CHAPTER EIGHT

Industrial Applications of Marine

Carbohydrates
Prasad N. Sudha1, S. Aisverya, R. Nithya, K. Vijayalakshmi
Department of Chemistry, D.K.M. College for Women, Thiruvalluvar University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
1
Corresponding author: e-mail address: [email protected]

Contents
1. Introduction 146
1.1 Marine carbohydrates 146
1.2 General structures and terminology 147
1.3 Production of carbohydrates by marine organisms 148
1.4 Analysis of marine carbohydrates 149
1.5 Carbohydrates in sediments 156
2. Applications of Marine Carbohydrates 156
2.1 In cosmetics 157
2.2 In food and agricultural field 157
2.3 In pharmaceutics 160
2.4 In biotechnology and microbiology 166
2.5 In treatment of industrial effluent 167
3. Future Directions for Research 170
4. Conclusion 171
Acknowledgments 171
References 171

Abstract
Biomaterials have been used increasingly in various fields, such as drug delivery, imag-
ing, and tissue engineering. The main reason justifying the widespread use of bioma-
terials relies on its valuable and low-cost source of new drugs. Current research goals are
focused on identifying more potent and specific compounds with antitumor, immuno-
modulatory, antihyperlipidemic, anticoagulant, and antiviral activities. The increasing
knowledge of structural analysis and chemical modifications enables the use of these
marine carbohydrates in a newer way for the human welfare. This chapter focuses on
the recent developments related to industrial and biomedical applications using chitin,
chitosan, alginate, agar, and carrageenan derivatives and reports the main advances
published over the last 10–15 years.

Advances in Food and Nutrition Research, Volume 73 # 2014 Elsevier Inc. 145
ISSN 1043-4526 All rights reserved.
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146 Prasad N. Sudha et al.

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Marine carbohydrates
Oceans represent vast and exhaustive source of natural products in the globe,
harboring the most diverse groups of flora and fauna. Marine microorgan-
isms have developed unique metabolic and physiological capabilities to
thrive in extreme habitats and produce novel metabolites that are not often
present in microbes of terrestrial origin (Fenical, 1993). Therefore, this rich
marine habitat provides a magnificent opportunity to discover newer com-
pounds such as antibiotics, enzymes, vitamins, drugs, biosurfactant,
bioemulsifier, and other valuable compounds of commercial importance
(Austin, 1989; Jensen & Fenical, 1994; Lang & Wagner, 1993;
Romanenko, Kalinovskaya, & Mikhailov, 2001). Marine carbohydrates
are the polysaccharides which can be extracted from marine plants and ani-
mal organisms or produced by marine bacteria that have been studied for
several decades.
Some of the major components which have been identified in marine
particles over the past decade, including uronic acids (Hung, Guo,
Santschi, Alvarado-Quiroz, & Haye, 2003; Mopper et al., 1995), aldoses
(Skoog & Benner, 1998), neutral sugars (Mopper et al., 1995), and amino
sugars (Muldoon et al., 2001). Recently, the marine-derived proteins are
becoming more popular among consumers because of their numerous
health beneficial effects that can provide equivalents to collagen and gelatin
without the associated risks. Seaweeds are major marine sources having
much kind of applications in various fields. There are three different algae
present in marine water: green, red, and brown algae. Among these, brown
seaweeds are having many types of polysaccharides which play an important
role in medical field. In the year of 1913, Killing first isolated the fucoidan
from marine brown algae and named as fucoidan (Killing, 1913).
Fucoidan are present only in the brown seaweeds with various essential
components. The brown algae, Fucus serratus L., consists of L-fucose, sulfate,
and acetate in a molar proportion of 1:1:0.1 and small amounts of xylose and
galactose (Bilan et al., 2006). The low-molecular-weight fucoidan have
potent anticoagulant and fibrinolytic properties with only minor platelet
activating effects (Diirig et al., 1976). One of the most abundant biopoly-
mers which were found in the marine organic carbon pool is the carbohy-
drates, making up 10–70% of organic matter in plankton cells
(Romankevich, 1984). The marine carbohydrates form the basis of a
Industrial Applications of Marine Carbohydrates 147

number of nutraceutical products (from seaweed, microalgae, and shrimp

waste) and also of the long established alginate (from seaweed) industry.
About 200 g carbohydrates per kg wet weight were found to be an appro-
priate substrate concentration for microbial conversion processes (Horn,
Aasen, & Østgaard, 2000). The field of natural polysaccharides of marine ori-
gin is already large and expanding.
Marine organisms are constituted by materials with a vast range of prop-
erties and characteristics that may justify their potential application within
the biomedical field. Moreover, assuring the sustainable exploitation of nat-
ural marine resources, the valorization of residues from marine origin, like
those obtained from food processing, constitutes a highly interesting plat-
form for development of novel biomaterials, with both economic and envi-
ronmental benefits. A large number of different types of compounds have
been isolated from aquatic organisms, and these have been transformed into
profitable products for health applications, including controlled drug deliv-
ery and tissue engineering devices. There is a wide range in the relative avail-
ability of different carbohydrates in marine environments. Marine algae
contain large amounts of not only polysaccharides, notably cell wall struc-
tural, but also mycopolysaccharides and storage polysaccharides (Kumar,
Sharma, & Kumar, 2005). Extracellular polysaccharides (EPS) are widely
secreted by various marine organisms including plants, animals, diatoms,
microalgae, and bacteria (Decho, 1990; Gutierrez, Martinez, & Prieto,
1996; Philippis, Margheri, Materassi, & Vincenzini, 1998; Philippis &
Vincenzini, 1998).
This review attempts to explore the plausible industrial and health ben-
efits of modified marine carbohydrates such as chitin, chitosan, alginate,
agar, and carrageenan with particular reference to its nutritional, biocompat-
ibility, and biodegradable properties.

1.2. General structures and terminology

One of the most abundant bioactive substances present in the marine organ-
isms is the carbohydrates. The major components of marine organic matter
are the carbohydrates, but few molecular-level carbohydrate analyses in sea-
water have been undertaken owing to the low concentrations of individual
compounds. The term saccharide is derived from the Latin word
“saccharum” from the sweet taste of sugars. Carbohydrates are hydrates of
carbon having the general formula as Cx(H2O)y—where x and y may or
may not be equal and range in value from 3 to 12 or more. Another modern
148 Prasad N. Sudha et al.

definition of a carbohydrate is that the compounds are polyhydroxy alde-

hydes or ketones that offers potential chemical diversity orders of magnitude
greater than their protein and nucleic acid counterparts (Turnbull &
Field, 2007).
Carbohydrates are major components of marine organic matter. The
largest identified fraction of organic matter in the ocean is the carbohydrates
which accounts for about 20–30% of organic matter in marine surface waters
(Benner, Pakulski, McCarty, Hedges, & Hatcher, 1992). It also accounts for
about 3–30% of the bulk dissolved organic carbon (Gueuen, Guo, Wang,
Tanaka, & Hung, 2006; Hung et al., 2003; Pakulski & Benner, 1994),
whereas, in estuarine and marine surface waters, they are considered to be
the most labile fractions of bulk organic matter. It may play key roles in
the geochemical cycles as reported by several studies (Benner et al., 1992;
Burdige & Zheng, 1998; Middelboe, Borch, & Kirchman, 1995;
Murrell & Hollibaugh, 2000).
Uronic acids (e.g., Mopper et al., 1995), amino sugars (e.g., Kerherve,
Charrieizi, & Gadel, 1995), and neutral sugars (e.g., Borch & Kirchman,
1997; Kerherve et al., 1995; Mopper et al., 1995) are the major classes of
carbohydrates which have been identified in marine waters. Several inves-
tigations of dissolved carbohydrates were done in marine waters (e.g.,
Haniia, 1970; Iitekot, Brockman, & Michafus, 1981; Liebezeit, Bolter,
Brown, & Dawson, 1989), but all of these studies relied on concentration
procedures that fractionate the sample and leave an unknown fraction of car-
bohydrates uncharacterized.

