Snow was the forensic anthropologist who traveled to
Argentina as a consultant.
The request for help was initiated by Las Abuelas de la Plaza de Mayo.
The Abuelas are a group of grandmothers of the disappeared. For more than
twenty-five years, they marched once a week on the Plaza de Mayo in Buenos
Aires, wearing white kerchiefs on their heads and carrying signs about their
missing loved ones. In their quiet way, they have been a powerful force. They
will not let their country forget its digression from sanity and morality. (Over
the years, more than one such group appeared with the same mission, including
Las Madres [mothers] de la Plaza de Mayo.)
The mission to Argentina was organized by Eric Stover, who was at that
time the Director of the Science and Human Rights Program of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science. When the Argentine mission was
initiated, Snow and Stover could not have known what far-reaching effects their
work would achieve.

THE ARGENTINE FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY TEAM

“When we initially started our work twenty-one years ago, we needed to distance ourselves from legal-
medical systems and other governmental institutions that had reportedly committed crimes and/or had lost
credibility during lengthy periods of human rights violations. We worked outside these organizations,
incorporating new scientific tools for human rights investigations. In order to have a long-term effect, and
taking advantage of increased interest in international criminal law and domestic incorporation of it, we
are now working toward incorporating international protocols for human rights work into domestic criminal
procedures. In a way, then, in the past two decades we have come full circle.”—EAAF Annual Report,
2005, page 13.
290 Chapter 17 Large-Scale Applications

Figure 17.7
Eric Stover Interviews a Kurdish Survivor
Interviews provide essential background information and antemortem descriptions of victims.

Many Argentine victims were identified, and a team of Argentines, the

Equipo Argentino de Antropologia Forense (EAAF), was formed in the process.
Snow returned to Argentina many times during the excavations and training.
He supervised the excavations, trained the team, and testified as an expert
witness in Argentine courts of law. He went on to provide technical support and
encouragement to the EAAF for many years.
The EAAF established its own precedents by reaching out to provide tech-
nical aid to numerous other countries from Latin America to Africa and Asia.
One of its many successes was the excavation at El Masote in El Salvador. The
El Masote evidence was utilized by the Salvadorean Truth Commission, and
the work received international publicity (Doretti & Snow, 2003). The Argentine
team is now in demand throughout the world because of its knowledge, experi-
ence, and professionalism.

OTHER NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY TEAMS

In Guatemala, three independent forensic anthropology teams formed during
the 1990s—the Guatemalan Forensic Anthropology Foundation (FAFG), the
Center of Forensic Analysis and Applied Sciences (CAFCA), and the forensic
anthropology team of the Archbishop’s Human Rights Office of Guatemala
(ODHAG). All were developed more or less on the model of the Argentine team
and maintain nonprofit, nongovernmental status. The Guatemalan teams are
primarily occupied with exhumation of and identification of Mayan peasants
massacred during the government’s “scorched earth policy” of the 1980s. Several
of the members of the Guatemalan teams have also devoted their time and
expertise to international efforts.
Independent teams have formed in a few other countries, including Peru
and Chile, but, overall, the role of the independent team is changing. Whereas
these teams used to provide the only available experts within their countries,
more and more governmental agencies now hire their own specialists in forensic
anthropology. In this light, independent teams such as EQUITAS, the Colombian
Interdisciplinary Team for Forensic Work and Psychosocial Assistance, are
expanding into new roles by assuming functions similar to forensic science
 Large-Scale Applications Chapter 17 291

consultants and human rights activists in the United States. Because of their
nonprofit, nongovernmental status, they are able to bring balance, accountabil-
ity, and transparency to governmental investigations by acting as observers
during field investigations, reviewing governmental reports, and providing
alternative, independent expert advice and testimony. They also have the capac-
ity to explore new technologies not yet in use by governmental agencies. And,
probably most important from a human rights standpoint, they are available
to work on (and to bring attention to) cases that fall outside the interest of
governmental agencies, particularly those of marginal populations.

INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS WORK AND DOMESTIC FORENSIC

WORK COMPARED
For the professional forensic scientist, the basic work on human rights cases
appears to be very much the same as everyday work. Crimes have been com-
mitted; there are bodies to be identified and events to be reconstructed. The
technical methods are the same. But virtually everything else is different.
Unlike common crimes, human rights crimes are committed by people in
authority—police, military, elected officials—or groups with concentrated
power—guerrilla and paramilitary organizations. Our cultural assumptions

Figure 17.8
Exhumation in Progress near Chajul, El Quiche, Guatemala
In human rights cases, priorities may be different. Here, the exhumations are usually carried out
in the presence of the victims’ families. Sometimes local people provide physical labor. This is
quite different from medical-legal procedures in the United States. (Lancerio López)
292 Chapter 17 Large-Scale Applications

about criminals don’t apply, and the scale of the forensic work is far greater.
Another major difference is the lack of support disciplines. Most forensic sci-
entists take the availability of resources and other scientists for granted. But
human rights investigations often take place far from crime laboratories and
other technical help.
Within the United States and most other industrialized countries, the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights is largely upheld by domestic law.
Therefore, on home soil, human rights tend to be identified with law enforce-
ment and forensic investigation. In many parts of the world, however, human
rights per se are not a part of civil or criminal law. The only recourse for
action is through the application of international or “universal” human rights
covenants. Under such conditions, the only people available to enforce human
rights covenants are the people employed by private and international human
rights organizations. Security takes on new meaning in such environments.
In some cases, communities of families come together to provide security and
protect their own interests. In other cases, private security guards must
be hired.
In human rights work, forensic scientists usually experience far greater
involvement in the case. In the United States, I feel comfortable describing my
work as disinterment and analysis of human remains. I give recommendations
to investigating officers, and I occasionally meet with families to explain the
physical evidence and the reasons for establishing identification. But I do not
interview people to obtain antemortem information. When I began to work on
human rights missions, I discovered that there was seldom anyone trained to
do the other half of the job. There was no way to succeed in identifications,
especially in the absence of medical records, without taking part in the collec-
tion of verbal antemortem evidence from families and friends. (This is changing
as more large investigations are able to hire psychosocial professionals as part
of the team.)

CRITICAL ORGANIZERS, FUNDERS, AND PARTICIPANTS

Forensic anthropologists receive a lot of publicity for their work, but recovery
and identification of the missing is only one part of one type of human rights
mission, and anthropologists are just one small part of the machinery. If a mis-
sion is to progress all the way from initial need to final resolution, it requires
organizers, funders, and a wide assortment of participants. This section is an
introduction to the larger picture.

NONGOVERNMENTAL FAMILY-SUPPORT ORGANIZATIONS

Human rights missions often begin with demands and requests from families
of the dead and disappeared. The families have the most immediate interest in
the problem, and they are usually in a good position to judge the political cli-
mate of the country. The families are most effective in their quest when they
join or form support/activist groups. Examples are the Abuelas de la Plaza de
Mayo in Argentina and ASFADES, the Asociación de Familiares de Desaparecidos
in Colombia. These types of groups can grow to include not only the relatives,
but whole communities and their legal representatives.

TRUTH COMMISSIONS, COMMISSIONS OF INQUIRY, AND WAR CRIMES TRIBUNALS

Truth commissions, commissions of inquiry, and war crimes tribunals are
established by governments for limited periods of time. They all have stated
tasks and limited authority. Truth commissions have the power to investi-
gate past wrongdoings of a specific government. Commissions gather informa-
tion, publish reports, and make recommendations for appropriate action such
as justice, amnesty, or protection. They usually have the authority to hire sci-
entists and other investigators to aid with the collection of physical evidence.
 Large-Scale Applications Chapter 17 293

The South African Commission for Truth and Reconciliation is consid-

ered to be a model for others. Truth commissions are becoming increasingly
useful during times of governmental transition because of their effectiveness
in slowing or ending the cycle of violence (Hayner, 1994).
Commissions of inquiry are closely related to truth commissions, but the
mandate is usually more limited, such as an inquiry into specific events or the
activities of certain people or groups of people during a specific time period.
International war crimes tribunals are courts of law formed to try
individuals accused of war crimes and crimes against humanity in relation to
a specific conflicts. Famous war crimes tribunals were held in Nuremberg and
Tokyo following World War II. The International Criminal Tribunal for the
former Yugoslavia (ICTY), established in 1993, is still active today.

INTERGOVERNMENTAL AND INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS AND COURTS

Intergovernmental and international institutions have much broader powers than
truth commissions and are not limited by time and task. Intergovernmental exam-
ples include the Organization of American States, Inter-American
Commission of Human Rights; the Organization of African Unity, African
Commission (the monitoring body for the African Charter on Human and People’s
Rights); and the Council of Europe, European Court of Human Rights.
On an international level, the Office of the United Nations High
Commissioner for Human Rights is the foremost example. It was estab-
lished in 1993 and serves to promote and protect worldwide human rights
through direct contact with individual governments and provision of technical
assistance where appropriate.
The International Criminal Court (ICC) was activated in 2002. It fol-
lows from the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, established
July 17, 1998. The court is complementary to the criminal jurisdictions of
national governments. Unlike criminal tribunals, it is a permanent body, treaty
based, and established to promote the rule of law and ensure that the gravest
international crimes do not go unpunished. At the end of 2011, 120 states were
parties to the Statute of the Court. These include all of South America, most of
Europe, and about half of African countries. (The United States has not ratified
the Rome Statute.)

SCIENCE AND HUMAN RIGHTS GROUPS

International human rights groups usually maintain a low profile, but they play
a vital role in the actualization and facilitation of human rights missions. As a
group, they monitor human rights issues, review requests for aid, and compile
databases (see Ball & colleagues, 2000).
Beginning in the early 1990s, a few nongovernmental organizations
(NGOs) and intergovernmental groups began assembling teams of forensic sci-
entists. The nonprofit organization Physicians for Human Rights (PHR)
was one of the leaders. It sent forensic scientists to conduct war crimes inves-
tigations, and it advanced missions to recover and identify remains from mass
graves. PHR rapidly extended its work to include the war-torn regions of El
Salvador, Guatemala, Bosnia, Rwanda, Iraq, Chechnya, Kosovo, and others. Its
work for the ICTY has been an enormous multinational effort, utilizing forensic
anthropologists from the world over.
Other essential organizations include Amnesty International, London,
U.K.; the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Science
and Human Rights Program, Washington, D.C. (discussed previously);
Human Rights Watch, New York; and the International Committee for
the Red Cross, Geneva, Switzerland. The reports of these and other such
organizations are available online. (An excellent example is The Missing: ICRC
Progress Report, 2006.)
294 Chapter 17 Large-Scale Applications

PHILANTHROPIC AGENCIES AND INTERNATIONAL FUNDING AGENCIES

Many private organizations, as well as national and multinational agencies,
grant funding to nonprofit human rights organizations. Each funding agency
has its own stated mission, and there are far too many to cite here, but exten-
sive information can be obtained through the Human Rights Internet and
The International Centre for Human Rights and Democratic
Development in Canada, among others. (See “Human Rights Internet” in
the Bibliography.)

INDIVIDUAL PARTICIPANTS
The composition of a proper investigative team depends on the country and the
type of investigation. In lesser-developed countries, victims may have few or no
records of any type. The comparative identification methods employed by radi-
ologists, dentists, and fingerprint experts are of limited use. It is more impor-
tant to be able to describe and document individual anomalies and effects of
antemortem trauma. This requires lengthy interviews with survivors rather
than record searches.

Figure 17.9
Mass Grave near San Jose Rio Negro, Alta Verapaz, Guatemala
Most clandestine graves are found near the surface because they were dug with hand shovels,
and speed was the main objective. However, military operations often have heavy equipment at
their disposal. Graves such as this one were dug by a bulldozer and are much deeper and
larger than hand-dug graves. Bodies are more likely to be heaped haphazardly. (Lancerio López)
 Large-Scale Applications Chapter 17 295

Basic multidisciplinary groups include human osteologists, archaeologists,

pathologists, odontologists, criminalists, photographers, and skilled interviewers.
Specialists may be added to or subtracted from the team according to the require-
ments of the case. Teaching and writing skills are necessary in addition to technical
skills.

TYPES OF MISSIONS RELATED TO FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY

There are many types of human rights missions, but those involving forensic
anthropologists usually take the form of exploratory missions, major excavation
and analysis missions, education and training missions, and follow-up missions
for ongoing support and/or expert witness testimony.
Exploratory missions are designed to gather information and develop
a work plan. They are a time to meet the people face to face and discuss their
needs and wishes. During this time, the preliminary team visits and evaluates
sites and locates working and living facilities. (It is possible to work under a
wide variety of conditions so long as there is light, water, a surface to work on,
and security for both evidence and workers.)
Major excavation missions are designed for extensive data collection—
data from antemortem records and data from the excavation itself. Evidence
analysis may take place during the excavation if the facilities allow, but usually
analysis is carried out later in a more secure location. Local training is some-
times initiated during major excavations.
Training missions consist of general lectures and/or professional training.
A training mission may be useful at any point in the overall operation. Programs
can be planned for local officials as well as for the families, attorneys, judges, and

Figure 17.10
Forensic Anthropology Class in Guatemala
This class was one of many funded by human rights organizations in the 1990s. It provided an opportu-
nity for Central Americans to study the details of human identification from war-related skeletal material.
Most of the registrants were upper-level university students in anthropology and archaeology, but the
classes also included practicing pathologists, lawyers, and other professionals intent on increasing their
qualifications in the area of forensic science.
296 Chapter 17 Large-Scale Applications

support groups. Most forensic anthropology teams provide this type of presenta-
tion on a regular basis. Professional training takes the form of workshops com-
bined with field and laboratory experience. In the first Guatemalan excavations,
advanced osteology classes were carried out along with and immediately follow-
ing major excavations. These classes provided an opportunity to improve the
analytical results while learning. Training missions are particularly important
because they provide long-term results by enabling the local people to continue
on their own without foreign assistance.

CONCLUSION
The use of the forensic sciences has far-reaching effects in human rights work.
When the physical truth is revealed about genocide, politicide, and other crimes
of war, the perpetrators are disenfranchised and the community of survivors is
empowered. The courts increase their effectiveness in promoting justice, and,
most important of all, the families of the dead gain access to the psychological
closure that comes from knowing the fate of loved ones and being able to mourn
according to custom.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was written more than a half
century ago, but the world is still a long way from embracing these essential
freedoms. Nevertheless, hard-won successes are making it increasingly difficult
for governments to commit atrocities without international notice and censure.
Hope exists as long as there are people willing to devote time, energy, and
knowledge to the struggle for human rights.

POW/MIA REPATRIATION
Much of the information in this section is derived from Mann and colleagues,
2003; Bunch and Shine, 2003; and the information booklet of the Joint POW/
MIA Accounting Command (JPAC) available for download at the JPAC website:
http://www.jpac.pacom.mil/Downloads/JPAC_brochure_2011.pdf, accessed
November 2011.

THE MISSING AMERICANS

In the United States, we have a special set of missing persons. They are the
soldiers who never returned from war. Some died as prisoners of war, some were
declared missing in action, but none were mourned and buried by their families
according to American customs. As with the missing the world over, their fami-
lies are doomed to suffer. They are afraid to move to another house or dispose
of the missing person’s possessions. If they try to think of the missing person
as dead, they feel guilty for losing hope. Many families belong to support groups
who advocate the return of missing service persons. Several websites are
devoted to reports of “sightings” of missing soldiers in foreign lands, supporting
the enduring hope that the lost will someday return. James K. Boehnlein, a
American psychiatrist, reports a parent saying that giving up on a lost loved
one is “like killing him or her” (Boehnlein, 1987).
The U.S. Department of Defense maintains a summary of POW/MIA statistics
on the Defense Prisoner of War/Missing Personnel Office (DPMO) website, http://
www.dtic.mil/dpmo/summary_statistics/, accessed November, 2011. At present,
more than 83,000 persons are listed as missing as a result of World War II, Korean
War, Cold War, Vietnam War, and Gulf War. (More than 73,000 remain missing
from WWII alone.) The U.S. Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command estimates that
approximately 35,000 are actually recoverable. Most of these are located in clan-
destine graves and aircraft crash sites in Korea, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific
Islands. The others were lost at sea and are not considered recoverable. (Those
who were officially buried at sea are not included in the estimate.)
 Large-Scale Applications Chapter 17 297

Figure 17.11
Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Washington, D.C.
Many thousands of U.S. Military personnel remain missing from the last century of wars. The
Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command (JPAC) is the U.S. Government agency tasked with their
recovery and identification. SuperStock/Alamy.

