Research Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology 7(2): 364-373, 2014

DOI:10.19026/rjaset.7.263
ISSN: 2040-7459; e-ISSN: 2040-7467
© 2014 Maxwell Scientific Publication Corp.
Submitted: April 19, 2013 Accepted: May 31, 2013 Published: January 10, 2014

Research Article
Review on Electric Vehicle, Battery Charger, Charging Station and Standards
1
Afida Ayob, 1Wan Mohd Faizal Wan Mahmood, 1Azah Mohamed 2Mohd Zamri Che Wanik,
2
MohdFadzil Mohd Siam, 3Saharuddin Sulaiman, 3Abu Hanifah Azit and 4Mohamed Azrin Mohamed Ali
1
Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan, Malaysia
2
TNB Research Malaysia
3
TNB Distribution Malaysia
4
Malaysian Green Technology Corporation, Malaysia

Abstract: Electric vehicles are a new and upcoming technology in the transportation and power sector that have
many benefits in terms of economic and environmental. This study presents a comprehensive review and evaluation
of various types of electric vehicles and its associated equipment in particular battery charger and charging station.
A comparison is made on the commercial and prototype electric vehicles in terms of electric range, battery size,
charger power and charging time. The various types of charging stations and standards used for charging electric
vehicles have been outlined and the impact of electric vehicle charging on utility distribution system is also
discussed.

Keywords: Battery charger, charging station, electric vehicle, standards

INTRODUCTION lower operating cost compared to fossil fuels and are

more energy efficient. Advanced electric drive vehicles
In light of high energy usage, environmental can be categorized into Hybrid Electric Vehicles
pollution and rising fossil fuel prices, current dependent (HEVs), plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs) and
on Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) technology must all-electric vehicles (EVs). HEVs can be generally
be reduced and alternative fuel which has the potential classified as series, parallel and series-parallel
to solve environmental pollution; global warming and (combined hybrid) (Maggetto and Van Mierlo, 2000) as
energy sustainability concerns must be explored. It is shown in Fig. 2 to 4 respectively. In a series HEV,
suggested that electricity is the most suitable energy traction power is delivered by the electric motor while
carrier for transportation in the next 30 years when the ICE drives an electric generator that produces
considering risk, emissions, availability, power for charging the batteries and driving the electric
maintainability, efficiency and reliability (Chan and motor as shown in Fig. 2 and 3 shows a parallel HEV in
Chau, 2001). The invention of automobiles with ICE which the engine and electric motor are coupled to
began in the late 19th century and the automotive drive the vehicle which allows simultaneous operation
industry ever since has seen only incremental changes. of ICE and motor high speeds. Figure 4 shows a series-
ICE remains the prime mover for automobiles with parallel configuration in which two electric machines
fossil fuel as the main fuel. The paradigm shift towards are used to provide both parallel and series paths for the
electrification drives the development of new types of power. This means that ICE can be used to drive the
propulsion systems based on electric. Figure 1 shows vehicle together with the motor, or used for generating
the paradigm shift from ICE vehicle to advanced electricity to be stored in the battery, depending on the
electric-drive vehicles (Emadi, 2011). Transportation operating conditions and setup. HEVs can be further
1.0 and Car 1.0 refer to a stage or time in which divided into micro hybrids, mild hybrids, power hybrids
transportation and cars employ fossil fuels as the main and energy hybrids depending on the hybridization
fuels, while Transportation 2.0 and Car 2.0 refer to factor. Hybridization factor is defined as the ratio of the
paradigm-shifted stage in which increasing peak of vehicle electrical power to that of total
electrification in vehicles is foreseen. electrical and mechanical power (Zeraoulia et al.,
Electric drive vehicles are very attractive due to 2006). Micro hybrids have a hybridization factor of 5-
low road emissions, can potentially strengthen the 10%; mild hybrids, 10-25% and power hybrids have
power system by providing ancillary services; have a much higher factor. An energy hybrid has an energy

Corresponding Author: Azah Mohamed, Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering, Universiti
Kebangsaan, Malaysia
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (URL: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Fig.1: The paradigm shift in transportation from ICE vehicles to advanced electric-drive vehicles

Fig. 2: A hybrid electric vehicle with a series hybrid power train

Fig. 3: A hybrid electric vehicle with a parallel hybrid power train

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Fig. 4: A hybrid electric vehicle with a series-parallel hybrid power train