1.3. Production of carbohydrates by marine organisms

The carbohydrate content of marine organisms varies greatly in brown and
red algae. Carbohydrate may comprise up to 74% of the total organic matter
(Romankevich, 1984) while planktonic algae have a carbohydrate generally
ranging from 20% to 40% (Parsons, Stephens, & Stickland, 1961) and zoo-
plankton carbohydrate content is 2–4 times lower than that of phytoplank-
ton. The phytoplankton serves as the principle source for carbohydrates
found in seawater, particles, and sediments; the photosynthetic conversion
of carbon dioxide to biomass is the basis of carbohydrate production. Phy-
toplankton carbohydrate composition has been surveyed in both field sam-
ples and laboratory monocultures. In general, glucose has been found to be
the most common monosaccharide probably due to the fact that phyto-
plankton storage carbohydrates are primarily composed of glucose.
Industrial Applications of Marine Carbohydrates 149

The major source of carbohydrates to marine sediments is the sinking

particles. Methods of analysis of carbohydrates in sediments usually involve
extraction, separation and, finally, quantitation of the sugars. Carbohydrates
in sediments comprise about 10% of the total organic carbon. Studies of
anoxic surface sediments show that amino acids and carbohydrates are major
constituents of the organic matter (Burdige & Zheng, 1998). Carbohydrates
are remineralized rapidly during epigenetic and diagenetic bacterial activity
and that only less than 10% of these compounds are stable enough to be
incorporated into the sediment a few centimeters below the sediment/water
interface (Degens, Reuter, & Shaw, 1964; Seifert et al., 1990).

1.4. Analysis of marine carbohydrates

Analysis of the structural distinctions of carbohydrates can be difficult, how-
ever, since the isolation of carbohydrates from solution or from organic
matrix is not a trivial problem and determination of carbohydrate structure.
Many microorganisms in the marine environment that can degrade can uti-
lize algal carbohydrates as a carbon source for energy. An interesting source
for a myriad of different bioactive polysaccharides was the microalgae which
can range from various industrial applications to novel food applications.
Polysaccharides are polymers of simple sugars (monosaccharides) linked
together by glycosidic bonds, and they have numerous commercial applica-
tions in products such as stabilizers, thickeners, emulsifiers, food, feed, and
beverages (McHugh, 1987). The most representative polysaccharides in
marine environment are agar, alginate, carrageenan, chitin, and chitosan.

1.4.1 Agar
Agar or agar-agar is a gelatinous substance, obtained from an alga which con-
sists of a mixture of agarose and agaropectin. This was discovered in 1658 by
Minora Tanzaemon in Japan, where it is called Kanten. This can be used as a
laxative, an appetite suppressant, as a vegetarian gelatin substitute, a thick-
ener in soups, in fruit preserves, ice cream, and other desserts, as a clarifying
agent in brewing, and for sizing paper and fabrics (Cregut & Rondags,
2013). The structure of agar was shown in Fig. 8.1.
Agar is a gelling agent that is most commonly used in icings, sugar con-
fectionery, canned meat and fish products, diabetic and health foods, and
dairy products. Its use, however, is declining as more effective and often
cheaper gums become more available. On the opposite cost side, agar is
the most expensive industrially produced hydrocolloid. In 1882, Robert
Koch first introduced it as a gelling agent in culture media for bacteriological
150 Prasad N. Sudha et al.

Figure 8.1 Structure of agar.

studies. Since this, agar has become a major product initially used for bio-
logical research or analyses (Cregut & Rondags, 2013).

1.4.2 Alginates
Alginate is a binary linear heteropolysaccharide containing 1,4-linked α-L-
guluronic acid and β-D-mannuronic acid. This has been widely used in the
field of controlled release, ion exchange, and in the vapor-permeation
membrane-separation technique (Kalyani, Smitha, Sridhat, & Krishnaiah,
2008). The structure of sodium alginate is represented in Fig. 8.2.
Alginate, an algal polysaccharide, is widely used in the food industry as a
stabilizer, or as a thickening or an emulsifying agent. The only alginate
derivative used in food is propylene glycol alginate (PGA). PGA was first
prepared by Steiner (1947). Alginate when mixed with calcium ions is able
to produce a gel structure, which finds use as a thickening agent in the food
industry, in drug release systems during pharmaceutical applications. It is
one of the important biomaterial used in wound healing and cell culture.
Alginates were mainly used in the manufacture of paper and cardboard
pharmaceutical, cosmetic creams, and processed foods (Chapman, 1987).
The graft copolymers of this alginate polysaccharide have find applica-
tions in diverse fields such as pharmaceutical, biomedical, agriculture, and
environmental. Polymers with promising applications in the biomedical
field as delivery systems of therapeutic agents and the bioseparation devices
have been attracting much attention, due to nontoxic nature of alginate. In
literature reported, alginate, a natural anionic polysaccharide obtained by
extraction from brown algae, is composed of (1–4)-linked β-D-mannuronic
acid and α-L-guluronic acid blocks.
Due to their gelling ability in the presence of divalent cations, such as
calcium and barium, stabilizing properties and high viscosity in aqueous
solutions, alginate and its derivatives have been extensively utilized in
Industrial Applications of Marine Carbohydrates 151

Figure 8.2 Structure of alginate.

biomedical applications of cell transplantation, drug delivery, and bulk agent

gels. However, as no hydrolytic or enzymatic chain breakages occur within
alginate chains, high-molecular-weight alginate polymers cannot be easily
degraded and may be very slow to clear from the body.

1.4.3 Carrageenan
Carrageenans are too algal hydrocolloids and are among the cheapest hydro-
colloids available with an estimated price of US$10.5 kg
1. The main uti-
lization is as a gelling agent for food and cosmetic industries, but
carrageenan’s role in pharmaceutical industry as an additive is limited by
its variability in structure and properties. However, carrageenans are the
most produced gelling hydrocolloids with approximately 50,000 tons per
year for a global value estimated of US$527 million, in 2009. Carrageenan
is derived from seaweed of the class Rhodophyceae which has no nutritional
value and is used in food preparation for its gelling, thickening, and emul-
sifying properties (Van de Velde, Lourenco, Pinheiro, & Bakkerd, 2002).
Carrageenan is added to processed foods because it can bind water and
improve palatability and appearance through interaction with other sub-
stances in the food (e.g., proteins, sodium or calcium phosphates, starch,
galactomannan, and carboxyl methylcellulose) (Piculell, 2006). The struc-
ture of different forms of carrageenan is represented in Fig. 8.3.
Carrageenans are also used as stabilizers for foams, ice cream, condensed
milk, cream, and salad dressings. Carrageenan is widely used in dairy
products to improve texture, thickness, and solubility (McHugh, 2003).
Carrageenan is also successful in controlling discoloration, maintaining tex-
ture through shelf life, and providing antibacterial protection by coating on
sliced lychee (Plotto, Narciso, Baldwin, & Rattanapanone, 2006), bananas
(Bico, Rapaso, Morais, & Morais, 2009), and mangoes (Plotto et al., 2006).
152 Prasad N. Sudha et al.

Figure 8.3 Different forms of carrageenan.