U.S. ARMY CENTRAL IDENTIFICATION LABORATORY IN HAWAII

Repatriation of the missing is accomplished through the work of the U.S. Army
Central Identification Laboratory in Hawaii (JPAC-CIL, formerly CILHI). The
laboratory was established in the 1970s and merged with the Joint Task Force—
Full Accounting in 2003 to become the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command
(JPAC). The combined JPAC mission is to achieve the fullest possible accounting
of all Americans missing as a result of previous conflicts.
The main task of the Central Identification Laboratory (CIL) is to search
for and recover the remains of American military personnel, as well as military-
associated civilians. But the scientific staff also contributes expertise to related
tasks, including standard crime scene investigations involving buried bodies,
and disaster work. CIL’s anthropologists are full-time government employees
and, therefore, the most likely to be called upon in disasters involving U.S. gov-
ernment facilities such as the Pentagon after the 9/11 terrorist attack. They can
also be deployed for mass fatality incidents involving U.S. citizens abroad.
(Some of the CIL scientists are also DMORT team members.)
CIL is the best-funded and best-equipped human identification laboratory
in the world. It employs more forensic anthropologists than any other organiza-
tion in the United States, and the scientific staff has more advanced degrees
than any similar group. At present, CIL employs approximately thirty forensic
anthropologists and three dentists. CIL runs a state-of-the-art laboratory
devoted to application of the best archaeological, anthropological, and odonto-
logical techniques available. Its work is large scale, but usually without the
extreme urgency associated with disaster work. CIL scientists identify about
one person every four days. They have identified more than 560 persons between
2003 and 2011, and more than 1800 since the effort began in the 1970s. The
costs associated with maintaining and staffing such an institution would be
prohibitive in most parts of the world.
298 Chapter 17 Large-Scale Applications

FIELD METHODS
Given information about the possible location of crash sites and burials, CIL fields
twelve-member search and recovery (SAR) teams. The work of a SAR team
requires international travel and sometimes includes marginal living and work-
ing conditions. Each team is made up of more than one forensic archaeologist/
anthropologist, a linguist to communicate with and interview local people, an
Army officer to deal with the international complications of legal repatriation, a
communications specialist to handle high-frequency radio communication in
remote areas, an explosive ordnance disposal technician to locate and disable live
ordnance in the excavation area, a mortuary affairs specialist, and various other
technicians.
In the field, the SAR team members interview local people for additional
information about the incident as well as associated events during the interven-
ing years. Often, sites have been salvaged for useful materials, and sometimes
human remains and identification tags are removed for possible sale. The SAR
team uses a crime scene approach to the overall site and standard archaeologi-
cal techniques in the excavation.

LABORATORY METHODS
When the remains are received at CIL, all associated information is removed
so that the analysis can be carried out “blind.” The forensic anthropologist
assigned to prepare a physical description is not the same person who recovered
the remains in the field. In other words, the analyst has no access to information
about the suspected identity of the remains. He or she is given only those details
required for selection of appropriate scientific techniques (e.g., the approximate
time since death). The blind analysis is an effort to avoid subconscious bias from
influencing the analysis. This is a scientific advantage that most forensic
anthropologists working solo do not have.
Following the physical description, the identification phase of the analysis
is standard. American military personnel usually have medical/dental records
or comparative DNA readily available for positive identification.

CONCLUSION
The work of the JPAC Central Identification Lab can be categorized as
government-funded national human rights work. The experience is very
different from international human rights work because the families of the
dead are far removed in time and space. The local people may have a financial
or humanitarian interest in the U.S. recovery operation, but no emotional
investment in the outcome.
CIL helps to alleviate the long-term suffering of American families and
clarify the historical record. Through the CIL work, the United States has had
the opportunity to develop a world-class identification laboratory. The scientists
have had the time, personnel, monetary resources, and governmental incentives
to develop a laboratory manual of standard operating procedures, a quality
assurance manual, and a model training program. All this has enabled CIL
scientists to be the first forensic anthropology laboratory to obtain accreditation
by the Society of Crime Laboratory Directors, Laboratory Accreditation Board
(ASCLD/LAB).
APPENDIX

Forms and Diagrams

APPENDIX OUTLINE

Sources for Casts, Instruments, and Tools

Interview Questionnaire for Families of the Missing
Simplified Inventory and Measurement Forms
Skeletal Diagrams
Dental Charts and Diagrams

299
300 Appendix Forms and Diagrams

SOURCES FOR BONES, CASTS, INSTRUMENTS, AND TOOLS

Ben Meadows Company (tile probes, tree calipers)
PO Box 5277
Janesville, Wisconsin 53547-5277
http://www.benmeadows.com/

Bone Clones, Inc. (casts of human bone and teeth, including examples of trauma
and pathology)
21416 Chase Street #1
Canoga Park, California 91304
http://www.boneclones.com/

Focus Design (modern, lightweight sifting screens for field work)

2354 Santa Ana Ave. Suite 14
Costa Mesa, California 92627
http://focusdesign.org/

France Casting (casts of human bone, including aging sequences of pubes and
ribs)
1713 Willox Court, Unit A
Fort Collins, Colorado 80524
http://www.francecasts.com/

Go Measure 3D (Microscribe 3D digitizer)

524 Sunset Drive
Amherst, VA 24521
Phone: 434-946-9125 x 7003
http://www.gomeasure3d.com

Marshalltown Company (archaeology trowel)

104 South 8th Avenue
Marshalltown, Iowa 50158
http://www.marshalltown.com/

Paleo-Tech Concepts, Inc. (mandibulometer, spreading calipers, osteometric

board)
PO Box 2337
Crystal Lake, IL 60039-2337
http://www.paleo-tech.com/

Skulls Unlimited International, Inc. (real bone skulls and skeletons, bone clean-
ing services)
10313 South Sunnylane
Oklahoma City OK 73160
http://skullsunlimited.com/

Dial calipers and digital calipers are used by many industries and are sold
widely.
 301

INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE FOR FAMILIES OF THE MISSING—PAGE 1

Provide all information possible. Fill in the blank or check the correct box where applicable.

INFORMATION ABOUT THE DISAPPEARANCE

Fill in the blanks with the appropriate information.

1. How long has this person been missing?

2. Did you see the body?

3. Did someone else report the death to you?

INFORMATION ABOUT CIRCUMSTANCES OF DEATH

Witness should answer Yes or No and describe the type of weapon and location of wounds.

Type of Injury Yes No Type of Weapon Location of Wounds

(e.g., handgun, AK47)
4. Gunshot
(e.g., rope, wire)
5. Garrote
(e.g., stiletto, machete)
6. Stabbing
(e.g., baton, fists)
7. Beating

8. Other

CLOTHING WHEN LAST SEEN

When colors are part of the description, the interviewer should use a color chart. Let the witness point to the correct
color, and then record the color number.

Description and Color

9. Shirt or blouse

10. Pants or skirt

11. Type of shoes

12. Jewelry or ornaments

BASIC PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION

Fill in the blanks with the appropriate description.

13. Age (If age is unknown, list as elderly, adult, adolescent, child, or infant.)
14. Sex (male or female)

15. If female, did she bear children? (yes, no, or unknown)

16. Race/Color/Ethnicity

17. Possible mixed race? (yes, no, or unknown)

18. Height (If height is unknown, interviewer should ask for a comparison with a living person and record
the results accordingly—e.g., if the missing person is said to be “just a little taller” than his 170 cm.
cousin, list height as “slightly greater than 170 cm.”)

19. Musculature (strong, average, or frail)

20. Habitual posture (erect, hunched, or favoring one side)

302

INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE FOR FAMILIES OF THE MISSING—PAGE 2

DENTAL DESCRIPTION
Interviewer should use a dental chart or dental casts and let the witness point to the correct tooth.

21. Were any teeth missing or extracted? (yes, no, or unknown)

22. If teeth were missing, which ones? (Interviewer should

use a dental chart and list the tooth numbers.)

23. Were the teeth stained? (yes, no, or unknown)

24. Did the person smoke or chew tobacco? (yes, no, or unknown)

25. Did a dentist repair any teeth? (yes + which ones, no, or unknown)

26. Did the person wear dentures? (yes, no, or unknown)

27. Did the person complain of dental pain? (yes, no, or unknown)

28. Did the person have bad breath? (yes, no, or unknown)

DESCRIPTION OF ANTEMORTEM TRAUMA

Interviewer should use an anatomical chart so that the witness can point at the body rather than trying
to recall right or left. Record the information directly on the chart.
29. Did the person break any bones during life? (yes + at what age, no, or unknown)

30. If so, did he or she receive medical care? (yes + at what age, no, or unknown)

31. Did the person walk with a limp? (yes or no)

32. Can anyone remember a fall, an accident, or any unusual event? (yes + nature of accident and at what
age, no, or unknown)

33. If there was an injury, what was the medical treatment? (e.g., radiograph, sling, orthopaedic brace, plaster
cast, surgical pin or wire, bone graft)

34. Did the person complain of pain in a specific part of the body? (yes + which body part [e.g., ear, jaw,
shoulder, back, elbow, wrist, fingers, knees] or no)

RECORDS OF VICTIM
The interviewer should collect medical records and photographs. Remember that more than one photographic view
is recommended and a smiling image is preferred.

Record Type Records Provided by (Name, Address, Phone Number)

35. Dental

36. Medical

37. Radiographs

38. Photographs
 303

BONE INVENTORY FORM

Use this form as a checklist or to record postcranial measurements and observations.

SINGULAR BONES PAIRED BONES R L PAIRED BONES R L

cranium clavicle hamate
mandible scapula scaphoid
manubrium humerus capitate
sternum radius triquetral
atlas ulna gr. multangular
axis ls. multangular
C3 innominate lunate
C4 sciatic notch pisiform
C5 iliac crest metacarpal 1
C6 pubis shape metacarpal 2
C7 symp. phase metacarpal 3
T1 femur metacarpal 4
T2 femur head metacarpal 5
T3 patella # of phalanges
T4 tibia
T5 fibula talus
T6 calcaneus
T7 rib 1 navicular
T8 rib 2 cuneiform 1
T9 rib 3 cuneiform 2
T10 rib 4 cuneiform 3
T11 rib phase cuboid
T12 rib 5 metatarsal 1
L1 rib 6 metatarsal 2
L2 rib 7 metatarsal 3
L3 rib 8 metatarsal 4
L4 rib 9 metatarsal 5
L5 rib 10 # of phalanges
sacrum rib 11
coccyx rib 12
304

Anterior Posterior

Figure AP.1
Full AP Skeleton Diagrams
 305

ht
Right L
Left

Figure AP.2
Full Lateral Skeleton Diagrams
306

CRANIAL MEASUREMENT FORM (CONSISTENT WITH FORDISC SYSTEM)

abbr. measurement name from this point to this point mm.
1 GOL maximum cranial length glabella (g) opisthocranion (op)
2 XCB maximum cranial breadth euryon (eu) euryon (eu)
3 ZYB bizygomatic breadth zygion (zy) zygion (zy)
4 BBH maximum cranial height basion (ba) bregma (b)
5 BNL cranial base length basion (ba) nasion (n)
6 BPL basion-prosthion length basion (ba) prosthion (pr)
7 MAB maxillo-alveolar breadth ectomolare (ecm) ectomolare (ecm)
8 MAL maxillo-alveolar length prosthion (pr) alveolon (al)
9 AUB biauricular breadth root of zygomatic process root of zygomatic process
10 UFHT upper facial height nasion (n) prosthion (pr)
11 WFB minimum frontal breadth frontotemporale (ft) frontotemporale (ft)
12 UFBR upper facial breadth fronto-zygomatic suture fronto-zygomatic suture
13 NLH nasal height nasion (n) nasospinale (ns)
14 NLB nasal breadth alare (al) alare (al)
15 OBB orbital breadth dacryon (d) ectoconchion (ec)
16 OBH orbital height superior margin inferior margin
17 EKB biorbital breadth ectoconchion (ec) ectoconchion (ec)
18 DKB interorbital breadth dacryon (d) dacryon (d)
19 FRC frontal chord nasion (n) bregma (b)
20 PAC parietal chord bregma (b) lambda (l)
21 OCC occipital chord lambda (l) opisthion (o)
22 FOL foramen magnum length opisthion (o) basion (ba)
23 FOB foramen magnum breadth most lateral point of most lateral point of
foramen magnum foramen magnum
24 MDH mastoid length porion mastoidale

MANDIBULAR MEASUREMENT FORM (CONSISTENT WITH FORDISC SYSTEM)

abbr. measurement name from this point to this point mm.
25 GNI chin height gnathion infradentale
26 HMF body height at mental alveolar ridge superior jaw line inferior to the
foramen to the foramen foramen
27 TMF body thickness at mental outer surface of the inner surface of the
foramen mandibular body mandibular body
28 GOG bigonial diameter gonion gonion
29 CDB bicondylar breadth condylion laterale condylion laterale
30 WRB minimum ramus breadth anterior edge posterior edge
31 XRB maximum ramus breadth anterior edge of coronoid inner surface of the
process mandibular condyle
32 XRH maximum ramus height*
33 MLN mandular length*
34 MAN mandibular angle*
*Use a mandibulometer for these measurements. They are defined by the instrument.
 307

SIMPLIFIED POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENT FORM (CONSISTENT WITH FORDISC SYSTEM)

bone measurement left right
35 clavicle maximum length
36 sagittal diameter at midshaft
37 transverse diameter at midshaft
38 scapula height
39 breadth
40 humerus maximum length
41 epicondylar breadth
42 maximum vertical diameter of head
43 maximum diameter at midshaft
44 minimum diameter at midshaft
45 radius maximum length
46 sagittal diameter at midshaft
47 transverse diameter at midshaft
48 ulna maximum length
49 dorso-volar diameter
50 transverse diameter
51 physiological length
52 minimum circumference
53 sacrum anterior height
54 anterior surface breadth
55 maximum breadth of S1
56 innominate height
57 iliac breadth
58 pubis length
59 ischium length
60 femur maximum length
61 bicondylar length
62 epicondylar breadth
63 maximum diameter of head
64 A-P subtrochanteric diameter
65 transverse subtrochanteric diameter
66 A-P diameter at midshaft
67 transverse diameter at midshaft
68 circumference at midshaft
69 tibia condylo-malleolar length
70 maximum proximal epiphysis breadth
71 maximum distal epiphysis breadth
72 maximum diameter at nutrient foramen
73 transverse diameter at nutrient foramen
74 circumference at nutrient foramen
75 fibula maximum length
76 maximum diameter at midshaft
77 calcaneus maximum length
78 middle breadth
308

Anterior Posterior

Right Lateral Left Lateral

Figure AP.3
Full Skull Diagrams
 309

Internal Basilar External Basilar

(with mandible)

Internal Coronal External Coronal

Figure AP.4
Calvarium Cut Diagrams
310

Right Lateral Left Lateral

Figure AP.5
Axial Skeleton Diagrams
 311

Observations:
Sciatic Notch Shape

Pubis Shape
Parturation “scarring”
Preauricular sulcus

Illiac Crest:
No Union
Partial Union
Complete Union

Pelvic Measurements for Taylor and Dibennardo (1984) Sex Discrimination:

Notch Height (A-B)
Notch Position (B-C)
Acetabular Diameter (E-F)

Right Lateral Left Lateral

A A
C D D C
F F

B B

E E

Figure AP.6
Innominate Diagrams
312

Left Right

Left Right

Figure AP.7
Hand and Foot Diagrams, Dorsal View
 313

Birth
8 years

9 months 10 years

2 years 12 years

4 years

15 years

6 years

Figure AP.8 21 years

Dental Development Sequence
314

Upper Right Upper Left

Right Left

Lower Right Lower Left

Figure AP.9
Dental Chart, Deciduous Dentition
 315

Upper Right Upper Left

E/8 F/9

D/7 G/10

C/6 H/11

B/5 I/12

A/4 J/13

3 14

2 15
1 16

32 17
31 18

30 19
T/29 K/20

S/28 L/21

R/27 M/22
Q/26 N/23
P/25 O/24
Lower Right Lower Left

Figure AP.10
Dental Chart, Mixed Dentition
316

Upper Right Upper Left

8 9

7 10

6 11

5 12

4 13

3 14

2 15
1 16

32 17
31 18

30 19
29 20

28 21

27 22
26 23
25 24
Lower Right Lower Left

Figure AP.11
Dental Chart, Permanent Dentition
 Glossary of Terms

abscess An accumulation of pus in a part of the body, formed by tissue disin-

tegration and surrounded by an inflamed area (e.g., an apical abscess at
the tip of the tooth root). An abscess on bone will cause localized bony
resorption.
acetabular fossa The central, non-articular surface deep within the acetab-
ulum of the innominate.
acetabulum The articular surface of the innominate for the rotation of the
head of the femur; the place of fusion for the three pelvic bones.
acoustic meatus The internal or external opening of the ear canal within
the temporal bone (also called the auditory meatus).
acromion process The larger, more posterior of the two scapular processes.
The acromion process articulates with the clavicle.
adipocere A product of decomposition in water. Adipocere is composed of
insoluble fatty acids resulting from the slow hydrolysis of the body’s fats
in water. It first resembles rancid butter, then hardens to a waxy texture
(grave wax).
advocate Attorney, lawyer, solicitor, legal representative. The term is a
reminder that the legal system acknowledges differing points of view, each
requiring an argument and someone to present that argument.
agenesis Congenital absence or lack of development of a body part (e.g., agenesis
of third molars in modern populations).
ala A wing-like structure (e.g., ala of sphenoid or sacrum).
alare The paired point at the widest place on the margin of the nasal aper-
ture. Instrumentally determined, it is used to measure nasal width.
alveolare The lowest single point on the bony septum between the upper
central incisors. This can be confused with infradentale, which is the com-
parable point between the lower central incisors. Alveolare is used to mea-
sure upper facial height.
alveolon The single point at the intersection of sagittal suture of the hard
palate and a line drawn from the posterior point of the right alveolar pro-
cess to the posterior point of the left alveolar process. This point can be
determined with sliding calipers or with a rubber band stretched around
the entire alveolar process. It is used to measure maxilloalveolar length.
alveolar process The ridge of the maxilla or mandible that supports the teeth.
alveolus dentalis The tooth socket in which teeth are attached by a peri-
odontal ligament.
amalgam A solid metal or an alloy in a mercury solution. A dental restoration
made of mercury, silver, and small amounts of tin, copper, and zinc for
stability.
anatomic crown The portion of a natural tooth that extends from the
cementoenamel junction to the occlusal surface or incisal edge. (See also
clinical crown.)

317
318 Glossary of Terms

anlage The primordium or initial clustering of embryonic cells that serve as

a foundation or model for an organ or structure (e.g. a cartilaginous anlage
for a forming bone).
antemortem Significantly prior to death; antemortem trauma demonstrates
some evidence of healing.
ankylosis The stiffening and immobility of a joint; abnormal bone fusion.
anterior crest The shin; the long, anterior-projecting ridge of the tibia.
anterior inferior iliac spine The small projection between the anterior
superior iliac spine and the acetabulum.
anterior superior iliac spine The larger, more anterior, projection of the ilium.
apex The highest single point on the frontal section of the cranium defined
by left and right porion with the skull oriented to the Frankfort Plane.
The apex is posterior to bregma.
appendicular skeleton Bones of the limbs, including the scapula, clavicle,
and innominates. (Compare with axial skeleton.)
arch Any vaulted or arch-like structure (e.g., palatal arch, dental arch,
vertebral arch).
argument An assertion accompanied by logical reasoning.
arthritis Inflammation of a joint. Arthritis has many causes and various forms.
arthrosis A joint; an articulation between bones.
articular disk A pad of fibrocartilage which separates synovial cavities and
provides greater stability within the joint. An articular disk is present in
the medial side of the wrist. A meniscus is a specific type of articular disk.
articular facet Any bony surface that articulates with another bony surface
(e.g., superior articular facet of the vertebra).
articular process Any projection which serves to articulate.
asterion A craniometric point at the junction of the lambdoid, occipitomas-
toid, and parietomastoid sutures.
atavistic epiphysis A bone that is independent phylogenetically but now
fuses with another bone. An example is the coracoid process of the scapula.
auditory canal The ear canal, extending from the external acoustic meatus
to the internal acoustic meatus through the petrous portion of the tempo-
ral bone.
auditory meatus The internal or external opening of the ear canal (also
called the acoustic meatus).
auditory ossicles The bones of the middle ear that serve to transmit sound.
There are three in each ear canal—the stapes, malleus, and incus. They
are the smallest bones in the body and are identifiable by side.
auricular surface The ear-shaped roughened surface for the sacroiliac joint.
The ilium and the sacrum both have auricular surfaces.
Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) A computer pro-
gram used to store, locate, and match digital images of fingerprints. AFIS
was originally produced for the FBI by Lockheed Martin in 1999.
axial skeleton Bones of the skull and trunk, including the ribs, sternum, and
complete vertebral column. (Compare with appendicular skeleton.)
axillary border The lateral border of the scapula; the border closest to the
axilla (armpit).
basion The single point on the inner border of the anterior margin of the
foramen magnum. It is used to measure maximum cranial height.
body of rib The main part of the rib.
body of scapula The main part of the scapula (a thin triangular plate of bone).
body of sternum The main part of the sternum, the corpus sterni, fused
from  the four central centers of ossification; the sternum without the
manubrium or the xiphoid process.
boss A rounded eminence or tuberosity (e.g., a frontal boss).
bregma The single point at the intersection of the sagittal and coronal
sutures. It is used to measure maximum cranial height.
 Glossary of Terms 319

bridge, dental A fixed or removable replacement for missing teeth, attached

to natural teeth by wires or crowns; a pontic.
calcination Disintegration by heat. Calcination of bone results from thorough
burning. The organic component is lost and only the mineral component,
hydroxyapatite, remains. Calcined bone is grayish-white and friable.
Cremation or extremely long cooking is required for calcination.
callus The woven bone that forms around a fracture during healing. The cal-
lus is normally remodeled over time.
calvaria, pl. calvarias Skullcap; the upper, dome-like portion of the skull;
the cranium without the facial bones. (Calvarium is an incorrect, but
frequently used, term for calvaria.)
capitulum The articular surface for the head of the radius on the distal end
of the humerus.
Carabelli’s cusp An extra cuspid on the mesiolingual surface of upper
molars; more common in people of European origin.
caries, dental A localized, progressively destructive disease beginning at the
external surface with dissolution of inorganic components by organic acids
produced by microorganisms. Also called a carious lesion.
cause of death The specific disease or injury responsible for the lethal
sequence of events. It is necessary to differentiate between underlying
(proximate) and immediate cause of death. The underlying cause may be
a gunshot wound with perforation of the colon, whereas the immediate
cause may be generalized peritonitis and septicemia.
cementodentinal junction (CDJ) The surface at which cementum and
dentin meet.
cementoenamel junction (CEJ) The line around the neck of the tooth at
which cementum and enamel meet.
cementum A porous layer of calcification covering the tooth root; the cemen-
tum provides a surface for periodontal fibers to anchor.
centrum The center of ossification for the body of the vertebra, specifically
the body without epiphyseal rings.
cervix (neck) The slightly constricted part of the tooth between the crown
and the root.
character In biology, a distinguishing feature or attribute, as of an individ-
ual, group, or category. Key characters define the group; individual
characters distinguish the individual.
circum-mortem See perimortem.
circumstantial evidence Evidence that proves something by inference,
conclusion, or deduction. (Compare with direct evidence.)
clavicular notch The articular facet for the clavicle, located on either side
of the jugular notch of the manubrium.
clinical crown The portion of the tooth visible in the oral cavity. (Compare
with anatomic crown.)
composite, dental A plastic resin restoration that mimics the appearance
of enamel.
condyle A rounded articular surface at the end of a long bone.
condylion laterale A paired point at the most lateral edge of the mandibular
condyle. It is used to measure bicondylar width.
condyloid process The posterior process of the mandibular ramus. The con-
dyloid process supports the mandibular condyle.
connective tissue One of the four basic tissue types. Connective tissue
consists of more or less numerous cells surrounded by an extracellular
matrix of fibrous and ground substances. Examples: bone, cartilage, fat,
ligaments, fascia, and blood.
conoid tubercle The bump on the posterior superior edge of the lateral end
of the clavicle.
coracoid process The smaller, more anterior of the two scapular processes.
320 Glossary of Terms

coronoid fossa The hollow on the anterior surface of the distal end of the
humerus, just above the trochlea, in which the coronoid process of the ulna
rests when the arm is flexed. (Compare with olecranon fossa.)
coronoid process The smaller of the two processes on the anterior side of
the proximal end of the ulna; the anterior process of the mandibular
ramus.
costal Pertaining to the ribs; adjacent to the ribs (e.g., costal surface of scapula).
costal notch The seven pairs of notches for joining of the costal cartilage with
the sternum.
costal pit Articular surface for rib on the thoracic vertebral body and trans-
verse processes; rib facet.
cranium The skull without the mandible; the fused bones of the skull. Note
that definitions vary. The cranium is variously defined as the skull, the
part of the skull that contains the brain, the skull without the face, and
the skull without the jaws (mandible and maxillae). See also calvaria,
neurocranium, splanchnocranium, and viscerocranium.
cremains A shortened, elided version of “cremated remains.”
cribriform plate The superior surface (horizontal lamina) of the ethmoid,
located in the ethmoid notch of the frontal bone. It is perforated by foram-
ina for the passage of the olfactory nerves. The crista galli rises through
the cribriform plate.
crista galli The most superior part of the ethmoid. A trapezoidal process
projecting through the anterior midline of the cribriform plate. It serves
for attachment of the falx cerebri and is named for its resemblance to a
rooster’s comb.
cross examination The formal questioning of a witness by the party opposed
to the party that called the witness to testify. (See direct examination.)
crown The enamel-capped portion of the tooth that normally projects beyond
the gum line; a permanent replacement for a natural crown, made of
porcelain fused to metal, ceramic, or metal alone. See clinical crown and
anatomical crown.
cusp A conical elevation arising on the surface of a tooth from an independent
calcification center.
cusp pattern The recognizable alignment of cusps on a particular tooth type.
dacryon A paired point on the medial wall of the orbit where the lacrimo-
maxillary suture meets the frontal bone. It is between maxillofrontale and
lacrimale and is used to measure orbital width and interorbital width.
Daubert Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc. (1993); a product
liability case that resulted in a Supreme Court decision in which the
Federal Rules of Evidence (specifically FRE 702) replaced the Frye test.
Trial judges were assigned the task of assessing the scientific nature of
proposed testimony.
deltoid tuberosity The attachment area for the deltoid on the anterior
surface of the humerus.
dens A tooth-like projection, an abbreviated name for the dens epistropheus,
also called the odontoid process of the axis.
dental prosthesis Fixed or removable replacement of one or more teeth and/
or associated oral structures; denture, bridgework, or oral appliance.
dentin The main mass of the tooth, structured of parallel tubules; about
20 percent is organic matrix, mostly collagen with some elastin and a
small amount of mucopolysaccharide; about 80 percent is inorganic, mainly
hydroxyapatite with some carbonate, magnesium, and fluoride.
dentinal tubule The tubules extending from the pulp to the dentinoe-
namel junction; odontoblastic processes extend into the tubules from the
pulp surface.
dentinoenamel junction (DEJ) The surface at which the dentin and enamel
meet. The interface between dentin and enamel.
 Glossary of Terms 321

denture A complete or full denture replaces all of the natural dentition of the
maxilla or mandible; a partial denture replaces one or more teeth and is
retained by natural teeth at one or both ends.
deposition Testimony under oath taken before trial. A person “gives a depo-
sition” when he or she, accompanied by an attorney, answers questions by
the other side’s attorney regarding the facts of a case.
dermestid beetle A member of the Coleoptera family, Dermestidae (skin
beetles). Most are scavengers that feed on dry animal or plant material.
The species, Dermestes maculatus (hide beetles) is particularly useful in
forensic entomology investigations. Laboratory colonies of dermestids are
used for cleaning dry soft tissue from bones.
diaphysis, pl. diaphyses The shaft of a long bone. More accurately, the por-
tion of the long bone formed from the primary center of ossification; the
part that grows between the metaphyses.
diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH) A form of degenerative
arthritis characterized by flowing calcification along the sides of the
vertebrae of the spine, mainly on the right side. It is commonly associated
with inflammation and calcification of tendons at their attachments points
to bone, leading to the formation of bone spurs.
diploë In the neurocranium, the layer of spongy bone sandwiched between
the two tables (layers) of dense bone.
direct evidence Evidence that proves something on its own. Evidence
that makes the facts obvious to the observer. (Compare with circum-
stantial evidence.)
direct examination Questioning of a witness in a trial or other legal pro-
ceeding, conducted by the party who called the witness to testify. (Compare
with cross examination.)
discovery The process of gathering information in preparation for trial.
dorsal plateau The convex inner surface at the dorsal margin of the pubic
symphysis; one of the first areas of modification in the aging pubic symphysis.
dorsal surface The posterior surface; the back.
dorsal tubercles The bumps on the dorsal surface of the distal end of the
radius. The grooves between the dorsal tubercles allow for passage of
forearm tendons.
ectoconchion A paired point at the outer edge of the eye orbit. Instrumen-
tally determined, this is the point at which a line extending from dacryon
reaches the lateral orbital rim and divides the orbit horizontally into equal
halves. It is used to measure orbital width.
ectomolare A paired point on the lateral (buccal) surface of the maxillary
alveolar process. Instrumentally determined, it is usually located at the
upper second molar. It is used to measure maximum alveolar width.
edentulous Toothless; a mouth without teeth.
enamel The dense mineralized outer covering of the tooth crown; com-
posed of 99.5 percent inorganic hydroxyapatite with small amounts of
carbonate, magnesium, and fluoride, and 0.5 percent organic matrix;
structured of oriented rods consisting of rodlets encased in an organic
prism sheath.
endobasion The single point at the posterior margin of the anterior border
of the foramen magnum. It is usually internal to basion. It is used for facial
measurements, not cranial height.
endomolare A paired point on the lingual surface of the alveolar process at
the location of the second molar. It is used to measure palatal width.
endosteum Dense connective tissue that covers the inner surfaces of compact
bone. Endosteum is thinner than periosteum.
enthesis, pl. entheses A bony attachment site. The defined area on bone for
insertion of a ligament or tendon. Entheses are roughened and sometimes
bulbous areas on bone.
322 Glossary of Terms