Fig. 5: A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle with a series hybrid power train

Fig.6: A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle with a series-parallel hybrid power train
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Fig.7: An all-electric
electric power train with adaptive control unit

Table 1: Overview of technical data for commercial/ prototype electric vehicle

Tesla Roadster Mitsubishi i-
(Berdichevsky et al., Nissan GM Chevy Volt Toyota Plug-in MiEV(Mitsubishi
(Mitsubishi Exora REEV (Che
2006) Leaf (Nissan
(Nissan, 2012) (Chevrolet 2012) Prius (Prius 2012) 2012) Din 2011)
Type Battery Battery Plug-in hybrid Plug-in hybrid Battery Plug-in hybrid
Electric range 394 161 56 24 160 97
(Km)
Battery size (kWh) 53 24 16 4.4 16 13.5
Onboard charger 9.6 3.3 1.44 1.44 2.3 3.8
(kW)
Quick charger (kW) 16.8 60 3.3 3.3 50 20
Charging time Onboard: 6 h Onboard: 6 h Onboard 10 h Onboard: 3 h Onboard: 8 h Onboard: 4 h
Quick: 3.5 h Quick: 0.5 h Quick: 4 h Quick: 1.5 h Quick: 0.5 h Quick: 0.5 h
Saga EV (Che Din Mercedes-Benz Blue BMW i3(Autocar Honda Fit/Jazz-EV
EV Mazda Demio-EV
2011) ZERO E-Cell plus 2012) (Honda 2012) (Mazda 2012)
Type (Mercedes 2012)
Electric range (Km) Battery Plug-in hybrid Battery Battery Battery
Battery size (kWh) 97 100 160 131 200
Onboard charger (kW) 15.9 18 22 20 20
Quick charger (kW) 3.1 3.3 7.7 6.6 3.3
Charging time 20 20 12 40 50
Onboard:6
Onboard:6-8 h Onboard: 6 h Onboard: 6 h Onboard: 3 h Onboard: 8 h
Quick: 0.5 h Quick: 1 h Quick: 1 h Quick: 0.5 h Quick: 0.67 h

storage system larger than power hybrid. Among the not have an ICE to supply pply the additional power. A
hybrid car models are such as the Toyota Prius, Honda typical EV architecture is shown in Fig. 7. These EVs
Insight, Honda Jazz and Honda CR--Z. Toyota Prius rely mainly on external charge from the utility power
uses a series-parallel
parallel configuration while the Honda grid and these types of advanced electric-drive
electric vehicles
family is more close to parallel configuration bu but are expected to affect the electricity distribution
allowing battery charging through motor regenerative network.
braking. Power demand of EV is a function of voltage and
Plug-in
in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs) is current and its energy requirement depends on the
essentially an HEV with the option to recharge its battery size. The technical information on commercial
energy storage system with electricity from the grid and prototype EV sin terms of electric range, battery
(Markel and Simpson, 2006). PHEVs have a high high- size, charger power and charging time is tabulated
tabul and
energy-density
density energy storage system that can be summarized in Table 1. Such information is useful for
externally charged and they can run solely on electric determining the power demand required by EV. It is
power longer than regular hybrids, resulting in better estimated that a single EC can increase electricity
fuel economy. Just like HEVs, PHEVs can have series, consumption of a household by 50% (WDI, 2008).
parallel and series-parallel
parallel configurations. Figure 5 and Some EVs consumed more than 5 kW powers which whi is
6 show a PHEV with series and series series-parallel greater than the consumption of a typical residential
configuration, respectively. PHEVs make use of utility house and this consumption is continuous up 10 h
power as the batteries are usually charged overnight. subject to the state of charge of the EV’s battery. This
The battery can also be charged onboard to increase the power consumption is required for EV which is charged
vehicle range. All electric vehicles have all all-electric using the slow type on board charger.
charger If EV is charged
propulsion system. Unlike HEVs and PHEVs, EVs do using rapid/fast charger, the power consumption can go
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as high as 60 kW. Most of the figures in Table 1 refer to

the technical specification of the older version and
prototype EVs. For the commercial or latest version of
EVs, the power consumption
onsumption can be different. From the
literature, it is noted that for fast charging station, there
is effort to standardize the chargers so that all cars can
share the same charging station. In the future, fast
charger can consume 62.5 kW (CHAdeMO, 2012) or
100 kW (SAE J1772-2010 2013).
This study presents the state-of-the the-art of electric
vehicle technology focusing on the types of electric
vehicles, types of battery chargers and charging stations Fig. 8: Concept of inductive charging via the two inductive
and identifying supply voltage, charging current and pads
different
ent standards that are being used in the US,
Europe and Japan.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