Plain carrageenans, as well as agar, are mainly used as a food additive, but
increasing attention is given to possible biomedical applications, in combi-
nation with synthetic polymers. The synthesis of agar-graft-
polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and κ-carrageenan-graft-PVP blends by a
microwave irradiation method has been reported (Prasad et al., 2006).
The physicochemical and rheological properties of the corresponding
hydrogels were studied and compared with control agar and κ-carrageenan
hydrogels. The novel blend hydrogels were found to be not as strong and
showed better spreadability and water-holding capability, so they are poten-
tially useful in moisturizer formulations and active carriers of drugs. The use
of blended PVP with agar in hydrogel dressings has also been reported
(Lugao et al., 1998).
Industrial Applications of Marine Carbohydrates 153

In the biomedical area, the use of modified carrageenans has also been
explored. Porous nanocomposites were prepared by coprecipitation of cal-
cium phosphates into a κ-carrageenan matrix (Daniel-da-Silva, Lopes,
Gil, & Correia, 2007), whose resulting porosity and morphology were suit-
able for application in bone tissue engineering. The association among car-
rageenan, nanohydroxyapatite, and collagen resulted in an injectable bone
substitute biomaterial, suitable for bone reconstruction surgery (Gan &
Feng, 2006).

1.4.4 Chitin and chitosan

Chitin was first discovered in mushrooms by the French Professor, Henri
Braconnot, in 1811. In 1820s, chitin was also isolated from insects. Chitin
contains 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-β-D-glucose through a β (1 ! 4) linkage.
Chitin is the most abundant natural fiber next to the cellulose and is similar
to cellulose in many respects. The most abundant source of chitin is the shell
of crab and shrimp. Chitosan was discovered in 1859 by Professor
C. Rouget. Chitosan contains 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-β-D-glucopyranose and
2-amino-2-deoxy-β-D-glucopyranose residues (Bhatnagar & Sillanpää, 2009).
Chitin (C8H13O5N)n is a long-chain polymer of a N-acetylglucosamine,
a derivative of glucose which was first identified in 1884 (Gonzalez-Davila,
Santana-Casiano, & Millero, 1990). Chitin can be found in one of the three
crystalline forms α-chitin, β-chitin, and γ-chitin, respectively. α-Chitin is
mainly present in shells of crabs, lobsters, and shrimps. The β-chitin was
obtained from squid pens in which the chains are arranged in a parallel fash-
ion, while γ-chitin is the form in which the molecules are arranged in both
parallel and antiparallel manners. Based on the intermolecular interactions
and the packing arrangements, it was finally concluded that the β-chitin
was found to be more reactive and versatile (Morganti, 2012).
It is the most important inexpensive natural biological polysaccharide
occurring in crustaceous shells or in cell walls of fungi which has gained
much attention for biomedical and industrial applications, due to its bio-
compatibility and restorative properties (Borch & Kirchman, 1997). Exam-
ples of the potential uses of chemically modified chitin in food processing
include the formation of edible films and as an additive to thicken and sta-
bilize foods (Shahidi, Arachchi, & Jeon, 1999) and pharmaceuticals. More-
over, due to its biodegradable nature, chitin has been reported to have some
unusual properties that accelerate healing of wounds in humans (Morganti,
2012), and it is also used as a potential biomaterial for artificial skin, suture,
and drug carrier (Lee, 1996). Up to now, the biotechnologically produced
154 Prasad N. Sudha et al.

chitin is not commercially available, but it offers new perspectives for the
production of high-viscosity chitosan, with a promising potential for appli-
cations in biomedicine and pharmacy (Hang, Dunstan, & Dass, 2010). Fer-
mentation of this biowaste using lactic acid bacteria for the production of
chitin has been studied and reported. Fundamental knowledge of the inter-
actions among chitin and proteins, polysaccharides, calcium carbonate,
enzymes, drugs, cells, and synthetic materials is not only important for elu-
cidating biological processes associated with chitin but also for designing
novel chitin-based biomaterials (Wang & Esker, 2014).
Chitosan a unique basic linear polysaccharide obtained from the
deacetylation of chitin which comprises an unbranched chain consisting
of β-(1,4)-2-amino-2-deoxy-D-glucopyranose (Muzzarelli, 1993). When
compared to other polysaccharides, chitosan has several excellent properties
such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, nontoxicity, good film-forming
capacity, and excellent chemical-resistant behavior. Due to these advan-
tages, chitosan has been widely used in membranes on ultrafiltration, reverse
osmosis, evaporation, clinics (Badawya & Rabeab, 2009) and surfactants
(Ngimhuang, Furukawa, Satoh, Furuike, & Sakairi, 2004), drug delivery
systems (Sashiwa, Yajima, & Aiba, 2003), and solid polyelectrolyte forma-
tions (Wang, Xu, & Chen, 2007). The diagrammatic representation of for-
mation of chitosan from the chitin is shown in Fig. 8.4.
Chitosan is widely used especially in food industry, pharmaceutical
industry, and biotechnology. In addition, using chitosan as a carrier, many
studies have been conducted with mouse, rat, rabbit, and canine animal
models in order to describe in vivo biocompatibility, biodegradability, drug
delivery, DNA delivery, and wound healing. Chitosan is mainly used in
water purification plants throughout the world to remove oil, grease, heavy
metals, and fine particulate matter that cause turbidity in wastewater streams.
The decolorization by chitosan which is decrystallized by citric acid is effi-
cient, fast, and cost effective and appears to be a promising method for the
treatment of alkaline effluent from textile industry containing mixed dye.
Chitosan has also been approved as a food additive in Korea and Japan since
1995 and 1983, respectively (KFDA, 1995; No, Park, Lee, Hwang, &
Meyers, 2002; Weiner, 1992).
Higher antibacterial activity of chitosan at lower pH suggests that the
addition of chitosan to acidic foods will enhance its effectiveness as a
natural preservative (No et al., 2002). Chitosan has, in the last decades, been
widely used in a variety of applications, both industrially and pharmaceuti-
cally, which has been well described in several comprehensive reviews
Industrial Applications of Marine Carbohydrates 155

Figure 8.4 Chitosan derived from chitin.

(Dodane & Vilivalam, 1998; Felt, Buri, & Gurny, 1998; Illum, 1998;
Prabaharan, 2008; Rinaudo, 2006). A large body of research exists on chem-
ical modification of chitosan through derivatization of the amine and/or
hydroxyl groups (Amidi et al., 2006; Snyman, Govender, & Kotze, 2003;
Thanou et al., 2000). Comparatively, many cellulose derivatives have been
produced in a similar way (Philipp et al., 1996). However, the advantage
of chitosan in comparison with other polysaccharides (such as cellulose,
starch, and galactomannans) is that its chemical structure allows easier
modifications at the C-2 position. Specific groups can be introduced to
achieve novel polymers for selected applications. Attempts to enhance water
solubility of chitosan led to several methods of derivatization. Examples
include sulfonation (Bannikova, Sukhanova, Vikhoreva, Varlamov, &
Gal’braikh, 2002), quaternarization (Polnok, Verhoef, Borchard, Sarisuta, &
Junginger, 2004), carboxymethylation (Wongpanit et al., 2005), and N- and
O-hydroxyalkylation (Donges, Reichel, & Kessler, 2000; Richardson &
156 Prasad N. Sudha et al.

Gorton, 2003). Furthermore, a variety of graft copolymerization of chitosan,

for example, with lactic acid (Yao et al., 2003), polyacrylic acid (Shim &
Nho, 2003), vinyl pyrrolidone (Yazdani-Pedram & Retuert, 1997), 3-O-
dodecyl-D-glucose (Ngimhuang et al., 2004), and N-isopropylacrylamide
(Lee, Ha, Cho, Kim, & Lee, 2004), have been presented and evaluated as
practical biomedical materials.
Cyclodextrin-linked chitosan is interesting for the viewpoint of pharma-
ceutics, including drug delivery, cosmetics, and analytical chemistry, and
quaternized chitosan has potential as an absorption enhancer across the intes-
tinal epithelium due to its mucoadhesive and permeability enhancing prop-
erties (Sashiwa & Aiba, 2004).