epicondyle A bulbous projection from a long bone near or adjacent to the

articular condyle (e.g., medial and lateral epicondyle of the humerus). The
epicondyle provides attachment for ligaments and tendons.
epiphyseal ring The secondary centers of ossification that fuse to the
superior and inferior surfaces of the vertebral centrum.
epiphysis, pl. epiphyses A secondary center of ossification that fuses to the
primary center when bone growth is complete.
euryon A paired point used to measure maximum cranial width. Instrumen-
tally determined, it is located on the parietal or temporal.
extensor carpi ulnaris groove The groove lateral to the styloid process of
the ulna. The tendon of the extensor carpi ulnaris muscle lies within it,
providing adduction and dorsiflexion of the hand.
evidence Anything that tends to establish or disprove a fact.
expert testimony Statements made in judicial proceedings by a person who
is qualified to render an opinion on the issue under consideration.
expert witness A person who, because of his knowledge, experience, and
expertise, is qualified to render an opinion on the issue under consider-
ation in a judicial proceeding.
false rib Ribs #8, #9, and #10 which do not join directly to the sternum. They
are attached to the sternum via the seventh rib cartilage.
fascia Dense connective tissue that encases muscles, groups of muscles, and
large vessels and nerves.
FBI Laboratory’s Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) a computer
program that facilitates the exchange of DNA profiles between crime lab-
oratories. It stores, sorts, and compares DNA profiles for identification
purposes. (Developed under the DNA Identification Act of 1994, Public
Law 103 322.)
femoral head The ball-shaped upper extremity of the femur; the femoral
head articulates within the acetabulum of the innominate; the proximal
epiphysis of the femur.
femur, pl. femora The thigh bone.
fibula, pl. fibulae The smaller of the two bones of the lower leg, lateral to
the tibia.
fibular head The knob-like portion of the proximal end of the fibula.
floating rib Ribs #11 and #12, which do not attach to the sternum or to any
other rib.
foramen, pl. foramina A round or oval aperture in bone or a membranous
structure for the passage or anchorage of other tissue; any aperture or
perforation through bone or membranous structure (e.g., occipital foramen).
forensic science Any systematic form of knowledge applied to legal issues;
science and technology used to investigate and establish facts in criminal
or civil courts of law.
forensics The art or study of formal debate; argumentation. More recently,
science and technology used to investigate and establish facts in criminal
or civil courts of law.
foundation (as in, “to lay a foundation”) To provide information for the
judge regarding the qualifications of the witness, particularly an expert
witness, or the authenticity of a piece of evidence.
fovea capitis The pit in the femoral head providing attachment for the
ligamentum teres.
frontomalare temporale The most laterally positioned point on the
frontomalar suture (between frontal and zygoma), used to measure upper
facial breadth.
frontotemporale A paired point on the curve of the temporal line. Instru-
mentally determined, it is the point on the frontal bone that gives the
smallest measurement from the left to the right temporal line. It is used
to measure minimum frontal width.
 Glossary of Terms 323

Frye test Frye v. The United States (1923); a case involving the acceptance of
new or novel scientific principles. The admissibility of expert witness
testimony is based on the test of “general acceptance” within the relevant
scientific community.
gingiva The “gums”; the dense fibrous tissue covered by mucous membrane
that envelops the alveolar processes of the upper and lower jaws and
surrounds the necks of the teeth.
glabella The most anterior single point in the midsagittal section of the fron-
tal bone at the level of the supraorbital ridges. It is above nasion and is
used to measure maximum cranial length.
glenoid cavity or fossa The articular surface on the scapula for the head of
the humerus.
gnathion The lowest point on the midsagittal plane of the mandible; the bot-
tom of the chin. It is used to measure total facial height and mandibular
symphysis height.
gomphosis The joint between a tooth and its bony socket; joined by a
periodontal ligament.
gonion A paired point at the outer corner of the angle of the mandible. It is
the junction of the body and ramus of the mandible and is used to measure
bigonial width and ascending ramus height.
good faith The intention to honestly meet an obligation.
granular pits Depressions on the inner surface of the skull along the course
of the sagittal suture. During life, they lodge arachnoid granulations, which
tend to calcify with advanced age (also called pacchionian depressions).
greater sciatic notch The large indentation on the posterior border of the
innominate; the superior border is formed by the ilium, and the inferior
border is formed by the ischium.
greater trochanter The larger and more superior of the two protuberances
between the neck and the shaft of the femur.
greater tubercle The larger of the two tubercles on the proximal end of the
humerus. The greater tubercle is lateral to the lesser tubercle.
greenstick fracture An incomplete fracture involving only the convex side
of the bent bone. Greenstick fractures occur only in fresh bone and there-
fore suggest perimortem injury.
groove, costal The groove on the inferior edge of the inner surface of the rib.
humeral head The proximal articular surface of the humerus; it is half ball-
shaped (hemispherical) and has no fovea.
humerus, pl. humeri The bone of the upper arm.
iliac fossa The smooth, depressed (concave) inner surface of the ilium.
iliac tuberosity The posterior, inner thickening of the ilium, superior to the
auricular surface; the attachment site of the posterior sacroiliac ligament.
impeach With respect to an expert witness, a process to challenge the truth-
fulness or bias of a witness while giving testimony under oath.
Inca bone A large sutural bone at lambda, usually triangular or trapezoidal
in shape, and dividing the superior part of the squamous portion of the
occipital. The Inca bone is most common in Native Americans.
incison The single medial point at the incisal level of the upper central inci-
sors; the lower edge of the upper central incisors.
individual characters Traits that distinguish the individual from others
within the same group. (Compare with key characters.)
inferior articular process One of the two processes on a single vertebra
that articulate with the superior articular processes of the adjacent infe-
rior vertebra.
infradentale The highest single point on the bony septum between the lower
central incisors. This can be confused with alveolare which is the compa-
rable point between the upper central incisors. Infradentale is used to
measure mandibular symphysis height.
324 Glossary of Terms

Inion A single point at the intersection of the left and right superior nuchal
lines. It is at the base of the external occipital protuberance, and there may
be a slight projection of bone at this point.
inlay A prefabricated dental restoration (usually gold or porcelain) sealed in
a dental cavity with cement.
innominate The hip bone; one side of the pelvis; a composite of three
bones that fuse at puberty: the ilium, ischium, and pubis. The innominates
meet at the pubic symphysis anteriorly and join the sacrum posteriorly.
Integrated Ballistics Identification System (IBIS) It is used to store,
locate and correlate digital images of ballistics evidence.
intercondylar eminence The bony projection between the two condylar
platforms of the tibia.
intercondylar fossa The depression between the two condyles on the poste-
rior surface of the femur.
interosseous crest The somewhat sharp edge on a bone shaft directed
toward an adjacent bone and serving for attachment of an interosseous
ligament. This occurs on the radius, ulna, tibia, and fibula.
intertubercular groove The groove between the greater and lesser tuber-
cles of the humerus. The tendon of the long head of the biceps extends
through the intertubercular groove.
involucrum A layer of new bone outside of existing bone. It occurs in pyo-
genic osteomyelitis and is the result of separation of the periosteum from
the existing bone by the accumulation of pus within the bone. The new
bone grows from the separated periosteum and the existing bone becomes
a sequestrum (dead bone).
ischial tuberosity The large, roughened eminence inferior to the acetabu-
lum; the major weight-bearing bone in the sitting position; the site of
origin for the hamstring muscles.
ischial spine The process on the posterior border of the ischium bounded by
the greater and lesser sciatic notches.
ischiopubic ramus The bridge between the ischium and the pubis.
jugular notch The medial, superior notch on the manubrium. Also called the
suprasternal notch.
key characters Traits that can be readily recognized, formally analyzed, and
used as a basis for generalization. Key characters define a group.
kyphosis Abnormal outward curvature of the upper thoracic spine result-
ing in a hunchback appearance. Also called a dowagers hump in post-
menopausal females.
lacrimale A paired point on the medial wall of the orbit at the intersection
of the posterior lacrimal crest and the frontolacrimal suture. It is posterior
to dacryon and maxillofrontale.
lambda The single point at the intersection of the sagittal suture and the
lambdoidal suture. If lambda is obscured by fusion, a complicated suture
or sutural bones, estimate the point by drawing lines along the general
direction of the two branches of the lambdoid suture and finding the point
of intersection with the sagittal suture.
lateral malleolus The laterally rounded portion of the distal end of the
fibula; the outer “ankle bone.”
lesser sciatic notch The indentation on the posterior border of the ischium
bounded by the ischial spine and the ischial tuberosity.
lesser trochanter The smaller and more inferior of the two protuberances
between the anatomical neck and the shaft of the femur.
lesser tubercle The smaller of the two tubercles on the proximal end of
the humerus.
ligament Dense connective tissue connecting bone to bone or cartilage at a
joint or supporting an organ; bands or sheets of fibrous tissue.
 Glossary of Terms 325

line A thin mark distinguished by texture or elevation—often the outer edge

of a muscle or ligament attachment (e.g., the temporal line on the frontal
and parietal bones).
linea aspera The slightly rough, two-edged, muscle attachment line on the
posterior surface of the femoral shaft.
Locard’s Exchange Principle A theory first proposed by the French
scientist, Edmond Locard, in the early twentieth century. It states that all
contact results in exchange of information and serves as the basis for
collection and examination of trace evidence.
lordosis Excessive inward curvature of the lumbar spine resulting in a
swayback appearance.
malleolar fossa The hollow on the posterior surface of the distal end of
the fibula.
mandible The lower jaw; a nonpaired bone in adults.
manner of death How death happened. Manner of death is usually classified
as natural, accidental, homicide, suicide, or undetermined. (Compare with
cause of death.)
manubrium The superior-most section of the sternum.
margin An edge or a border. A bone margin is the peripheral edge or the area
immediately adjacent to it. If the bone articulates with another bone, the
margin takes the name of that bone (e.g. frontal margin of the parietal
bone).
mastoidale A paired point at the inferior tip of the mastoid process. It is used
to measure mastoid length.
material evidence Any evidence (verbal or physical) that is likely to affect
the determination of a matter or issue. (Material evidence is not the same
as physical evidence.)
maxilla The upper jaw; a paired bone.
maxillofrontale A paired point at the intersection of the anterior lacrimal
crest (on the frontal process of the maxilla) and the frontomaxillary
suture. It is on the medial margin of the orbit and can be used to measure
orbital width.
meatus A natural opening or passage (e.g. external auditory meatus, nasal
meatus).
medial malleolus The medially rounded projection on the distomedial end
of the tibia; the inner “ankle bone.”
meniscus, pl. menisci A crescent-shaped ridge or collar of fibrocartilage
found in certain synovial joint capsules. It provides greater stability and
durability to the joint. Examples are the knee, acromioclavicular, sterno-
clavicular and temporomandibular joints. A type of articular disk.
metaphysis, pl. metaphyses Growth plate. The area of hyaline cartilage
located between diaphysis and epiphysis of growing bone. The metaph-
ysis allows for growth in length through the process of endochondral
ossification.
metopic suture A midline suture of the frontal bone. The result of nonunion
of left and right centers of ossification.
nasal concha, pl. conchae Turbinates. Thin, curled, mucus membrane–
covered bones within the nasal cavity. The superior and middle nasal
conchae are part of the ethmoid. The inferior nasal conchae are separate
bones attached to the medial wall of the maxilla. (Concha is derived from
the Greek word for shell.)
nasion The single point at the intersection of the nasofrontal suture and
the internasal suture. It is used to measure total facial height and upper
facial height.
nasospinale The single point on the intermaxillary suture at the base of the
nasal aperture. It is used to measure nasal height.
326 Glossary of Terms

neck The area immediately adjacent to the head of a bone (e.g., neck of the
radius, humerus, femur, or rib).
nutrient foramen A major vascular opening between the exterior of a bone
and the medulla. Notable nutrient foramina are on appendicular bones,
the mandible, and parietals.
oath With respect to judicial proceedings, a verbal obligation to tell the truth.
obturator foramen The large opening bordered by the pubis, the ischium,
and the ischiopubic ramus.
odontoid process The dens, a superior projection from the body of the axis,
articulating at the anterior margin of the vertebral foramen of the atlas,
tooth-like in form.
olecranon foramen (septal aperture) A hole in the septum between the
olecranon fossa and the coronoid fossa of the distal humerus. It is more
common in females than males.
olecranon fossa The large hollow on the posterior surface of the distal humerus
in which the olecranon process of the ulna rests when the arm is extended.
olecranon process The large process on the posterior side of the proximal
end of the ulna; the bony projection of the elbow.
opisthion The single point at the posterior margin of the foramen magnum.
opisthocranion The most posterior single point on the skull, but not on the
occipital protuberance. Instrumentally determined, it is used to measure
maximum cranial length.
orale The most anterior single point on the hard palate where a line drawn
lingual to the central incisors intersects the palatal suture. It is used to
measure palatal length.
orbitale A paired point at the lowest part of the orbital margin. It is used to
define the Frankfort Plane and to measure orbital height.
orthopedics The branch of medicine concerned with the musculoskeletal
system, including bones, joints, ligaments, tendons, muscles, and nerves.
os japonicum An extra bone in a bipartite or tripartite zygoma. It is rare but
found with greater frequency in Asian populations.
ossicle A tiny bone; any one of the three middle ear bones. Auditory ossicle.
osteoarthritis A group of degenerative joint diseases characterized by worn
articular surfaces and osteophytic growth at the articular margins.
Osteoarthritis is progressive and associated with age. It can be accelerated
by inflammation due to trauma or infection.
osteology The study of bones; the science that explores the development,
structure, function, and variation of bones.
osteomalacia A number of disorders in adults in which bones are inade-
quately mineralized. The lower limbs tend to develop mediolateral bowing.
osteomyelitis Infection of the bone and bone marrow. Direct infection
occurs through open fractures or penetrating wounds. Indirect infection
reaches the bone via the bloodstream. Osteomyelitis is characterized
by  formation of an abscess at the site of infection, resulting in bone
destruction.
osteopathy or osteopathic medicine A form of western medicine based on
the belief that structure and function are interrelated and most diseases
are the result of problems in the musculoskeletal system.
osteoporosis A group of diseases in which bone reabsorption out-paces bone
deposition. Bone becomes porous and light. Fractures increase, particu-
larly in the spine, wrist, and hip. It is a common condition of postmeno-
pausal women, but is not exclusive to women.
pacchionian depression See granular pit.
pars An archaic term used to mean a part or a portion of a bone (e.g. pars
lateralis of the occipital bone or pars orbitalis of the frontal bone).
 Glossary of Terms 327

parturition pits Fossae on the inner surface of the female pubic bone,
possibly associated with childbearing.
pathology The study of disease. The branch of medicine that deals with study
and diagnosis of disease.
pelvis, pl. pelves or pelvises The bony, bowl-shaped structure that provides
articulation for the legs and support for the organs of the lower trunk;
formed from two innominate bones and a sacrum. The pelvic girdle.
periapical Around the tip of the tooth root.
perimortem Around the time of death; immediately prior to death, at the
time of death, or immediately after death; synonymous with circum-
mortem; distinguished from antemortem and postmortem.
periodontal disease Inflammation of the tissues surrounding the teeth,
resulting in resorption of supporting structures and tooth loss.
periodontal ligament The fibrous tissue anchoring the tooth by surrounding
the root and attaching to the alveolus.
periodontosis Lowering of the attachment level of the periodontal ligament
(associated with periodontal disease or general aging).
periosteum Dense connective tissue that encases (covers) the outer surfaces
of compact bone.
phalanx, pl. phalanges A bone of the finger, either proximal, intermediate
(medial or middle), or terminal (distal). There are fourteen phalanges in
each hand.
physical evidence Evidence apparent to the senses. Tangible evidence.
pits and fissures The depressed points and lines between cusps of premolar
and molar teeth.
platymeric Having a broad femur (flattened in cross section).
pogonion The most anterior single point on the midsagittal plane of the
mandible; the front of the chin.
popliteal Pertaining to the area behind the knee; structures posterior to the
femorotibial joint.
popliteal line On the posterior surface of the proximal tibia, a curved rough-
ened attachment surface.
porion A paired point at the most lateral part of the superior margin of the
external auditory meatus. It is used to define the Frankfort Plane and to
measure mastoid length.
posterior inferior iliac spine The more inferior projection of the ilium
adjacent to and superior to the greater sciatic notch.
posterior superior iliac spine The more superior of the posterior projec-
tions of the ilium.
postmortem After death; anything occurring after death (e.g., postmortem
trauma). “Postmortem” is also a synonym for “autopsy.”
postmortem interval Time between death and the attempt to determine
time of death; sometimes used as the time between death and recovery.
preauricular sulcus A groove adjacent to the auricular surface of the ilium.
Found most frequently in adult females, possibly related to the trauma
of childbearing.
primary dentin The dentin that forms as the root is completed in the grow-
ing tooth; tubular dentin.
process Any bony projection.
process, spinous The vertebral process that projects posteriorly, toward the
dorsal surface of the back.
process, transverse Paired vertebral processes that project laterally, some
of which articulate with ribs.
promontory A raised place; the most ventral prominent median point of the
lumbosacral symphysis; the most anterosuperior point on the sacrum.
328 Glossary of Terms