METHODS

Types of EV battery chargers: An EV battery charger

is a combination of electronics used for recharging the
battery banks in an EV or a plug-in in HEV. EV chargers
can be installed in houses, offices, shopping stores and Fig. 9: A Nissan leaf charging via an inductive pad below the
public places to enable EV owners to charge their EV car
or plug-in
in HEVs. There are two types of ch charging based
on their mode of energy transfer; conductive and
inductive. Conductive type EV battery chargers have
direct plug-inin connection to the supply by using an
extension power cord to plug from the wall outlet into
the EV. It is popular, simple in de design and higher
efficiency.
The inductive type EV battery charger uses
magnetic coupling as mode of energy transfer. Through
Fig. 10: A closer look under a car with inductive charging
inductive chargers, a charging station is used to transfer
showing both the inductive pads
high voltage and current directly from the grid into an
inductive paddle or pad with an electro--magnet that acts
as half a transformer. The other half is situated inside
the EV and once full contact is made between the two
magnets, the current is allowed to flow across and into
the battery, charging at a higher rate due to th
the charging
stations direct power grid connection. Figure 8
illustrates the inductive charging concept showing the
path of current from the wall socket to the battery. Fig. 11: Example of domestic charging stationer
Figure 9 shows an example of charging a Nissan leaf
EV via an inductive pad located below the car (Nissan,
2012). Figure 10 shows a closer look below a car with
inductive charging pads in which one pad is fixed on
the surface of the road and the other fixed under the car
chassis.
The main advantage of inductive type EV battery
charger is electrical
lectrical safety under all weather conditions.
However, its disadvantages are long charging time and Fig. 12: Example of off-street
street and robust charging post
relatively poor efficiency. In April 2011, carmaker
BMW and electrical giant Siemens introduced trials
with an inductive charging system to the public in
London.
ondon. Located in the bottom of the car and the
ground, the system's air wide gap which is between 8
and 15 cm prevents efficiencies of more than 90%. In
2012, Qualcomm Inc started a trial on their wireless
charging system called Inductive Power Transfer iin
London and this study is still ongoing. Fig. 13: Example of rapid charging station
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Table 2: IEC EV charging modes based on IEC 61851-1

Mode Supply Duration Charger configuration Example charger
Mode 1 AC Slow Standard household-type connector 1- or 3-phase plug
Mode 2 AC Slow Standard household-type socket-outlet with an in- the Park and Charge or the PARVE systems
cable protection device
Mode 3 AC Slow/Fast Specific EV socket-outlet and plug with control SAE J1772 and IEC 62196
and protection function permanently installed
Mode 4 DC Fast External charger CHAdeMO

Table 3: Levels of EV charging according to SAE

Source Level Voltage Phase Max current Max power (kW) Time (h)
AC Level 1 120 Single 16 1.9 6 - 24
Level 2 240 Single 80 (typical 40) 19.2 2-8
Level 3 TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD
DC Level 1 200-450 DC <= 80 <= 19.2 ~ 20 min
Level 2 200-450 DC 200 90 ~ 15 min
Level 3 TBD DC TBD (may cover up to TBD TBD
(may cover 200-600) 400) (may cover up to240)
TBD-to be defined

Table 4: Types of coupler for EV charging

Type Coupler Example
Type 1 Single-phase vehicle coupler (vehicle connector and inlet) Yazaki or SAE J1772-2009 (Japan, North America)
Type 2 Single- and three-phase vehicle coupler and mains plug and socket- VDE-AR-E 2623-2-2
outlet without shutters
Type 3 Single- and three-phase vehicle coupler and mains plug and socket- SCAME plug developed by the EV Plug Alliance.
outlet with shutters