1.5. Carbohydrates in sediments

Carbohydrates are the major organic compounds produced in the biosphere
through autotrophic organisms by photosynthetic methods (Youssef,
El-Said, & Shobier, 2013). Due to its more abundant and ubiquitous nature,
the carbohydrates play an important role in biogeochemical cycles occurring
in the marine water column, sediment–water interface which accounts for
10–85% of the dissolved organic carbon in seawater (Pakulski & Benner,
1994), sediments, and pore waters (Arnosti & Holmer, 1999; Burdige,
Skoog, & Gardner, 2000).
The major source of carbohydrates to marine sediments is the sinking
particles. Methods of analysis of carbohydrates in sediments usually involve
extraction, separation, and, finally, quantitation of the sugars. Studies of
anoxic surface sediments show that amino acids and carbohydrates are major
constituents of the organic matter Carbohydrates are remineralized rapidly
during epigenetic and diagenetic bacterial activity and that only less than
10% of these compounds are stable enough to be incorporated into the
sediment a few centimeters below the sediment/water interface (Degens
et al., 1964).

2. APPLICATIONS OF MARINE CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrate polymers have current or potential industrial applica-
tion in many areas such as paper, adhesives, food, textiles, wood, pharma-
ceuticals, biodegradables, and biorefining. It plays an important role in
many biological and biochemical processes such as the maturation, fertiliza-
tion, cell differentiation, protein folding, and degradation. The marine
carbohydrates including glucosamine glycon, chitin, chitosan, fucoidan,
Industrial Applications of Marine Carbohydrates 157

carrageenan, and alginic acid have a host of bioactivities such as antioxidative,

antibacterial, antiviral, antitumor, immunostimulatory, and anticoagulant.

2.1. In cosmetics
Generally, algae are mainly used to produce a wide range of metabolites such
as carbohydrates, carotenoids, proteins, lipids, or vitamins for health, food
and feed additives, and cosmetics and for energy production. The pigment
content in microalgae is a specific feature of each species. Its evaluation is
essential as an indirect measure of cell growth, as well as a parameter to check
the trophic level of waters. Components of algae are frequently used in cos-
metics as thickening agents, water-binding agents, and antioxidants. Some
microalgal species are established in the skin care market, the main ones
being Arthrospira and Chlorella (Stolz & Obermayer, 2005). Microalgae are
the microscopic unicellular organisms which have the capability to convert
solar energy to chemical energy via photosynthesis. The extracts of
microalgae, marine fungi, and bacteria seem to have genuine repair-
and-maintenance effects in skin cosmetics, fighting UV damage, and age
deterioration. Chitosan is used as antiobesity agent, moisturizing agent,
emollient, and film former.

2.2. In food and agricultural field

Marine organisms have been used for centuries as a resource, mainly for sim-
ple fuels, food, and fertilizers. The development of a global high-value
industry based on carotenoids from certain microalgae which provides
medical or health benefits, in food and aquaculture feeds as antioxidants
and colorings for use in nutraceuticals has been seen in the past 40 years.
Only in the recent years, the attention has turned to making use of algae
(seaweeds and microalgae) and invertebrates as sources of platform mole-
cules, building blocks, and processes for a wider range of industries. Another
useful commodity from algae is livestock feed. A large number of algae have
been tested for their biochemical compositions to be used as a livestock feed
supplement or primary livestock feed. Edible seaweeds have reported to be
used as food due to lower calorie, high concentration of minerals, vitamins,
and proteins, and a low fat content (Dhargalkar & Verlecar, 2009).
Algal biomass may well become a significant component of mixed mate-
rials for bioenergy production. The carbohydrates and lipids present in mac-
roalgae and microalgae are raw materials for green fuels, some of which are
finding their way into jet fuel and commercial flights using the biorefinery
158 Prasad N. Sudha et al.

approach. Anaerobic digestion of total algal biomass can also provide meth-
ane for combined heat and power. EPS produced by marine organisms also
have a role as inhibitors of crystal formation in frozen foods and sugar syrups
(Colwell, Pariser, & Sindkey, 1986; Sogawa, Kodama, Matsuda, Okutani, &
Shigeta, 1998; Sutherland, 1998).
Spirulina a well-known blue green alga is still used in food supplements
due to its excellent nutrient compounds and digestibility (Kumar et al.,
2005). Besides higher content of protein (60–70 wt.%), Spirulina also con-
tains a rich source of vitamins, especially vitamin B12 and provitamin
A (β-carotene) and minerals (Thajuddin & Subramanian, 2005). Compared
to other microorganisms, Spirulina can be cultivated in high saline water and
alkaline conditions which give an advantage to function as a feedstock for
livestock feed. In addition, red algae, mainly Porphyra, and brown algae, par-
ticularly Laminaria, Undaria, and Hizikiafusiforme, were directly consumed in
human food (Besada, Andrade, Schultze, & Gonzalez, 2009).
In the human food industry, agar is used mainly as a gelling agent and in a
secondary way as a stabilizing agent and for controlling viscosity. It is used as
an additive, not as a nutrient. The gelling power of agar is so high that it is
used at 1% maximum concentration; for viscosity control and as a stabilizing
agent, the proportion used is 1/100 or less. For this reason, the ingested
quantities are very small and, because agar is not easily digested by the human
body, its calorie contribution is negligible and thus agar can be used in special
diet food. Agar digestion by the human body is imperfect; studies have
shown that less than 10% of the polysaccharide is assimilated. Therefore,
due to the small proportions in which it is used in human food, its impor-
tance as a nutrient is very small (http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5822e/
x5822e03.htm). Agar has been used for many centuries as a high perfor-
mance gelling agent. Its ability to produce clear, colorless, odorless, and nat-
ural gels without the support of other colloids has long been exploited by the
food industry not only as a stabilizer and gelling agent but also in the
manufacturing of confectionery aspics, glazing, icing coatings, piping jellies,
salad dressings, etc. (http://indiaagar.com/Agar.aspx).
The use of chitosan-based edible films is also used to preserve the micro-
bial quality of pork meat hamburger. Tripathi, Mehrotra, and Dutta (2009)
developed a novel antimicrobial coating based on chitosan and PVA and
evaluated its effect on minimally processed tomato. These results indicated
that the film may be a promising material for food packaging applications.
Chitosan is used as a preservative in low-pH foods, either alone or in com-
bination with other preservative systems. The constituents of the food
Industrial Applications of Marine Carbohydrates 159