pronation The act of turning the palm or palmar surface of the hand down-
ward. Rotation of the foot so that the inner edge of the sole bears weight
(flat feet). The opposite of supination.
proof Confirmation of a fact by evidence. In law, proof is the evidence that
satisfies a judge or jury that an assertion is true.
prosthion The most anterior single point on the upper alveolar process. It is
superior to alveolare and is used to measure maxilloalveolar length.
provenience The origin or source of an object: the geographic location where
the object was found; the three-dimensional location of a feature within
an excavation, measured by two horizontal dimensions and a vertical
elevation (an archaeological term now applied to all types of evidence).
pterion A paired point on the upper end of the greater wing of the sphenoid.
This is more often a region than a point.
pterion bone A sutural bone at pterion, the area where the sphenoid,
parietal, frontal, and temporal bones approach or articulate.
pubic ramus The bridge of bone between the acetabulum and the pubic
symphysis; the superior border of the obturator foramen.
pubic symphysis The medial surface of the pubic bone where the two innom-
inates are joined together by fibrocartilage.
pubic tubercle A small projection at the anterior extremity of the crest of
the pubis about 1 cm lateral to the symphysis.
pulp (of tooth) The soft tissue in the central chamber of the tooth, consisting
of connective tissue containing nerves, blood vessels, lymphatics, and, at
the periphery, odontoblasts capable of dentinal repair.
pulp chamber The central cavity of the tooth surrounded by dentin and
extending from the crown to the root apex.
pulpectomy Removal of the entire pulp, including the root; commonly known
as a “root canal”; without the pulp, the tooth is no longer living.
Q-angle (quadriceps angle) An angle formed in the frontal plane by the
intersection of two lines, one drawn from the from tibial tubercle to
the middle of the patella, and the other, from the middle of the patella to
the anterior superior iliac spine. The angle is greater in females than males.
qualify With regard to expert witness testimony: to make or consider eligible
or fit (e.g., “His training and experience qualified him as an expert witness”).
radial nerve groove The diagonal groove on the posterior surface of the
shaft of the humerus.
radial notch The concavity for the radius on the lateral side of the proximal
end of the ulna.
radial tuberosity The rounded elevation distal to the neck of the radius; one
of the two insertions of the biceps muscle.
radiograph An image produced on a radiosensitive surface, such as a photo-
graphic film, by radiation other than visible light (usually x-rays) passed
through an object.
radiograph, apical A film produced by exposure of vertically-oriented intra-
oral film; the x-ray beam is angled from above maxillary teeth or below
mandibular teeth to capture the complete tooth, including the apex.
radiograph, bite-wing A film of posterior teeth produced by exposure of
laterally-oriented intraoral film; the x-ray beam is angled between the
teeth; the crowns are the main focus of the films.
radiograph, Panorex A film of the entire oral cavity produced by immobiliz-
ing the head and moving the x-ray beam behind the head while film is
exposed in synchrony in front of the face.
radius, pl. radii One of the two bones of the forearm. The radius is lateral to
the ulna.
ramus A part of an irregularly-shaped bone (less slender than a process) that
forms an angle with the main body (e.g., mandibular ramus, ischiopubic
ramus).
 Glossary of Terms 329

remains A collective term for dead organic tissues. In forensic anthropol-

ogy, remains are typically human skeletal and/or dental but may also
include other tissues such as ligaments, tendons, hair, blood, and finger-
nails or toenails.
reparative dentin Calcification (sclerosis) of dentinal tubules immediately
beneath a carious lesion, abrasion, or injury.
replicability In science, the concept that the outcome of a particular study
will occur again if the study is repeated by another investigator. A scien-
tific finding that cannot be replicated is easily discredited.
restoration, dental Any inlay, crown, bridge, partial denture, or complete
denture that restores or replaces lost tooth structure, teeth, or oral tissues.
rib head The vertebral end of the rib.
rib neck The constricted part between the rib head and tubercle on upper
ribs (not obvious on lower ribs).
rib, sternal end The open end of the rib that connects to the sternal cartilage;
useful for skeletal aging.
rib tubercle The center of ossification below the neck; part of the tubercle
articulates with the vertebral transverse process.
ridge A long narrow elevation; a linear elevation; a crest.
root (of tooth) The cementum covered portion of the tooth, usually below
the gum line but increasingly exposed with age or advanced periodontal
disease.
root, anatomic The portion of the root extending from the cementoenamel
junction to the apex or root tip.
root, clinical The imbedded portion of the root; the part not visible in the
oral cavity.
scapular notch The indentation on the superior border of the scapula.
Schmorl’s node A large pit or concavity in the superior or inferior surface
of a vertebral body caused by intrusion of the intervertebral cartilage into
the surface of the bone. A result of aging or trauma. May be completely
asymptomatic.
sclerotic dentin Generalized calcification of dentinal tubules as a result
of aging.
scoliosis Abnormal lateral deviation of the spine. Curvature of the spine.
secondary dentin Not actually dentin, it is a non-tubular calcification of the
pulp chamber which forms after the tooth has erupted as a response to
irritation from caries, abrasion, injury, or simply age.
sella turcica A saddle-shaped depression in the sphenoid bone, also called
the hypophyseal fossa. It holds the pituitary gland.
semilunar notch The proximal articular surface of the ulna, bounded by the
olecranon and coronoid processes. The semilunar notch articulates with
the trochlea of the humerus.
septal aperture See olecranon foramen.
sequestrum A piece of dead bone surrounded by normal living bone.
A sequella to osteomyelitis, sometimes surrounded by an involucrum.
shaft The elongated cylindrical structure that is the main body of a long
bone, specifically the humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, and fibula; in
immature bones, the diaphysis
shoulder girdle The clavicles, scapulae, and manubrium of the sternum; the
bony ring (incomplete posteriorly) that provides attachment for the arms.
(The manubrium is also part of the thorax.)
shovel-shaped incisors Central incisors formed with lateral margins bent
lingually, resembling the form of a coal shovel; common in populations of
Asian origin, including Native Americans.
skull All the bones of the head as a unit, including the mandible.
splanchnocranium The bones of the face including the mandible. Also called
viscerocranium.
330 Glossary of Terms

spondylolysis A fracture in the lamina of the vertebral arch immediately

posterior to the articular surface(s). The major portion of the lamina and
spinous process are free-floating. It usually occurs in the fifth lumbar
vertebra and may result from hyperextension, particularly in sports such
as gymnastics, weight lifting, and football. It may cause backache or be
asymptomatic.
spine, scapular The long thin elevation on the dorsal surface of the scapula
that ends laterally as the acromion process.
staphylion The single point on the posterior hard palate where the palatal
suture is crossed by a line drawn tangent to the curves of the posterior
margin of the palatal bones. It is used to measure palatal length.
sternal foramen An anomalous perforation in the sternal body.
sternal-end ossification Osteophytic growth from the rib end into the ster-
nal cartilage; cartilaginous calcification; it increases with age and varies
with sex.
styloid process A pointed process of bone; styloid processes are found on the
radius, ulna, fibula, third metacarpal, and the temporal bone of the skull.
subpubic angle The inferior angle formed when the two pubic bones are
approximated; the angle is larger in females.
subpubic concavity A depression on the inferior border of the female pubic
bone; a structural byproduct of elongation of the female pubis.
superior articular process On the vertebra, the two processes that articu-
late with the superior vertebra.
supination The act of turning the hand so that the palm faces upward.
Rotation of the foot so that the outer edge of the sole bears the weight of
the body. The opposite of pronation.
supramastoid Above or superior to the mastoid process of the temporal.
suprameatal Above or superior to the external auditory meatus, the outer
opening to the ear canal.
suture The fibrous joint between bones of the skull (basilar, coronal,
lambdoidal, sagittal, and squamosal sutures).
symphysial rim The margin of the pubic symphysis; the edge of the sym-
physial face; one of the later areas of modification in the pubic symphysis.
symphysis, pl. symphyses An articulation in which bones are united by
cartilage without a synovial membrane (e.g., the pubic symphysis). Also a
growing together of bones originally separate (e.g., the two halves of the
lower jawbone).
synchondrosis, pl. synchondroses A form of articulation in which the
bones are rigidly fused by cartilage (e.g., the articulation between ribs
and sternum).
syndesmosis, pl. syndesmoses An articulation in which the bones are joined
by a ligament (e.g., the interosseous ligament between radius and ulna).
synovial joint Complex, freely movable articulations, classified according to
their range of motion. The bone surfaces are covered with hyaline carti-
lage. The joint may contain menisci of fibrocartilage as well as bursae,
enclosed sacs made of synovial membranes and containing synovial fluid.
taphonomy The processes of decay associated with death and decomposition.
Taphonomic changes take place from death to complete disintegration or
fossilization.
tendon Dense connective tissue attaching muscle to bone. Tendons tend to be
narrower and more cord-like than ligaments.
testimony A statement or statements made by a witness under oath in a
legal proceeding.
thorax The ribs, sternum, costal cartilage, and associated soft tissues; the rib
cage; part of the axial skeleton.
tibia, pl. tibias The major bone of the lower leg, medial to the fibula; the
shin bone.
 Glossary of Terms 331

trace evidence Physical evidence that transfers in small quantities and

usually requires advanced technical equipment of analysis (e.g. dust,
pollen, hair, fibers, gunshot residue, paint chips).
tramatology The branch of medicine that deals with the treatment of serious
wounds, injuries, and disabilities.
transverse foramen The aperture in the transverse process of the cervical
vertebrae.
transverse line of fusion In the sacrum, the furrow or ridge that remains
between individual vertebral bodies after fusion of the sacral elements has
taken place. The remnant of the cartilaginous joint between sacral verte-
bral bodies, especially S1–S2.
trier of fact The authority at a trial who decides what the truth is. If there
is a jury, it is the trier of fact. If there is no jury, the judge is the trier
of fact.
trochanter One of the bony prominences developed from independent centers
of ossification near the upper extremity of the femur. See greater and
lesser trochanter.
trochlea A spool-shaped structure. The articular surface for the ulna on the
distal end of the humerus or the articular surface for the patella on the
anterior surface of the distal femur. A trochlea allows for bidirectional
movement.
true rib Ribs #1–#7; the ribs that attach directly to the sternum via cartilage.
tubercle A slight elevation from the surface of a bone giving attachment to
a muscle or ligament (e.g., dorsal tubercles of radius, greater and lesser
tubercles of the humerus).
tuberosity A large tubercle or rounded elevation from the surface of a bone
(e.g., ischial tuberosity, tibial tuberosity).
ulna, pl. ulnae One of the two bones of the forearm. The ulna is medial to
the radius.
ulnar notch The facet for the ulna on the medial side of the distal end of
the radius.
ventral arc A slightly elevated ridge of bone that crosses the ventral surface
of the female pubis at an angle to the inferior corner.
ventral rampart The concave outer surface of the margin of the pubic
symphysis; this part develops a steep bevel in the middle phases of Todd’s
aging sequence.
verbal evidence or testimonial evidence Oral or written evidence.
(This is the only evidence protected by the Fifth Ammendment to the
U.S. Constitution.)
vertebra, pl. vertebrae A single segment of the spinal column. There are
seven cervical vertebrae, twelve thoracic vertebrae, five lumbar, five sacral
(fused to form the sacrum) and four coccygeal (often fused to form the
coccyx and sometimes fused to the sacrum).
vertebral body The centrum and its epiphyseal rings; the vertebral body
fuses with the vertebral arch at 3–7 years of age.
vertebral border The medial border of the scapula.
vertebral canal The channel formed by all the vertebrae encircling the
spinal cord.
vertebral foramen The aperture between the vertebral arch and the vertebral
body encircling the spinal cord.
vertex The highest single point on the midsagittal section of the skull when
positioned in the Frankfort Plane.
viscerocranium The bones of the face including the mandible. Also called
splanchnocranium.
WinID A computer program designed to match a missing person to unidenti-
fied remains through dental comparisons. The program was developed to
run on Windows systems and store data in a Microsoft Access Database.
332 Glossary of Terms

xiphoid process The inferior projection of the sternum. Xiphoid comes from
the Greek word for sword and means “sword-shaped.”
zygion A paired point at the most lateral edge of the zygomatic arch.
It is used to measure bizygomatic width (mid-facial width). Some sources
define this point on the zygoma, but it is usually on the zygomatic process
of the temporal bone.
zygomatic arch The arch resulting from meeting of processes from the
zygomatic and temporal bones.
zygomatic process The part of the maxilla and the part of the temporal
extending toward and meeting the zygomatic bone.
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Index

AAAS (American Association of the Advancement of Science), 3, Anatomical terms, teeth, 157
287, 293 Anatomically determined cranial measurements, 230
AAFS (American Academy of Forensic Sciences), 5, 274 Anemia, and cribra orbitalia, 212
Abscess, apical, 174, 175 Angel, JL, 4
Abuelas of the Plaza de Mayo, 289 Angle
Abuse, evidence of, 203 mandibular, 49–50
Acetabulum, 57, 109–11, 121, 123, 138 subpubic, 112–13, 121
Acromion process, scapula, 59–61, 63, 64 Ankle bones. See Tarsal bones
Actual number of individuals, 195 Ankle joint, 135
Adipocere, 256 Anomalies, dental, 173
Adjacent burial, 248 Antemortem
Admissibility of expert witness testimony, 269 disease and injury, report writing, 267
Adult teeth, aging methods, 168, 169–72 information/records, 242–43
AFIS (Automated Fingerprint Identification System), 185, 282 radiographs, 26, 38, 74
African Commission, 293 tooth discoloration, 175–76
African origin. See also Race and cranial measurements trauma, 202, 204
facial traits, 224–25 trephination, 202
and femur, 126 Anterior fontanelle, 30
nonmetric variation in skull morphology, 227 Anthropological description, report writing, 266
stature formulae, 201 Anthropological investigation, objectives of, 6–7
Age-related changes Anthropologists, forensic, 186
in adult teeth, 169–72 Anthropology, DMORT processing, 282
age and hormone-related conditions, 211–12 Anthropometry, 228
height, 202 Aperture, nasal, 40–41, 46
pubic symphysis, 116–18, 119 Apex of tooth root, 157
rib cage, 71–72 Apical abscess, 174–75
ribs, 68 Apophysis, 24
skeletal analysis quality check, 215 Appendicular skeleton, 16, 57
vertebral body, 82–84 Arch
Age, skeletal analysis and description, 197 dental, 40
Ala (sphenoid wings), 24, 39–40, 55 foot, 142–45
Alae, sacrum, 79–80 vertebral, 65, 74, 76, 82
Algor mortis, 255 zygomatic, 36, 38, 55
Alveolar bone, 155, 165, 169, 174–78, 195 Archaeological training, 6
Alveolar ridge, mandible, 40–41, 49 Archaeologist, choice of, 187–88
Alveolus (tooth socket), 155 Archaeology trowel, 244–45
Amalgam, 176, 178 Area search, scene investigation, 246–47
American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS), 5, 274 Argentina, and the disappeared, 284
American Anthropological Association, 274 Argentinean Forensic Anthropology Team (EAAF), 289–90
American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), 3, Arm. See also Humerus; Radius; Ulna
287, 293 forearm, 87–97
American Association of Physical Anthropologists, 5, 274 humerus, 86–87, 94–97
American Indian. See Native Americans osteological terms for, 96–97
Amnesty International, 293 radius, 100–102
Amphiarthroses, 22 ulna, 103–5
Amputation, bone healing, 204–5 Armed Forces DNA Identification Laboratory (AFDIL), 282
Analysis. See Laboratory analysis Arthritis, 149, 197, 211