matrix appear to have an important effect on the antimicrobial efficacy of

chitosan (Rhoades & Roller, 2000). Several workers (Bhale et al., 2003;
Caner, 2005; Lee, 1996) have reported that chitosan coating is effective
in preserving the internal quality of eggs.
Chitosan films as well as chitosan-coated films are used as active packaging,
which can increase shelf life by inhibiting microbial growth (Chen, Yeh, &
Chiang, 1996; Labuza & Breene, 1989). The use of chitin films to preserve
fruits is approved in Canada and in the United States (Shahidi et al., 1999).
Other applications of chitinuous products include enzyme immobilization,
water purification and clarification, deacidification, and as emulsifying, thick-
ening, and stabilizing agents. The search for robust and energy-sparing
enzymes, for food processing and other industrial-scale uses and biocatalytic
conversion for green chemicals, is also finding the marine environment a fruit-
ful source of new candidates. Beyond the well-understood hydrocolloids, the
seaweeds are now being developed for uses that underpin large sectors of
processed foods and drinks, and cosmetics industries.
Coating fruits with semipermeable film has generally been shown to
retard ripening by modifying the endogenous CO2, O2, and ethylene levels
of fruits (El Ghaouth, Arul, Ponnampalam, & Boulet, 1991). Chitosan coat-
ing is used to modify the internal atmosphere without causing anaerobic res-
piration, because chitosan films are selectively permeable to O2 than to CO2
(Bai, Huang, & Jiang, 1988). Therefore, chitosan coating modifies internal
atmosphere in the tissue and fungistatic property and thus has a potential to
prolong storage life and control decay of fruits.
To effectively extend the shelf life of postharvest fruit and vegetable,
chitosan-based coating as a relatively convenient and safe measure, is more
and more concerned in food industry in recent years. Chitosan has strong
antimicrobial and antifungal activities which effectively controls fruit decay
Aider (2010). Chitosan forms a coating on fruit and vegetable, and thus the
respiration rate of fruit and vegetable was reduced by adjusting the perme-
ability of carbon dioxide and oxygen (Elsabee & Abdou, 2013). Chitosan is
also used in many postharvest fruits and vegetables, such as grape, berry,
jujube, and fresh-cut lotus root (Perdones, Sánchez-González, Chiralt, &
Vargas, 2012; Yu et al., 2012; Xing et al., 2010). Chitin or chitosan is used
to control postharvest diseases of many fruits such as pear (Yu, Wang, Yin,
Wang, & Zheng, 2008), strawberry (Bhaskara, Belkacemi, Corcuff,
Castaigne, & Arul, 2000; Ge, Zhang, Chen, Ma, & Xu, 2010), table grape
(Mark, Bikales, over Berger, & Menges, 1985), tomato (Badawya & Rabeab,
2009), citrus (Chien, Sheu, & Lin, 2007), and longan (Jiang & Li, 2001).
160 Prasad N. Sudha et al.

Though chitosan coating has many advantages for the preservation of

postharvest fruit and vegetable, as for specific fruit or vegetable, single
chitosan coating sometimes demonstrates a certain defect, which includes
limited inhibition to especial microorganism that leads fruit to decay, and
poor coating structure to adjust the permeability of carbon dioxide and oxy-
gen (Ravi, 2000). To overcome this deficiency of single chitosan coating,
there are two main methods to improve the property of chitosan coating.
One method is that the chitosan were combined with organic compounds
such as essential oil, organic acid, or inorganic compound including metal
ions and inorganic nanomaterial, as well as biological control agents.
The other method is that the single chitosan coating was applied with
physical remedies containing heat treatment, hypobaric treatment, gas fumi-
gation, and modified atmosphere packaging. After applying improved
chitosan-based coating, the preserving effects were increased in most of
the cases compared with single chitosan (Jianglian & Shaoying, 2013).
Chitosan with a partial positive charge possess acid-binding properties
(Imeri & Knorr, 1988) and to be effective in aiding the separation of colloidal
and dispersed particles from food processing wastes (Knorr, 1985). These
properties make chitosan an attractive processing aid in fruit juice produc-
tion. Chitosan is also used to improve the quality and shelf life of milk. Ha
and Lee (2001) investigated the effectiveness of water-soluble chitosan to
minimize the microbial (bacterial and yeast) spoilage of processed milk.
Complete inhibition of microbial growth was observed in the banana-
flavored milk containing chitosan. In agriculture, chitosan is used as a coat-
ing for fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, nematocides, and insecticides for
their controlled release to soil which is done in order to reduce environmen-
tal damage caused by excessive use of these agrochemicals. Chitosan films are
used to coat seeds and leaves to prevent microbial infection (Li, Dunn,
Grand Maison, & Goosen, 1992).

2.3. In pharmaceutics
Algal organisms are rich source of novel and biologically active primary and
secondary metabolites. These metabolites may be potential bioactive com-
pounds of interest in the pharmaceutical industry (Rania & Hala, 2008).
Biopolymers produced by marine organisms are being increasingly investi-
gated for several biomedical applications (d’Ayala, Malinconico, &
Laurienzo, 2008; Rinaudo, 2008). The polysaccharides derived from marine
materials have been widely used in the development of drug delivery
Industrial Applications of Marine Carbohydrates 161

devices, especially with the shape of spheres of different sizes. The most
probable marine-derived polymers used in the preparation of drug delivery
particles are the chitosan and alginate. These two main polysaccharides (algi-
nate and chitin) extracted from marine plants (algae kelp) and crab shells,
respectively, have an extensive history of use in basic sciences, pharmacy,
and medicine.
The existence of bioactive compounds in algae is to be expected due to
co-occurrence of these organisms in aquatic natural communities, where an
inhibitory interaction occurred between producers and competitors within
the same habitat. Microalgae contain numerous bioactive compounds that
can be harnessed for commercial use. They have emerged as important
sources of proteins and value-added compounds with pharmaceutical and
nutritional importance. The microalgae have a significant attraction as nat-
ural source of bioactive molecules, because they have the potential to pro-
duce bioactive compounds in culture, which are difficult to produce by
chemical synthesis.
Some other novel molecules, which are obtained from the microalgae,
marine fungi, and bacteria, have the exciting potential in medicine for can-
cers, immune disorders, and resistant microbial infections. A toxin named as
holothurin is the earliest biologically active substance of marine origin which
was extracted by Nigrelli from a marine organism, the Actinopyga agassizi
(Nigrelli, Stempien, Ruggirei, Liguori, & Cecil, 1967). Holothurin showed
some antitumor activities in mice. After this invention, the search for drugs
and natural products of interest from marine organisms has continued. Also,
the replacement of the existing polysaccharide polymers such as carrageenan
by the porphyridium polysaccharide was used in biomedical applications.
Chitin and chitosan have been proposed as biomaterials having a range of
biomedical and industrial applications because of their potential beneficial
biological activities (Shigemasa & Minami, 1995), such as antimicrobial
activity and stimulation of healing. Chitosan is a viscous solution and is easily
gelled upon mixing with heparin solution, resulting in an insoluble hydrogel
(Fujita et al., 2004, 2007).
In drug delivery systems, the modification of chitosan is a powerful tool
to control the interaction of the polymer with drugs, enhances the load capa-
bility, and tailors the release profile of the drug carriers. It is an acknowl-
edged polymer for drug delivery in the colonic part, since it can be
degraded by the microflora present in the human colon. Also, it has the
potential of serving as an adsorbent enhancer across intestinal epithelial cells
for its mucoadhesive and permeability enhancing property ( Janes, Calvo, &
162 Prasad N. Sudha et al.

Alonso, 2001; Kowapradit et al., 2008). It is also proved to enhance insulin

absorption across human intestinal cell without injuring them.
The performance of chitosan on the cited applications was mainly due to
responsible properties such as excellent chelation behavior, antimicrobial
activity, high adsorption, controllable biological activity, hydrogels forming
ability, film-forming ability, nontoxicity, biodegradability, and biocompat-
ibility (Honarkar & Barikani, 2009; Rinaudo, 2006; Silva, Mano, & Reis,
2010). Polysaccharide-based biomaterials plays an emerging role in several
biomedical fields such as tissue regeneration, particularly for cartilage, drug
delivery devices, and gel entrapment systems for the immobilization of cells.
The ability of chitosan to be processed into porous structure is used in
cell transplantation and tissue regeneration. Three-dimensional biodegrad-
able chitosan nanohydroxyapatite composite scaffolds were reported for
bone tissue engineering application (Thein-Han & Misra, 2009). The
thermogelling chitosan/glycol phosphate solutions prepared by Chenite,
Chaput, and Wang (2000) can form a gel in body temperature and are attrac-
tive as injectable implant system in tissue engineering. These liquid gels are
able to fill any space or shape of a defective site, leaving cells and therapeutic
agents and are incorporated prior to the injection within the solution and the
systems can be implanted in the site without surgery.
In wound healing, an ideal dressing should protect the wound from bac-
terial infection as well as promote healing (Wu et al., 2003). Chitosan-based
materials, produced in varying formulations, have been used in a number of
wound healing applications. Chitosan induces wound healing on its own
and produces less scarring (Azad, Sermsintham, Chandrkrachang, &
Stevens, 2004; Ueno, Mori, & Fujinaga, 2001; Ueno et al., 1999).
When used in wound management, chitosan and its derivatives turn into
gel, when they come into contact with body fluids and reduce friction
between the dressing material and the wound. They also accelerate wound
healing with their hemostatic properties and stimulate macrophage. The
increase in the antimicrobial activity is observed with carboxymethyl
chitosan, which makes the essential transition metal ions unavailable for bac-
teria or binds to the negatively charged bacterial surface to disturb the cell
membranes (Liu, Guan, Yand, Li, & Yao, 2001). In the field of ophthalmol-
ogy, chitosan is used in the making of therapeutic contact lenses and eye
dressing.
Chang, Niu, Huang, and Kuo (2007) proposed the use of polyethylene
glycol (PEG)-g-chitosan for cell adhesion applications, while Wang et al.
(2007) successfully used this copolymer to coat a poly(dimethylsiloxane)
Industrial Applications of Marine Carbohydrates 163