352
 Index 353

Arthrosis, 18 lamellar, 12, 14–15, 202, 204

Articular (hyaline) cartilage. See Cartilage macrostructure (gross anatomy), 13–14
Articular processes, vertebral arch, 74 microstructure (microscopic anatomy or histology), 14–15
Asian origin. See also Race and cranial measurements spongy, 12, 14–17, 202
facial traits, 224–25 trabecular, 12, 14–15, 23
incisors, 164, 179 woven, 12, 204–5, 212
nonmetric variation in skull morphology, 227 Bone Clones, Inc., 83, 300
palatal traits, 226 Books, reference, 192
stature formulae, 201 Boss, frontal, 31, 55, 198
Atavistic epiphyses, 14 Botany, forensic, 187, 258–59
Atlas, cervical vertebrae, 75–77 Bridge
Attachment site, 23, 50, 138 calculus, 174
Auditory canal, external auditory meatus, 24, 36–37, 198 dental, 178
Auditory ossicles (middle ear bones), 36, 55 nose, 30, 218–19
Auricular surface rib, 68
ilium, 115–16, 118–21 vascular, 204
innominate, 109–10 Brodsky, S, 272
sacrum, 79–80, 82 Brooks, ST, 117
Auriculo-orbital plane, 233 Buccal surfaces, 156–57
Authenticity of physical evidence, 268 Buck teeth, 175
Autolysis, 255–56 Burial. See also Excavation/exhumation
Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS), 185, 282 classifications, 248
Axial skeleton diagrams, 16, 57, 310 location and remote sensing, 245–46
Axis, odontoid process (dens), 75–78, 82 observations prior to surface disturbance, 246–47
practices, 288
Backbone. See Vertebral column Burned or cremated forensic evidence, 3, 216
Background information, record keeping, 264
Bacterial infections, 213–14 Calcaneus tarsal bones, 144–45
Ballistics analysis, 184 Calculus (dental), 172, 174
Basic equipment and supplies, laboratory analysis, 191 Calipers, 126, 191, 199
Basioccipital, 28–29, 34–35 Callus, bony, 68, 203–5, 214
Bass, WM, 4, 255 Calvaria, 26, 55
Beauchene Exploded Skull diagram, 48 Calvarium cut diagrams, skull, 309
Below-surface burial, 247 Canal
Ben Meadows Company, 300 auditory (ear), 24, 36–37, 198
Bicondylar length, stature determination, 199 canaliculi, 15
Bicuspids. See Premolars Haversian, 15
Biology and race, 223 hypoglossal, 35
Bizygomatic breadth measurement, 237 medullary cavity, 12, 14
Blindfolded skull, 285 optic, 39
Blood cells, 13–14 root (pulp), 154–55, 157, 165, 171
Blood typing, 185 vertebral (spinal), 74, 80, 82
Blunt force trauma, 210 Volkmann’s, 15
Body Canaliculi, 15
axis, 77 Cancellous bone, 12, 15, 155, 206
hyoid, 50–51 Canines, 159
of rib, 68 Capitate carpal bones, 99–100, 102–3
of scapula, 59, 60, 64 Capitulum, humerus, 24, 86–88, 96
sphenoid, 39–40 Carabelli’s cusp, 164, 178, 215
of sternum, 69–70 Caries, dental, 174, 178–79
Bone. See also Osteology; specific bones Carpal bones, 17, 99–102
callus, 68, 203–5, 214 Carrion feeders, decomposition process, 258
cancellous, 12, 155, 206 Carter Center of Emory University, 3
cells, 13–14 Cartilage
chemical composition, 13 about, 10–14, 22–23
classification and description, 16–17 age- and hormone-related changes, 211–12
compact, 11–15, 17, 204, 212 articular (hyaline), 64–65
cortical, 12, 23 cartilaginous joints, 22
dense, 12, 14–15, 205 costal, 57, 64–65, 68
form and function terms, 12–13, 24 non-union or pseudarthrosis, 204
fractures, evidence of trauma, 206–7 rib, ossification with age, 68
general communication terms, 23 Case background, report writing, 266
healing (remodeling), 14–15, 204–205 Cause of death, 6–7, 185, 202–3
inventory form, 303 Cavities (dental caries), 174, 178–79
354 Index

Cells Conclusions, report writing, 267

blood, 13–14 Condition of evidence, report writing, 266
bone, 13–14 Condyles, mandibular, 24, 49–50
and bone healing, 204 Condylomalleolar length, stature determinations, 200
and cartilaginous joints, 12, 22 Confidentiality, professional ethics, 272
cell tissues, 10–15 Connective tissue
connective tissue, 11–12 in joints, 21–22
cranial, 55 in teeth, 155, 179
ethmoidal, 44 types and functions of, 10–12
and tooth enamel, 154 Conoid tubercle, 24, 58–59
Cementodentinal junction, 179 Consultants to crime labs, 186–87
Cementoenamel junction (CEJ), 155, 157, 172 Coracoid process, scapula, 59–61, 63–64
Cementum, 155 Cornua, 81
Cemetery relocation, and minimum number of individuals Coronoid fossa, humerus, 86, 88
(MNI), 196 Costal cartilage, 57, 64–65, 68
Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 213 Costal pit, vertebral column, 82
Center of Forensic Analysis and Applied Sciences (CAFCA), 290 Costo-vertebral articulations, 73
Central Identification Laboratory (CIL), 297–98 Costoclavicular ligament, 59, 65
Centrum, 76, 78, 82. See also Vertebral body Council of Europe, 293
Cephalic index, 236 Courtroom testimony, 267–70
Cervical vertebrae, 76–78 Cover page, report writing, 265
Cervix, dental, 157, 169, 178 Craniometry (cranial measurements). See also Race and cranial
Chain of custody, 183, 193–94, 264 measurements
Charts and photographs, laboratory analysis preparation, 192 accurate measurement instructions, 230
Chest. See Thorax chord measurements, 234
Children. See also Juvenile bones craniometric points, 228, 231–33
carpals and age determination, 102 form (Fordisc consistent), 306
dental aging, 165, 167 Frankfurt plane, 233
effects of childbirth on pelvis, 113 mandibular, 229, 235
greenstick fractures, 206 orbital, 233
missing, 2 palatal, 234
rickets, 211, 213 skull measurements, 230
tarsals and age determination, 145 Cranium. See also Craniometry (cranial measurements); Race and
Chin cranial measurements; Skull
and edentulous condition, 177 age changes in, 51
mandible, 49–50 cranial base, 26
nonmetric variation in skull morphology, 227 cranial diagrams, 308–9
sex differences, 52–53 defined, 26
Chondroblasts, 12 nonmetric variation in skull morphology, 227
Chondroclasts, 12 sex differences, 52–54
Chondrocytes, 12 views of, 27–29
Chord measurements, 234 Cremated or burned forensic evidence, 3, 216
Chronic shoulder dislocation, 210 Cribra orbitalia, 212
Cingulum, maxillary incisor, 160 Cribriform plate, ethmoid, 44–45, 47
Circumferential lamellae, 14 Crime lab scientists, 184–86
Circumstances of death, 6–7 Crime scene, 6, 182, 184–85
Circumstantial evidence, 182 Crime scene investigators, 6, 184–85, 187–88
Classification of bone, 16–17 Crimes against humanity and remote sensing, 245–46
Clavicle, 24, 57–59, 70 Crimes of War Project, 286
Cleaning skeletal material, 194–95 Criminalists, 185
Clot formation, bone healing, 204 Crista galli, ethmoid, 44–45, 47
Coccygeal vertebrae, 81 Cross sectional tooth diagram, 155
Coccyx, vertebral column, 75, 81 Crown, dental
Collagen fibers, 11–13, 15 abnormal, 173
Collar bone (clavicle), 24, 57–59, 70 attrition, 171
Columbian Interdisciplinary Team for Forensic Work and development, 165, 168
Psychosocial Assistance (EQUITAS), 290 restoration, 178
Combined DNA Index System (CODIS), 220, 282 tooth structure, 154, 157, 165
Commingled burial, 248 Cuboid tarsal bones, 143, 145
Comminuted fracture, 206–7 Culture
Commissions of inquiry, human rights work, 293 context, 154
Compact bone, 11–15, 17, 204, 212 cultural circumstances, 6
Compound fracture, 206–7 cultural inhibitions, 231
Compression fracture, 206–7 cultural status and teeth, 154
Concise Dental Anatomy and Morphology (Fuller and Dennehy), 159 definitions, 198
 Index 355

and race, 223 The Disappeared, 2, 284

socio-cultural training, 7 Disarticulated skull diagram, 48
Cuneiform tarsal bones, 142–43, 145 Disaster incidents. See Mass fatality incidents (MFIs)
Cusp, Carabelli’s, 164, 178–79 Disaster Mortuary Operational Response Teams
Cusps, 157 (DMORTs), 278–83
Custody, chain of, 183, 193–94, 264 Discoloration of teeth, 175–76
Cutting wounds, 207 Discriminant function analysis, 132, 236
Disease and pathology
Data record forms, evidence recovery, 243 age- and hormone-related conditions, 211–12
Dates, significant, 243 bacterial infections, 213–14
Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, 269–70 neoplasms, 214
Death investigation, 6–7, 184–86, 187–88 nutrition- and metabolism-related conditions, 212–13
Death, manner of, 6–7, 64, 76 oral, 173–77
Deciduous teeth, 41, 159, 166, 314 pathology, 211
Decomposition and climate, 256–58 skeletal analysis and description, 211–14
Decomposition process Disinterment of remains. See Excavation/exhumation
overview, 255–56 Dislocation, 210
associated plants, 258–59 Distal surfaces, 156–57
carrion feeders, 258 Disturbed burial, 247–48
environmental factors (climate), 256–58 DNA analysis
funerary practices, 259–60, 261 DMORT processing, 282
other preservation factors, 260–61 and excavation/exhumation, 249
Degenerative changes, 188, 197, 211, 215 forensic genetics, 185–86
Delayed union or non-union, bone healing, 204 identification methods, 220–21
Deltoid tuberosity, humerus, 86, 88 mitochondrial, 217
Demonstrative evidence, 181, 271 and race determination, 224
Denehy, GE, 159 Documentation, excavation/exhumation, 182–83, 249, 251, 262
Dens of axis (odontoid process), 75–78, 82 Dorsey, G, 3–4
Dense connective tissue, 11–12 Dorsiflexion, 149
Dental crypts, 41 Drug analysts, 185
Dental staining, 175–76 Duty assignments, excavation/exhumation
Dental tools, 245 mapper, 249–50
Dentin, 154–55, 165, 169, 171 other team members, 250
Dentinoenamel junction (DEJ), 154 photographer, 250
Dentist, 154, 186 recorders, 249
Dentition. See also Odontology; Tooth
anomalies, 173 EAAF (Equipo Argentino de Antropologia Forense), 289–90
attrition (wear), 171 Early discriminant function analysis, 236
caries, 174, 178, 215 Edentulous condition, 176–77
deciduous, 41, 159, 166, 314 Edge-to-edge bite, 175
dental aging, 164–72 Educational requirements, 5
dentistry and oral disease, 173–77 Elastic cartilage, 12
development sequence, 313 Elbow joint, 87, 90
forms/charts, 314–16 Embalming, 259–60, 282
mixed, 165, 167, 315 Enamel, tooth, 154–55, 157, 165, 169, 171, 173, 195, 213
nonmetric variation in skull morphology, 227 Encasement, dense connective tissues, 11
permanent, 41, 162–63 Endochondral ossification, 13, 15
restorations, 178 Endosteum, 11, 15
terminology, 178 Entomologists, forensic, 186–87
Department of Health and Human Services, 278 Entrance wounds, gunshot wounds, 209
Depositions, 270 Environmental factors (climate), decomposition process, 256–58
Depressed fractures, 206, 210 Epicondyles, humerus, 86
Depressions (fossa), 23–24, 138 Epiphyseal fusion of clavicle, 58–59
Dermestid beetles, 195 Epiphyseal rings, vertebral, 76, 82, 83
Desiccation, 256 Epiphyses, 13–14
Dial calipers (sliding calipers), 126, 191, 199 Equipment and supplies
Diaphysis, 13–14 field work and evidence recovery, 243–45
Diarthroses, 22–23 laboratory analysis preparation, 191–92
Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH), 211 for producing thin sections of teeth, 170
Diploë, 213 Equipo Argentino de Antropologia Forense (EAAF), 289–90
Direct evidence, 182 EQUITAS (Colombian Interdisciplinary Team for Forensic Work and
Directional terms Psychosocial Assistance), 290
human body, 17–18 Error sources, 197, 201
oral cavity, 156–57 Essential equipment, field work, 244
skeleton, 19–20 Ethics, 271–72
356 Index

Ethmoid, 44–45, 47 excavation and disinterment preparation, 243–45

European Court of Human Rights, 293 excavation/exhumation, 248–54
European origin. See also Race and cranial measurements immediate postmortem changes, 255
Carabelli’s cusp, 164 postmortem interval and forensic taphonomy, 255
facial traits, 224–25 POW/MIA repatriation, 298
and femur, 126 preparation for, 240–41
nonmetric variation in skull morphology, 227 quality check, 261–62
palatal traits, 226 Finger bones (phalanges), 104, 106–7
Evidence. See also Laboratory analysis Finger-toe comparison, 151
of abuse, 203 Fingerprints, 182, 185, 188, 282
analysis of, 183–84 First cuneiform, tarsal bones, 142, 145
collection of, 183 Fissure, 24
defined, 181 Flat bones, 15–17, 59. See also Cranium; Scapula
demonstrative, 181, 271 Flexion, forearm, 87
documentation of, 182–83 Floating ribs, 65, 68
management, 192–95 Fluorosis, 176
physical, 181–82, 268, 286 Focus Design, 300
preservation and storage, 183, 241 Foot
reporting, 184, 266 arch, 142–45
verbal, 181 dorsal (superior) view of, 140, 312
Excavation/exhumation metatarsals, 146–48
disinterment preparation, 243–45 phalanges, 149–51
duty assignments, 248–50 plantar (superior) view of, 141
excavation methods, 250–51 tarsals, 142–45
model excavation, 251–54 Foramen magnum, 34–35
trace evidence, 254 Fordisc, 199, 229, 236–37, 306–7
Exit wounds, gunshot wounds, 209 Forearm, 87–97. See also Radius; Ulna
Expert witness testimony, 181, 267–70, 275 Forensic anthropology
Exploratory missions, human rights work, 295 compared to pathologist or medical examiner, 6
Extension, forearm, 87 defined, 3
External auditory meatus, 36 and disaster operations, 278, 280
Extracellular matrix, 11 educational requirements, 5
history, 3–5
Facial traits, 224–25 and human rights work, 287–91, 295–96
False ribs, 65, 68 Forensic archaeologist, 6
Family members, 2, 199, 201–2, 216, 220 Forensic Data Bank, 237
Fascia, 11 Forensic pathologists, 6, 187–88
Federal Rules of Evidence (FRE), 269–70 Forensic sciences overview, 180–88
Femur Forensic specialists, 186–87
about, 123–29 Forensic taphonomy, 255
amputation, 204 Formative changes, skeletal analysis and description, 197
bones of confusion, 127 Forms
hacksaw marks, 203 antemortem, 242–43
and hip joint, 109–10, 121 bone inventory form, 303
juvenile, 128 cranial measurement (Fordisc consistent), 306
and knee joint, 129–30 dental, 313–16
measuring for stature, 199, 201 innominate, 311
osteological terms, 24, 138 mandibular measurement (Fordisc consistent), 307
postcranial traits, 238 sample questionnaire, 301–2
Q-angle, 126 Fossa
racial differences in, 238 acetabular, 121
sexual differences, 198 defined, 23–24
Fibroblasts, 12 glenoid, 59–61
Fibrocartilage, 12 malleolar, 136, 138
Fibrocytes, 12 mandibular, 49–50
Fibrous joints, 21–22 pituitary, 29
Fibrous tissue, 11 Foundation, legal, 267–70
Fibula, 130–31, 135–38, 145 Fovea capitis, 127, 138
Field work Fracture types, evidence of trauma, 206–7
antemortem information, 242–43 France Casting, 117, 300
burial classification, 247–48 Frankfurt plane, 233
burial location and scene investigation, 245–47 Frontal bone, 30–31
decomposition process, 255–61 Frontal bossing, 198
described, 240 Frontal chord measurements, 234
equipment and supplies, 243–45 Frontal process, 38
 Index 357