microchip intended for biomolecule (amino acids and proteins) separation,

using an in situ method. In the latter experiment, the coating increased sur-
face hydrophilicity and suppressed adsorption of biomolecules.
Radhakumary, Prabha, Nair, and Suresh (2009) suggested the applica-
tion of chitosan-comb-graft-polyethylene glycol (PEG) monomethacrylate
as a new biomaterial for hemodialysis and immunoisolatory membranes.
This material was found to have discriminating permeability capacities (per-
meable to low-molecular-weight solutes like creatinine, glucose, and urea
and impermeable to high-molecular-weight solutes like albumin). Li
et al. (2009) reported the possibility of making films of mPEG-g-chitosan
by preparing a composite film with suitable hollow and high capacity of
water adsorption, which could have potential application in wound healing
and tissue engineering.
Aly, Abdel-Mohsen, and Hebeish (2010) showed innovative multi-
finishing using O-PEG-g-chitosan/citric acid aqueous system for prepara-
tion of medical textiles. The cotton treated with the copolymer has been
evaluated as healthcare worker uniforms and medical products, acquiring
antimicrobial and anticrease properties.
Usually, chitosan manufactured from squid pen by spin casting technol-
ogy is used in contact lenses. They have good tensile strength, elongation,
modulus, tear strength which are essential in the making of contact lenses.
Also, ocular bandage lenses are made from chitosan-based materials, as they
possess antimicrobial, wound healing, and film capability properties
(Markey, Churchill, & MacDonald, 1989).
Targeted chitosan nanoparticles have been developed to specifically
deliver therapeutics or contrast agents to tumor or metastasis for cancer treat-
ment and diagnosis. So far, several studies have investigated PEGylation of
chitosan to improve its affinity to water and organic solvents. PEG is a neu-
tral, water-soluble, and nontoxic polymer which has been employed for
pharmaceutical and biomedical applications (Harris & Zalipsky, 1997).
PEG is a synthetic polymer approved by the FDA for internal consumption
and injection in a variety of foods, cosmetics, and drug delivery systems
(Cavalla, 2001). Magnetic chitosan nanoparticles, as multifunctional
nanocarriers, were loaded with bleomycin and proved to be a very effective
as targeting system by Kavaz, Odabas, Güven, Demirbilek, and Denkbas
(2010). After systematic administration of these systems into the body, they
circulate in the blood stream and specifically bind to the targeting cancerous
cells or tumor sites due to the incorporation of signaling molecules in their
constituents (Hang et al., 2010).
164 Prasad N. Sudha et al.

Recent studies have demonstrated that chewing the chitosan oligomer

containing gum effectively inhibited the growth of carcinogenic bacteria
in the saliva (Hayashi, Ohara, & Ganno, 2007) and also the growth of peri-
odontic bacteria (P. gingivalis) in saliva. The chitosan-containing gum
chewing has a greater antibacterial effect and it also increases salivary secre-
tion (Hayashi, Ohara, Ganno, Ishiazaki, & Yanagiguchi, 2007). Also due to
the antibacterial properties of chitosan, it is an important component in skin
care creams, shampoos, and hair sprays. As chitosan is the only natural cat-
ionic gum that becomes viscous on being neutralized with acids, it is used in
creams, lotions, and as nail lacquers (Mark et al., 1985). Recently, asymmet-
ric chitosan membranes were developed for the guided tissue regeneration
using the two-step phase separation (Kang et al., 2007).
Chitosan’s functional groups allow it to interact with many materials,
which allow it to be used in conjunction with materials such as hydroxyap-
atite or other calcium-based minerals to form composites that have multiple
applications within the orthopedic and periodontal industries. These cal-
cium–chitosan composites can be used as a coating in conjunction with joint
prostheses. As the chitosan is degraded, new bone can be deposited adjacent
to the prosthesis to stabilize the implant within bone. An additional use for
chitosan in orthopedics includes a direct replacement of bone or hard tissue.
It is also a natural bioadhesive used to improve bone cement which is used to
secure implants as well as to fill bone cavities (Foda, El-Laithy, & Tadros,
2007; Khor & Lim, 2003; Senel & McClure, 2004).
Another recent article shows the finding of the occurrence of silica–chitin
fiber composite in skeletons of marine sponges. This is the first report of a sil-
ica–chitin’s composite biomaterial found in nature. From this perspective, the
view that silica–chitin scaffolds may be key templates for skeleton formation
(Ehrlich et al., 2007). This structural information could be useful in develop-
ing scaffolds for tissue engineering and other applications. In an vitro study on
the degradation and biocompatibility of poly(L-lactic acid)/chitosan (PLLA/
CS) fiber composites, excellent adhesion between osteoblast and PLLA/CS
fabrics was observed, indicating good biocompatibility of the fabrics with
osteoblast and its possible use as supporting materials for chest walls and bones
(Zhang, Hua, Shen, & Yang, 2007). Chitin fiber is also employed to fabricate
novel biomimetic nanostructured bicomponent scaffolds consisting of chitin
and silk fibroin nanofibers by an electrospinning process.
Chitosan is suitable for nerve regeneration based on its biocompatibility and
biodegradability. Haipeng et al. (2000) reported that neurons cultured on the
chitosan membrane can grow well and that chitosan tube can promote repair
Industrial Applications of Marine Carbohydrates 165

of the PNS. Yuan, Zhang, Yang, Wang, and Gu (2004) found that chitosan fibers
supported the adhesion, migration, and proliferation of SCs, which provide a
similar guide for regenerating axons to Bungner bands in the nervous system
(Sudha, Aisverya, Rose, Venkatesan, & Kim, 2013). Some research work, on
Aloe vera gel with the alginate film, to explore its therapeutic properties, which
includes antibacterial, antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, and its ability to stimulate
the fibroblast proliferation and the collagen synthesis (Atiba et al., 2011;
Choi & Chung, 2003; Pellizzoni, Ruzickova, Kalhotka, & Lucini, 2012).
Jayakumar, Menon, Manzoora, Naira, and Tamura (2010) have reported
that the chitosan encapsulated ZnS nanoparticles were further functionalized
with D-mannose to yield mannosylated ZnS of size  120 nm. In vitro cyto-
toxicity of the synthesized nanomaterials assessed using MTT assay suggests
low cytotoxicity of the mannosylated ZnS nanoparticles toward both nor-
mal and cancer cell lines. Active targeting of cancer cells was attempted using
the mannosylated nanoparticles.
Alginate has been used in a number of biomedical applications, such as
wound dressing, tissue engineering, and drug delivery. Several reports have
suggested that certain alginate dressings (e.g., Kaltostat) can enhance wound
healing by stimulating monocytes to produce elevated levels of cytokines
such as interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α Thomas, Harding, and
Moore (2000). Production of these cytokines at wound sites results in
proinflammatory factors that are advantageous to wound healing.
On the other hand, since carrageenan (CG) is negatively charged above
its pKa value, it can spontaneously associate with positively charged polyions
to form polyelectrolyte complexes (Zhang, Du, Wang, & Zhang, 2010).
Tapia and co-workers employed polyelectrolyte complexes of CS and
κCG as prolonged drug release matrix. However, the high capacity of
κCG to absorb water into tablets induced premature disintegration of tablets
instead of matrix swelling. Recent studies showed that, when CS–CGs-
based tablets were transferred from simulated gastric fluid to simulated
intestinal fluid, in situ polyelectrolyte film could be formed on the surface
of tablets, and the polyelectrolyte film could further control drug release
(Li et al., 2013). Thus, CS–CG nanoparticles have potential applications
not only in drug delivery but also in tissue engineering and regenerative
medicine (Li, Ni, Shao, & Mao, 2014).
In addition to the aspects described earlier, the utilization of CG in the
pharmaceutical field is being broadened. For instance, besides as a novel pel-
letizing agent, CG can also be used as an efficient drug release modifier for
ethyl cellulose-coated pharmaceutical dosage forms.
166 Prasad N. Sudha et al.

2.4. In biotechnology and microbiology

Marine biotechnology has an increasingly important role in the future
bioeconomy. In order to maximize the impact of public funding for research
and innovation in marine biotechnology, the Europe is now at the verge of
creating a higher level of interlinking and aligned national research pro-
grams. Marine biotechnology mainly consists of two aspects. It uses the
products and processes of marine organisms in modern industrial biotech-
nology, and applies the biotechnology in the marine context in areas such
as environmental monitoring and bioremediation.
By controlling the growth conditions of variety of microorganisms in a
bioreactor while tailoring the production of biologically active compounds,
it is possible to obtain different number of polysaccharides using biotechnol-
ogy as the powerful tool. The knowledge of biochemical processes which
was adapted in extreme marine environments is the basis for discoveries
in biotechnology. This was the actual current opinion of most of the scien-
tific community throughout the world in the fields of biotechnology that
could benefit from miming the extremophiles are very broad and cover
the search for new bioactive compounds for pharmaceutical, industrial, agri-
cultural, environmental, and medical uses.
Microalgae are employed in agriculture as biofertilizers and soil condi-
tioners. The majority of cyanobacteria are capable of fixing atmospheric nitro-
gen and are effectively used as biofertilizers. Cyanobacteria play an important
role in maintenance and build-up of soil fertility, consequently increasing rice
growth and yield as a natural biofertilizer (Song, Martensson, Eriksson,
Zheng, & Rasmussen, 2005). The agricultural importance of cyanobacteria
in rice cultivation is directly related with their ability to fix nitrogen and other
positive effects for plants and soil. After water, nitrogen is the second limiting
factor for plant growth in many fields and deficiency of this element is met by
fertilizers (Malik, Ahmed, & Rizki, 2001). Agarose forms an inert matrix
which is principally used in nucleic acid and protein separations. Other very
important applications, besides electrophoresis, are chromatography, gel affin-
ity, ionic exchange, immunodiffusion, biocatalytic support, and its use in solid
culture media and growth of protein crystals (http://www.hispanagar.com/
applications.htm). Thadathil and Velappan (2014) have reported biological
control using microorganisms or its component to repress plant disease offers
an alternative to chemical fungicide and also it is an ecofriendly approach for
controlling agricultural pathogens. Several research groups reported the in vitro
antifungal activity of chitosanases; they can be used to improve the resistance
Industrial Applications of Marine Carbohydrates 167

of plants against different phytopathogenic fungi. A chitosanase from Bacillus

cereus D-11 inhibiting the hyphal growth of Rhizotonia solani 27-kDa chito-
sanase from Amycolatopsis sp. CsO-2 inhibiting hyphal growth of Rhizopus ory-
zae. The major component present in excreted EPS is the glucose and the
galactose, mannose, arabinose being the other components. Various marine
organisms, including plants, animals, diatoms, microalgae, and bacteria widely
secreted the EPS (Decho, 1990; Gutierrez et al., 1996; Philippis & Vincenzini,
1998; Philippis et al., 1998). The EPS produced by the marine organisms have
been explored for various biotechnological applications, such as anticoagulants
(heparin analogs), antitumor agents, and wound dressings for eye and joint
surgery.
Apart from medical applications, EPS are also important as gelling agents
(in cell and enzyme technology and foods), foam stabilizers (in beer and
fire-fighting fluids), emulsion stabilizers (in food and thixotropic paints),
flocculants (in water clarification and ore extraction), and hydrating agents
(in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals).

2.5. In treatment of industrial effluent

Wastewater is actually the water produced by different domestic and indus-
trial activities which contains various inorganic, organic, and biological con-
taminants that are of environmental significance. Nutrients, trace metals, and
gaseous inorganic materials are the major sources of chemical-inorganic pol-
lutants. The source of biological pollutants includes pathogenic bacteria and
the source of physical pollutants includes suspended solids and dissolved
solids. These contaminants can create health hazards if discharged without
proper care and treatment into streams or oceans. Especially the rapid
increase in industries has led to the complexity of toxic effluents.
Industrial wastewater treatment covers the mechanisms and processes
used to treat waters that have been contaminated in some way by anthropo-
genic industrial or commercial activities prior to its release into the environ-
ment or its reuse. Some form of pretreatment was done to the wastewater
obtained from industrial process prior to discharge to a sewer. This form of
pretreatment was mainly done to minimize corrosion and clogging of sewer
lines and to prevent reductions in biological treatment process efficiency by
toxic effects from toxic concentration of organic and inorganic substances.
The efficient removal of toxic metals from wastewater is an important matter
and a number of technologies such as precipitation, reduction, and ion
exchange were developed.
168 Prasad N. Sudha et al.

Coagulation or flocculation process was conducted for the treatment of

industrial wastewater to achieve maximum removal of chemical oxygen
demand (COD), total dissolved solids (TDS), and total suspended solids
(TSS). Therefore, the effect of coagulant dose, polyelectrolyte dose, pH of
solution, and addition of polyelectrolyte as coagulant aid and found to be
important parameters for effective treatment of beverage industrial wastewater
was investigated by Amudha and his coworkers. Chitosan, a biological cationic
polymer, was used in treating dairy wastewater, agriculture, food processing,
medicine, cosmetics, wastewater treatment, and biotechnology (Tokura &
Nishi, 1995). Reactive dyes are widely used for textile dyeing, paper printing,
leather dyeing, color photography, and as additives in petroleum products.
Contamination of water resources with dyes is not desirable, since colored
effluents may contain toxic, carcinogenic, and mutagenic chemicals. Approx-
imately, 10,000 different dyes and pigments are used in industry. Chitin and
chitosan both have efficiency in removing dyes from wastewater. Chitosan
chelation is the procedure of choice for dye removal from aqueous solution.
The amine groups on chitosan bind metal cations at pH close to neutral.
At low pH, chitosan is more protonated and therefore it is able to bind
anions by electrostatic attraction (Guibal, 2004). Chitosan’s functional groups
and natural chelating properties make chitosan useful in wastewater treatment
by allowing for the binding and removal of metal ions such as copper, lead,
mercury, and uranium from wastewater. It can also be utilized to remove dyes
and other negatively charged solids from wastewater streams and processing
outlets. Chitosan grafted with poly(acrylonitrile) has been further modified
to yield amidoximated chitosan (Kang, Choi, & Kweon, 1996), a derivative
having a higher adsorption for Cu2+, Mn2+, and Pb2+, compared to cross-
linked chitosan. The adsorption capacity had a linear dependence on pH in
cases of Cu2+ and Pb2+. However, a slight decrease in the adsorption capacity
was observed in case of Zn2+ and Cd2+ (Kang, Choi, & Kweon, 1999).
Chitosan has been modified with different mono as well as disaccharides.
Yang, Lin, Wu, and Chen (2003) have also reported the metal uptake abilities
of macrocyclic diamine derivative of chitosan. The polymer has high metal
uptake abilities, and the selectivity property for the metal ions was improved
by the incorporation of azacrown ether groups in the chitosan.
Chitosan was successfully coated on PET granules through a dip and
phase inversion process and the coated granules were examined for the per-
formance and mechanism of humic acid removal through a series of batch
adsorption tests. With its positive charge, chitosan can be used for coagula-
tion and recovery of proteinaceous materials present in food processing
Industrial Applications of Marine Carbohydrates 169