Frontal sinuses, 30 identification methods, 217–21

Frontal supraorbital ridge, 198 skeletal identification challenges, 216
Frye test, 269, 270 Human osteology. See Osteology
Frye v. United States, 269 Human Rights Data Advisory Group (HRDAG), 287
Fuller, JL, 159 Human Rights Program, 246
Funding, field work preparation, 241 Human Rights Watch, 293
Funerary practices, 259–61 Human rights work
about, 277, 284
Gender, cultural definition, 52 Argentinian forensic anthropology team, 289–90
Geneticists, 185–86 and the disappeared, 284
Genetics and racial categories, 223 and forensic anthropology, 287–91
Gingiva (gums), 155 and genocide, 285
Glenoid fossa, scapula, 59–64 and international law, 285–86
Go Measure 3D, 300 international vs. domestic, 291–92
Gonial angle, 50 participants in, 292–95
Granular pits, 51–52 role of scientists, 286–87
Graves. See Burial types of missions, 295–96
Greater multangular carpal bones, 99, 100, 102–3 Humerus
Greater trochanter, femur, 123–24 bones of confusion, 127
Greater tubercle, humerus, 86–88 capitulum, 24, 86–88, 96
Greater wings, sphenoid, 39–40 and chronic shoulder dislocation, 210
Greenstick fracture, 206–207 deltoid tuberosity, 24, 86, 88, 96
Guatemala, and the disappeared, 284, 294–95 handedness, 86
Guatemalan Archbishop’s Human Rights Office (ODHAG), 250, 290 head of, 57, 127
Guatemalan Forensic Anthropology Foundation (FAFG), 290–91 joints, 86
Gums (gingiva), 155 juvenile, 89
Gunshot wounds, 7, 64, 68, 202, 208–9 measuring, 199, 201
Gustafson, G, 169 osteological terms, 96
Gustafson’s method, aging adult teeth, 169–71 postmortem scavenger activity, 203
scapular articulation, 61, 64
H. L. Hunley (submarine), 256 syphilis, 213
Hacksaw marks on femur, 203 Hyaline cartilage, 12, 64–65
Hair and fiber analysis, 184 Hydroxyapatite, 13
Hair form, 227 Hyoid, 17, 50–51
Hall, D, 258 Hyperostosis frontalis interna (internal frontal
Hallux valgus, 149 hyperostosis), 211
Hallux varus, 149 Hypoglossal canal, 35
Hamate carpal bones, 99, 101–3
Hand Identification
carpal bones (carpals), 99–103 levels, 216–17
hand and wrist diagram, 99 methods, 217–21
hand diagrams, dorsal view, 312 personal, 6, 30
metacarpals, 103–6 skeletal identification challenges, 216
phalanges, 106–7 Iliac crest, 109–11
Handedness Ilium
and humerus, 86 innominate bones, 109–11
and radius, 91 sexual differences, 198
and scapula, 61–62 Impacted fracture, 206
skeletal analysis and description, 198–99 Inca bone, 34, 227
Handgun wounds, 208 Incisors, 159
Hanihara, K, 117 Incisors, maxillary, 160, 227
Haversian system, 15 Indirect evidence, 182
Head Individual burial, 248
of femur, 123 Infants and toddlers, deciduous dentition, 41, 159, 166, 314
of humerus, 86, 88–89 Infections, bacterial, 213–14
Healing, bone, 14–15, 204–5 Inferior nasal conchae, 45
High power gunshot wounds, 208 Information Resource Center (IRC), DMORT processing, 283
Hip bone. See Pelvis Infusion of cells, bone healing, 204
Histological analysis of teeth, 170 Innominate bones (pelvis), 109–11, 114, 121, 311
History of forensic anthropology, 3–5 Insects, carrion eating, 186, 194
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 3 Instructional skeletons or casts, 192
Honesty, professional ethics, 271, 273 Instrumentally determined cranial measurements, 230
Horizontal plate, palatine bones, 42 Insurance, field work preparation, 241
Human identification (ID) Intact teeth, age estimates, 172
identification levels, 216–17 Integrated Ballistics Identification System (IBIS), 184
358 Index

Inter-American Commission of Human Rights, 293 Labyrinths, ethmoid, 44, 47

Internal frontal hyperostosis (hyperostosis frontalis interna), 211 Lachrimal groove, 47
International Association for Identification (IAI), 274 Lacrimal bone, 47–48
International Centre for Human Rights and Democratic Development Lacunae, 15
in Canada, 294 Lamellae
International Commission on Missing Persons in Sarajevo, Bosnia, circumferential, 14
and Herzegovina, 172 concentric, 14–15
International Committee for the Red Cross, 293 interstitial, 12
International Criminal Court (ICC), 293 Lamellar bone, 12, 14–15, 202, 204
International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia Lamendin’s method, aging adult teeth, 172
(ICTY), 293 Lamina, vertebral arch, 74, 76
International war crimes tribunals, human rights work, 293 Large-scale applications of forensics
Interosseous crest, fibula, 131 disasters and mass fatality incidents, 277–83
Interosseous crest, tibia, 131–32 human rights work, 284–96
Interosseus membrane, forearm, 90 POW/MIA repatriation, 296–98
Intertrochanteric crest, femur, 123–24 Lateral condyle, femur, 123–24
Interviews, 7–8, 242, 301–2 Lateral malleolus, fibula, 130, 131
Intramembranous ossification (subperiosteal bone apposition), Latin American Forensic Anthropology Association (ALAF), 274
15, 63 Left/Right recognition
Intrusive burial, 248 auditory ossicles, 55
Inventory, report writing, 266 ethmoid, 45
Investigation, stages of, 7–8 fibula, 135
Irregular bones, 17 phalanges, 107
Isçan, MY, 132 skull, 26
Ischial tuberosity, 109–11, 121 tarsal bones, 145
Ischium, innominate bones, 109–11 tibia, 132
Islamic burial customs, 288 Leg. See also Femur; Fibula; Tibia
Isolated burial, 248 bones of confusion, 127
femur, 123–29, 138
Jantz, R, 192, 236 fibula, 130–31, 135–38
Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command (JPAC), 297–98 osteological terms, 138
Joints, 18, 21–23, 86–87, 129–30, 132 patella, 129–30
Journal of Forensic Sciences, 274 racial differences, 126
Juvenile bones sexual differences, 126
basioccipital, 34–35 tibia, 130–34, 138
femur, 128 Legal consequence, loss of, 187–88
fibula, 137 Legal permission, field work preparation, 240–41
humerus, 89 Leprosy, 213
hyoid, 51 Lesser multangular carpal bones, 99–100, 102–3
ilium, 111 Lesser trochanter, femur, 123–24
ischium, 111 Lesser tubercle, humerus, 86–88
pubis, 111 Lesser wings, sphenoid, 39–40
radius, 14, 93 Ligaments
scapula, 63 costoclavicular, 59
sternum, 70 defined, 11
tibia, 134 patellar, 129
ulna, 95 periodontal, 22, 155, 157
vertebra, 76 Linea aspera, femur, 123–24
Lingual surfaces, 156–57
Katz, D, 117–18 Livor mortis, 255
Keyhole fracture, gunshot wounds, 208–9 Locar, E, 181
Knee joint, 129–30, 132 Locard’s Exchange Principle, 181, 183
Kneecap (patella), 129–30 Location
Knife wounds, 64, 207 classification of bone by, 16
Krogman, WM, 4 evidence recovery, 243
Kurdish burial, 288 Long bones, 14, 16, 199–200
Long-term tooth loss, 176–77
Labial surfaces, 156–57 Loose connective tissue, 11
Laboratory analysis. See also Skeletal analysis and description Lovejoy method, 118
basic sequence, 190 Low power gunshot wounds, 208
equipment and supplies, 191–92 Lower leg, 130–31
evidence management, 192–95 Luetgert, Adolph, 4
human identification (ID), 216–21 Luetgert, Louisa, 4
preparation for, 190–92 Lumbar vertebrae, 79, 82–84. See also Vertebral column
Laboratory methods, POW/MIA repatriation, 298 Lunate carpal bones, 99, 101–3
 Index 359

Machete wounds, 207 Mixed dentition, 165, 167, 315

Major excavation missions, human rights work, 295 MNI (Minimum Number of Individuals), 196–97
Malar (zygomatic bones), 36–38 Model excavation, isolated individual grave, 251–54
Male pubic symphysis, age changes in, 116–19 Molars. See also Odontology
Malleolus, 130–33, 135–36, 138 about, 160
Malleus, 55 Carabelli’s cusp, 178, 215
Malocclusion, 175 edentulous mouth, 177
Mamelons, 159 mandibular, 161
Mandible, 49–50, 52–54, 198 maxillary, 161, 227
Mandibular condyles, 24, 49–50 mulberry, 173
Mandibular craniometric points, 235 occlusion and malocclusion, 175
Mandibular fossae, 49–50 premolars, 161
Mandibular incisors, 160 Mongoloid ancestry. See Asian origin
Mandibular measurements, 235, 307 Multiangular carpals, greater and lesser, 99–100, 102–3
Mandibular molars, 161 Muslim burials, 288
Mandibular notch, 49 Mycobacterium leprae, 213
Mandibular premolars, 161 Mycobacterium tuberculosis, 213
Mandibular symphysis, 49–50
Manner of death, 6–7, 64, 76 Nasal aperture, 40–41, 227
Manubrium, 57, 59, 69–70 Nasal bone (nasals), 46. See also Skull
Maples, William R., 4–5 National Crime Information Center, 2
Marrow cavity, 14 National Disaster Medical System (NDMS), 278
Marsh, R, 279 National DNA Index System (NDIS), 220
Marshalltown Company, 300 Native Americans, 34, 149, 164, 187
Marshalltown trowel, 244, 245 Navicular tarsal bones, 143, 145
Mass fatality incidents (MFIs) Neck of tooth, 157
about, 277–78 Neoplasms, 214
Disaster Mortuary Operational Response Teams (DMORTs), Neurocranium, 26, 32, 39
278–83 Neyland, R, 256
and role of forensic anthropologist, 278, 280–81 Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), 2–3, 292
temporary morgue stations, 281–83 Notes and record keeping, 264–65
U.S. government response to, 278–80 Numbering system
Mass graves, 196, 259, 294 evidence, 243
Mastoid portion, external auditory meatus, 36–37 tooth number, 158
Maxilla, 40–41. See also Skull Nutrient arteries, 14
Maxillary incisors, 160, 227 Nutrient foramen, 14, 87–88, 96–97, 124, 133, 138
Maxillary molars, 161, 227 Nutrition- and metabolism-related conditions, 212–13
Maxillary premolars, 161
Maxillary process, 38 Objectives, field work preparation, 6–7, 240
McCurdy, E, 260 Obligations hierarchy, professional ethics, 272
McKern, TW, 117 Oblique length, stature determination, 199
McVeigh, Timothy, 182 Obturator foramen, 109, 121
Measurements, stature, 199, 201–2. See also Craniometry (cranial Occipital bone, 34–35, 198. See also Skull
measurements) Occlusal plane, 157
Meatus, external auditory meatus, 24, 36–37, 198 Occlusal surface, 160
Medial clavicular epiphysis, 58–59 Occlusion, 175
Medial condyle, femur, 123–24 ODHAG (Guatemalan Archbishop’s Human Rights Office), 250, 290
Medial malleolus, tibia, 130 Odontoid process (dens of axis), 75–78, 82
Medial orbital wall, 233 Odontologists, 154, 186
Medical examiner, 5–6 Odontology. See also Dentition; Tooth
Medical records, antemortem information, 242–43 defined, 154
Medullary cavity, 12, 14 dental development sequence, 313
Memory and visual aids, antemortem information, 242 DMORT processing, 282
Meningeal grooves, 31–32 numbering systems, 158
Mesenchymal cell, 11 oral disease, 173–77
Mesial surfaces, 156–57 terminology, 178–79
Metacarpal bones, 103–6 Olecranon foramen, humerus, 87
Metaphysis, 14 Olecranon fossa, humerus, 86, 88
Metatarsal bones, 146–48 Olecranon process, 90, 94, 96–97
Methamphetamine use and tooth discoloration, 176 Optional equipment, 192, 244
Metopic suture, 30 Oral disease and dentistry, 173–77
Metric variation in skull morphology, 236–37 Orbital measurements, craniometry, 233
Minimum number of individuals (MNI), 196–97 Organization of African Unity, 293
Minnesota Protocol, 287 Organization of American States, 293
Mitochondrial DNA, 217, 220 Origin and growth of skull, 26
360 Index