operations (Knorr, 1991). Chitin and chitosan are also good adsorbents for
removal of phenol and other pollutants from industrial wastewaters
(Milhome et al., 2009). In addition to this, when chitosan was modified with
some organic compounds, such as aldehydes and organic acids, it was found
that the modified products with salicylaldehyde, cinnamaldehyde, benzalde-
hyde, and carbohydrate showed better Fe and Cu metal ions uptake. Com-
paratively, carbohydrate modified chitosan showed lower metal ion uptake,
which they attributed to the higher ability of carbohydrate to be leached out
of the chitosan matrix due to its higher solubility in water. In yet another
study, chitosan was cross-linked using glutaraldehyde in the presence of
magnetite.
The amino sugars of chitin and chitosan are the major effective binding
sites for metal ions, forming stable complexes by coordination (Chui, Mok,
Ng, Luong, & Ma, 1996). The electrons present in the amino and
N-acetylamino groups form dative bonds with transition metal ions, and some
of the hydroxyl groups in these biopolymers may act as donors. Hence,
deprotonated hydroxyl groups can be involved in the coordination with metal
ions (Lerivrey, Dubois, Decock, Micera, & Kozlowski, 1986). Different
degree of deacetylation (DD) chitosan was prepared in different DD and is
used for the removal of a Reactive Black M-2R (RBM) from aqueous solu-
tion (Li & Ding, 2011). The deacetylated chitosan (HDC) beads, cross-linked
HDC-TPP beads, and chemical cross-linked HDC-ECH were used in the
adsorption behavior of anionic dye (congo red or direct red 28) and cationic
dye (methylene blue or basic blue 9) (Thein Kyaw, Sander Wint, & Myo
Naing, 2011). Chitosan–charcoal composite was applied as a media to treat
tannery effluent containing chromium (Siraj et al., 2012). The literature shows
a new composite chitosan biosorbent was prepared by coating chitosan on to
perlite ore and investigated for Cu(II) and Ni(II) removal. Maximum removal
of Cu(II) and Ni(II) on chitosan coated on perlite was at pH 5.0. The max-
imum monolayer adsorption capacity of chitosan coated on perlite was
196.07 mg/g for Cu(II) and 114.94 mg/g for Ni(II).
From the literature, it is clear that chitosan can be used to remove numer-
ous trace metals (Cu(II), Pb(II),U(VI), Cr(III), Cr(VI), Ni(II), Cd(II), Zn(II),
Co(II), Fe(II), Mn(II), Pt(IV), Ir(III), Pd(II), V(V), and V(IV)) from wastewa-
ter. Chitosan has been used in a variety of forms, which include chitosan beads,
flakes, and membranes (Deans & Dixon, 1992; Findon, Mckay, & Blair, 1993;
Mckay, Blair, & Findon, 1989; Onsøyen & Skaugrud, 1990).
The removal of Cr(VI) ions from aqueous solutions has been investigated
using chitosan/starch blend. Several metals are preferentially adsorbed in
170 Prasad N. Sudha et al.

acidic media, while chitosan can dissolve in acidic condition. To overcome

such a problem, some cross-linking agents such as glutaraldehyde (Ruiz,
Sastre, & Guibal, 2000), epichlorohydrin (Ngah, Endud, & Mayanar,
2002), and ethylene glycol diglycidylether (Li & Bai, 2006) are used to sta-
bilize chitosan in acid solutions. But glutaraldehyde is the most widely used
because it does not have much diminishing adsorption capacity (Ngah et al.,
2002). This method is used to ensure good mechanically and chemically sta-
ble beads, but it has been found to have negative effect on the adsorption
capacity of the chitosan. The main reason for the loss of adsorption capacity
is that amine groups are involved in the cross-linking reaction (Martinez
et al., 2007). Chitosan membranes as sorbents for trace elements determina-
tion in surface waters have been tried by Elisaveta, Mladenova, Grigorova,
and Irina (2011), and the authors have successfully used their membranes as
an efficient sorbents for the preconcentration and they have recommended
their membranes for solid-phase extraction of Cd(II), Eu(II), Ni(II), and
Pd(II) from surface water. In the case of biopolymers, chitin, chitosan,
and nylon 6 are widely employed as biopolymers. As an adsorbent for the
removal of heavy metals from water, biopolymer has been studied. Chitosan
is one of them (Navarro, Guzman, Saucedo, Revilla, & Guibal, 2003).
Chitosan has the ability to form complexes with metals. It has a better
adsorption capacity for metal ion. It has severe limitations in its use in acidic
media because of its solubility in acid (Llorens, Pujola, & Sabate, 2004;
Nomanbhay & Palanisamy, 2005). In order to increase the copper sorption
capacity of raw chitosan beads, Gandhi, Kousalya, Viswanathan, and
Meenakshi (2011) modified chitosan into protonated chitosan beads, car-
boxylated chitosan beads, and grafted chitosan beads (GCB). They showed
a significant sorption capacity of 52, 86, and 126 mg/g, respectively, while
raw chitosan beads displayed only 40 mg/g. They conclude that GCB
showed higher sorption capacity toward Cu(II) ions. The SiCS composite
was used for the chelation of divalent copper and lead from aqueous solu-
tions using batch method (Gandhi & Meenakshi, 2012).
Although the amount of available literature data for chitin/chitosan, algi-
nate, and carrageenan application in water and wastewater treatment is increas-
ing at a tremendous pace, there are still several gaps which need to be filled.

3. FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR RESEARCH

In future, efforts are made to improve these novel biomaterials for fur-
ther enhancement in their application results. Moreover, designing of new
scaffolds from other natural polymer such as alginate, gelatin would be
Industrial Applications of Marine Carbohydrates 171

possible for soft tissue engineering such as skin. Chitin/chitosan has a great
potential in a variety of biomedical, industrial applications, and chitosan
physicochemical and mechanical properties utilized in fabricating particles
and films can be modulated for specific purposes. Efforts should be made
to prepare nanofibrous scaffolds from other natural polymers including silk
for hard and soft tissue engineering. And the best use of these marine sources
in the field of food, cosmetics industries, in effluent treatment, and in med-
ical field should be made.

4. CONCLUSION
This review summarizes the industrial and biomedical applications of
marine carbohydrates such as chitin-, chitosan-, alginate-, agar-, and
carrageenan-based nanomaterials in tissue engineering, wound dressing,
drug delivery, and cancer diagnosis. In addition, this review also opens up
the novel applications for which these natural biopolymers can be put to
use in a variety of nanostructural forms and sizes. Nanostructured composite
scaffolds can be developed as promising tissue engineered constructs or for
wound healing. Multifunctional use of chitin- and chitosan-based
nanomaterials has been proved to aid simultaneous cancer targeting and drug
delivery. We expect that this chapter provides insights on the use of these
marine carbohydrates for researchers working to discover new materials
with new properties for the valuable applications of these materials.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful to authorities of D.K.M. College for Women and Thiruvalluvar
University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India, for the support. Thanks are also due to the editor
Dr. Se-Kwon Kim, Marine Bio Process Research Center, Pukyoung National University,
South Korea, for the opportunity to review such an innovating field.

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