Orthognathic mouth, 224 innominate diagrams and observations, 311

Ortner, DJ, 211 osteological terms, 121
Os japonicum, 227 pelvic girdle, 16
Osborne method, 120 pubis, 112
Ossification sexual differences in, 112–15
endochondral, 13 structure of juvenile innominate, 111
intramembranous, 15 Perimortem trauma, 186, 202, 267
Osteoarthritis, 82–84, 211 Periodontal attachment line, 155
Osteoblasts, 13 Periodontal disease, 174–75
Osteoclasts, 13–14 Periodontal ligament, 155
Osteocytes, 13, 15 Periosteum, 11, 14
Osteogenesis, 15 Periostitis, 213–14
Osteogenic, 211 Permanent dentition, 159, 162–63, 168, 316
Osteological reproductions, 83, 300 Perpendicular plate
Osteological terms ethmoid, 44–45, 47
arm, 96–97 palatine bones, 42
backbone, 82 Peruvian man, anemia and cribra orbitalia, 212
clavicle, 59 Petrous portion, external auditory meatus, 36–37
directional and sectional terms for body, 17–18 Phalanges. See also Foot; Hand
general communication about bone, 23–24 articulations, 106, 148
leg, 138 finger–toe comparison, 151
pelvis, 121 foot, 140–41, 149–51
ribs, 68 hand, 106–7
scapula, 64 and leprosy, 213
skull, 55 method for sorting, 107
sternum, 70 Photo superimposition, 218–19
Osteology. See also Bone; Tissues Photographs, 182, 184, 243, 262, 282
about, 4–5 Physical anthropologists, 3–6, 187–88
defined, 10 Physical evidence
practical applications of, 10 authenticity, 268
training, 6 challenges in use of, 182
Osteolytic, 211 and human rights work, 286
Osteoma, 214 managing and processing of, 181–84
Osteomalacia, 212 Physical facilty, and laboratory analysis
Osteometry, 199–200, 228. See also Craniometry (cranial preparation, 190
measurements) Physicians for Human Rights (PHR), 3, 293
Osteomyelitis, 213 Pisiform carpal bones, 99, 101–3
Osteon, 14–15 Plants and decomposition process, 258–59
Osteoporosis, 212 Pollen analysis, 259
Osteosarcoma, 214 Porotic hyperostosis, 213
Ousley, S, 236 Portable morgue units, 279–80
Overbite, 175 Positive identification, 6, 30, 187–88, 216–17, 220–21
Postcranial traits, 238
Pacchonian depressions, 51 Postmortem changes, immediate, 255
Paget’s disease, 212 Postmortem damage, report writing, 267
Palatal measurements, 226–27, 234 Postmortem interval, 255
Palatine bones, 28, 40–43. See also Skull Postmortem trauma, 203
Paleo-Tech Concepts, Inc., 300 POW/MIA repatriation, 277, 296–98
Palm of hand (metacarpal bones), 102–6 Preauricular sulcus, 24, 114, 120–21
Parietal bone, 17, 27–29, 32–33. See also Skull Premolars, 159, 161. See also Odontology
Parietal chord measurements, 234 Preparation for field work, 240–41
Parietal eminence, 32 Preparation for laboratory analysis
Parietal foramina, 32 equipment, supplies, and reference materials, 191–92
Parkman, G, 3 evidence management, 192–95
Parturition pits, 113–14 physical facility, 190
Patella, 129–30, 138 Preservation and storage of evidence, 183, 260–61
Patellar ligament, 129 Pressure epiphyses, 13
Pathologist, forensic, 5–6, 187, 188 Presumptive identification, 216–17, 221
Pathology, 211, 282 Primary burial, 248
Pearson, K, 126 Primary dentin, 154
Pectoral girdle, 16 Probable number of individuals, 196
Pedicles, vertebral arch, 74, 76 Professional associations, 286–87
Pelvis (hip) Professionalism
age changes in ilium, 118–20 courtroom testimony, 272–73
age changes in pubic symphysis, 116–19 depositions and demonstrative evidence, 270–71
 Index 361

ethics, 271–72 Rape, skeletal analysis to confirm, 206

and expert witness testimony, 267–70, 275 Recommendations, report writing, 267
professional associations, 273–74 Record keeping and professionalism, 264
record keeping, 65, 264–65 Reference materials, preparation for laboratory analysis, 192
report writing, 265–67 Reliability and evidence analysis, 183
Profile, 227 Remodeling, bone healing, 14–15, 204–5
Prognathic mouth, 224, 227 Remote sensing, 245–46
Projectile type, gunshot wounds, 208–9 Reparative dentin, 155
Projection, terms describing, 24 Repeatability and evidence analysis, 183
Promontory, sacrum, 24, 79–80 Report writing and professionalism, 265–67
Promontory, vertebral column, 82 Resorption, bone healing, 204–5
Pronation, forearm, 87 Respect, professional ethics, 271, 273
Prospection, burial location and scene investigation, 245–46 Responsible agency or consultant, evidence recovery, 243
Pterion ossicle, 32 Restoration, dental, 178
Pterygoid plates, sphenoid, 39–40 Ribs
Pubic body, 112–13 abnormalities, 68
Pubic symphysis, 109–10 age determination, 68
Pubis. See also Pelvis costal cartilage, 57, 64–65, 68
innominate bones, 109–11 costo-vertebral articulations, 68
sexual differences, 198 false, 65
Pulp, tooth, 154–55, 157, 165, 169, 171, 174, 176, 178 floating, 65
Putrefaction, 255–56 heads, 67
sexual differences, 71–72, 198
Q-angle, 126 sorting, 65–67
Quadriceps tendon, 129 true, 65
Quality check Rickets, 213
field work, 261–62 Rifle wounds, 208
skeletal analysis, 215 Rigor mortis, 255
Questioned document examiners, 181, 185, 188 Root, tooth, 157, 159–61, 165
Questionnaires, 242, 301–2 Rotation, forearm, 87
Rwanda, and genocide, 285
Race. See also Race and cranial measurements
biology and culture, 223 Saber tibia, and syphilis, 213
dental traits, 164 Sacrum, vertebral column, 24, 75, 79–80, 85–86
DNA and race determination, 224 Scalping wounds, 207
and personal identification, 6 Scaphoid carpal bones, 99, 101–3
postcranial traits, 238 Scapula. See also Thorax
skeletal analysis, 198, 215 acromion process, 58–61, 63–64
Race and cranial measurements ages of fusion, 63
craniometry, 228–35 coracoid process, 59–61, 63–64
future of race determination, 224 glenoid fossa, 57
metric variation in skull morphology, 236–37 and handedness, 61–62
nonmetric variation in skull morphology, 224–27 juvenile, 63
postcranial traits, 238 osteological terms, 64
race, biology and culture, 223 scapular notch, 60, 64
Radiographic identification, 218 scapular spine, 24, 64
Radiology, DMORT processing, 282 Scavenger activity, 203, 258
Radius Scene investigation
about, 91–93 investigators, 6, 184–88
bones of confusion, 135 observations prior to surface disturbance, 246–47
carpal articulation, 102 remote sensing, 245–46
and directional terms, 18 Sciatic notch, 110, 114, 121
handedness, 91, 199 Science and Human Rights Program (SHR), 287, 293
healing from fracture, 205 Scientists and human rights work, 286–87, 293. See also Forensic
joints, 87, 90 anthropology
juvenile, 93 Search and Recovery (SAR) teams, 298
macrostructure, 14 Second cuneiform, tarsal bones, 142, 145
measuring for stature, 201 Secondary burial, 248, 287
osteological terms, 24, 97 Secondary dentin, 155
Rakes, 244 Sectioned teeth, age estimates, 170–71
Ramus Sections of body, 21
ischiopubic, 110–11, 121 Security, field work preparation, 241
mandibular, 49 Serologists, 185–86
pubic, 110–11, 121 Sesamoid bones, patella, 129–30
Range of joint motion, 86–87 Sex, biological definition, 52
362 Index

Sexual differences vomer, 43

femur, 126 zygomatic, 38
humerus, 87 Skulls Unlimited International, Inc., 300
pelvis, 112–15 Sliding calipers (dial calipers), 126, 191
ribs, 68 Snow, C, 117, 289
skeletal analysis and description, 197–98 Soft callus formation, bone healing, 204
skeletal analysis quality check, 215 Soil density changes, scene investigation, 246
skull, 52–54 Sorting, ribs, 65–67
tibia, 132 Sources for bones, casts, instruments, and tools, 300
Sharpey’s fibers, 14 South African Commission for Truth and Reconciliation, 293
Shin bone (tibia), 130–34, 138 Specific unit numbers, evidence recovery, 243
Shoes, and preservation of foot bones, 152 Sphenoid. See also Skull
Short bones, 15, 17 Spinous process, vertebral arch, 74, 76
Shotgun wounds, 209 Spiral fracture, 206–7
Shoulder. See Thorax Spongy (cancellous) bone, 12, 15, 155, 206
Shoulder blades. See Scapula Spongy hyperostosis, 213
Shoulder girdle, 57. See also Thorax Spreading calipers, 191
Shovel-shaped incisors, 164 Squamous portion, external auditory meatus, 36–37
Shovels, 244–45 Square point shovel, 245
Significant dates and record keeping, 264 Staining, dental, 175–76
Silence of unidentified body, 2 Stapes, 55
Simple fracture, 206–7 Starburst pattern, gunshot wounds, 208–9
Simpson, OJ, 182 Stature
Sinus changes in height with age, 202
defined, 24 errors from self-reporting and faulty memory, 201
frontal, 30 formulae determinations of, 201
maxillary (nasal), 40–41 measurement systems, 199
Site name, evidence recovery, 243 osteometry, 199–200
Size and shape, classifying bone by, 16 skeletal analysis and description, 199–202
Skeletal analysis and description. See also Laboratory analysis skeletal analysis quality check, 215
age, 197 Sternal rib ends, aging ribs, 71–72
disease and pathology, 211–14 Sternum, 69–70. See also Thorax
handedness, 198–99 Stewart, TD, 4–5, 117, 126
identification challenges, 216 Storage, field work preparation, 241
minimum number of individuals (MNI), 196–97 Stover, E, 289–90
quality check, 215 Strangulation, and hyoid fracture, 50
race, 198 Stress, bone architecture and, 16
sex, 197–98 Structural terms, 24
skeleton diagrams, 304–5, 310 Structure, classification of bone by, 17
stature, 199–202 Styloid process
trauma, 202–10 external auditory meatus, 36–37
Skeletal tuberculosis, 213 fibula, 135–36, 138
Skin beetles, 195 fifth metatarsal, 148
Skull. See also Craniometry (cranial measurements); Cranium; Race radius, 24, 91–93, 97
and cranial measurements temporal, 29, 36–37
age changes, 51 ulna, 94–96, 97
blindfolded, 285 Subpubic angle, 112–13, 121, 198, 215
Calvarium cut diagrams, 309 Subpubic concavity, 112–13, 121, 198
disarticulated, 48 Suchey, JM, 117–18
ethmoid, 44–45 Sulcus (groove), preauricular, 24, 114, 120–21
fractures, 210 Supplies. See Equipment and supplies
frontal, 30–31 Supra-glenoid tubercle, 64
full skull diagrams, 308 Suprameatal crest, 37, 53
lacrimal, 47–48 Surface burial, 247
mandible, 48–50 Surface irregularities, scene investigation, 246
maxilla, 40–41 Sutural bones, 227
morphology, nonmetric variation, 224–27 Suzuki, T, 117
nasals, 46 Synarthroses, 21–22
occipital, 34–35 Synovial joints, 22–23
palatine bone, 28, 40–41 Syphilis, 213
parietal bone, 17, 27–29, 32–33
sex differences, 52–54 Tail bone (coccyx), 75, 81
sphenoid, 39–40 Talus, tarsal bones, 132–33, 144–45
temporal, 36–37 Taphonomy, forensic, 255
vocabulary, 54–55 Tarsal bones, 17, 132–33, 142–45. See also Foot
 Index 363

Tartar, dental, 172, 174–75 directional terms, 156–57

Teenagers, dental aging, 168 discoloration, 175–76
Temporal bones, 36–37, 198 distinguishing similar teeth, 160–61
Temporal length, 198 enamel, 154–55, 157, 165, 169, 171, 173, 195, 213
Temporal lines, 32 incisors, 159–60, 227
Temporal mastoid process, 198 molars, 160–61, 173, 178, 215, 227
Temporal zygomatic process, 198 numbering systems, 158
Temporary cavitation, gunshot wounds, 208 odontological terminology, 178–79
Temporomandibular joint (TMJ), 36, 50 premolars, 159, 161
Tendons, 11, 24 pulp, 154–55, 157, 165, 169, 171, 174, 176, 178
Tension, bone architecture and strength, 12, 16 and racial traits, 164
Tentative identification, 216–17, 221 restoration, 178
Testimonial evidence, 181, 267–70, 275 root, 157, 159–61, 165
Tetracycline and tooth discoloration, 175 structure and function of, 154–58
Thigh bone. See femur tooth recognition, 159–60
Third cuneiform, tarsal bones, 143, 145 Torture, recognition of, 206
Thoracic vertebrae, 68, 78. See also Vertebral column Toxicologists, 186
Thorax Trabeculae, 15
clavicle, 57–59 Trace evidence, 181, 254
handedness, 61–62 Traction epiphyses, 13–14
ribs, 64–68 Training missions, human rights work, 295–96
scapula, 64 Transverse foramina, 77, 79. See also Vertebral column
shoulder girdle, 57 Transverse fracture, 206–7
sternum, 69–70 Transverse palatine suture, palatine bones, 42
Tibia Transverse processes, vertebral arch, 74, 76
about, 130–34 Trauma
and ankle joint, 142 amputation, 204–5
bones of confusion, 127 antemortem, 202
juvenile, 134 blunt force trauma, 210
and knee joint, 130 bone fractures, 206–7
measuring for stature, 199 and bone healing, 204–5
osteological terms, 138 cutting wounds, 207
Paget’s disease, 212 delayed union or non-union, 204
Q-angle, 126 dislocation, 210
and rickets, 213 gunshot wounds, 208–9
saber tibia and syphilis, 213 perimortem, 202, 267
tarsal articulation, 145 postmortem, 203
Tile probe, 244 recognizing rape or torture, 206
Tissues. See also Cartilage resorption, 204–5
basic types of, 10 shotgun wounds, 209
bone, 12–16 skeletal analysis and description, 202–10
connective, 10–17 skeletal analysis quality check, 215
defined, 11 timing of, 202
dense connective tissue, 11–12 Tree calipers, 191
tooth structure and function, 154–58 Trephination, 202
Tobacco and tooth discoloration, 175 Tri-State Crematory disaster, 279
Todd, TW, 116, 118 Triquetral carpal bones, 99, 101–3
Toe bones, phalanges, 149–51 Trochanter
Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, 297 femoral, 24
Tool marks, 207 greater, 123–24, 128–29, 138
Tools for field work, 243–45 lesser, 123–24, 128–29, 138
Tooth Trochlea, defined, 24
apex, 157 Trochlea, humerus, 86–88, 96
canine, 159 Trowels, 245
cementum, 155 True ribs, 65, 68
cervix, 157, 169, 178 Truth commissions, 292–93
cingulum, 160 Tubercle, 24
complete permanent dentition, 162–63 Tuberosity, 24
crown, 154, 157, 165, 168, 171, 173, 178
cusp, 157, 164, 178–79 Ubelaker, DH, 118
dental aging, 164–72 Ulna
dental anomalies, 173 about, 94–96
dentin, 154–55, 165, 169, 171 bones of confusion, 135
dentistry and oral disease, 173–77 carpal articulation, 102
dentistry terminology, 178 joints, 87, 90
364 Index

juvenile, 95 Victim identification packet (VIP), DMORT processing,

measuring for stature, 199 281–82
osteological terms, 97 Victim information forms, 242–43
and periostitis, 214 Video superimposition, 218
Underbite, 175 Viscerocranium, 26
Undisturbed burial, 248 Visual aids
Unidentified bodies, 2–3 antemortem information, 242
Unit numbers, evidence recovery, 243 demonstrative evidence, 181, 271
United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, 293 Visual identification, lack of, 187–88
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 285–86, 292 Volkmann’s canals, 15
Universal Numbering System, teeth, 158 Vomer, 28, 43
U.S. Army Central Identification Laboratory in Hawaii, 297–98
War crimes tribunals, human rights work, 293
Validity and evidence analysis, 183 Webster/Parkman Trial, 3
Vascular bridge formation, bone healing, 204 WinID Dental Identification System, 186
Vegetation changes, scene investigation, 246 Wiseley, DV, 117
Ventral arc, pubis, 112–14, 121, 198, 215 Wolff’s Law (“form follows function”), 16
Verbal evidence, 181 World Trade Center disaster, 260, 279–80, 283, 285
Vertebral body, 24, 65, 67, 74–76, 82–84 Wormian bones, 227
Vertebral column Wounds. See Trauma
age-related changes, 82–84 Woven bone, 12
cervical vertebrae, 76–78 Wrist bones (carpal bones), 100–102
coccygeal vertebrae, 81 Wyman, J, 3
coccyx, 81
costal pit, 24, 68, 82 Xiphoid process, 69–70
lumbar vertebrae, 79
osteological terms for, 82 Yugoslavia, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former
reassembling, 81 (ICTY), 293
sacral vertebrae (sacrum), 79–80
spinous process, 74–77 Zygomatic arch, 36–38, 55
thoracic vertebrae, 78 Zygomatic process, external auditory meatus, 36–37
vertebral disks, 82–84 Zygomatic suture, 38
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