Types of charging stations: EV charging stations From Table 2, essentially ‘Level 3’ does not exist
when categorised in terms of voltage rating, power yet and the charging standard everybody has been
rating and place of application, can be classified into thinking of as ‘Level 3’ is really either ‘DC Level 1’ or
three different types of charging stations, namely, ‘DC Level 2’.
domestic charger at residential area, off-street and
robust charger at commercial and office area and rapid Standards for EV charging stations: Different type of
charger at strategic location. Example pictures of these
standard is being used in different region of the globe
three chargers are depicted in Fig. 11 to 13.
In this document, the charging stations discussed for charging of EV. This section is comparing different
will be focusing on conductive chargers due to the fact standard that are being used in USA, Europe and Japan.
that the inductive charging method is still under Standards that have been published are described as
development. According to Daimler’s Head of Future follows:
Mobility, inductive chargers are at least 15 years away
and the safety aspects of inductive charging for EVs • IEC 61851(IEC, 2010): The IEC 61851 standard
have yet to be looked into in greater detail. Most covers the overall EV conductive charging
rechargeable EVs and equipment can be charged from a systems. In this standard, the IEC defines the four
domestic wall socket. However, a charging station may modes of EV charging that has been described
be required due to the following reasons:
above. This standard became the basis for IEC
62196. A few important sections in IEC 61851 are:
• Charging can be provided for multiple EV owners
at one time,
• The facility may have additional current or IEC 61851-1: This standard defines three cables and
connection sensing mechanisms to disconnect plug setups which can be used to charge EVs:
power when the EV is not actually charging,
• Readily provide option for suppliers to monitor or Case A: Where the cable is permanently attached to
charge for the electricity actually consumed. the EV
Case B: Where the cable is not permanently attached
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) and to anything
International Electro technical Commission (IEC) both Case C: Where the cable is permanently attached to
have come up with standards which define EV the charging station.
charging. The term ‘level’ used by SAE and ‘mode’
used by IEC essentially means the same thing.
According to IEC 61851-1, there are 4 modes for IEC 61851-23: This standard defines the
charging EVs as described in Table 2. However, SAE requirements for DC fast charging stations in terms of
defines 6 levels of EV charging as shown in Table 3. electrical safety, harmonics, grid connections and
Some information in the table is still to be defined communication architecture. The standard is expected
(TBD) by the standard. to be published in November 2012. 

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connectors depending on the voltage range and

frequency e.g., yellow for 100-130 volts at 50-60
Hz. An example of IEC 60309 style plug mounted
on to a wall socket is depicted in Fig. 14.
• IEC 60364-electrical installations for buildings
(IEC, 2005): IEC 60364 ‘Electrical Installations
for Buildings’ is the standard on electrical
installations of buildings. This is the standard
Fig. 14: IEC 60309 style plugs mounted onto a wall socket attempting to harmonize national wiring standards
in one IEC standard. The latest versions of many
IEC 61851-24: This standard defines digital European wiring regulations (e.g., BS 7671 in the
communication for DC charging control between the UK) follow the section structure of IEC 60364 very
charging controller in the EV and the charging closely, but contain additional language to cater for
controller in the Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment. historic national practice and to simplify field use
The standard is expected to be published in September and determination of compliance by electrical
2013. tradesmen and inspectors. National codes and site
guides are meant to attain the common objectives
• IEC 62196-Plugs, socket-outlets, vehicle of IEC 60364 and provide rules in a form that
connectors and vehicle inlets (IEC, 2011): The allows for guidance of persons installing and
IEC 62196 is the latest standard for EVs by IEC inspecting electrical systems. The standard has
which is based on the IEC 61851 standard. A few several parts described as:
important sections in IEC 62196 are:
Part 1: Fundamental principles, assessment of general
IEC 62196-1: This standard is entitled ‘Plugs, socket- characteristics, definitions
outlets, vehicle couplers and vehicle inlets’. This
standard contains the general requirements for EV Part 4: Protection for safety (including sections on
connectors electric shock, thermal effects, over current, voltage
disturbances and electromagnetic disturbances)
IEC 62196-2: It standardizes three types of mains
connecting systems, known as Types 1, 2 and 3 that are Part 5: Selection and erection of electrical equipment
applied only to modes 1, 2 and 3. Which of these is (including sections on common rules, wiring systems,
appropriate depends largely upon the electrical isolation, switching and control, ear thing and safety
infrastructure and regulatory conditions in each services)
country. The coupler types for EV charging are outlined
as in Table 4. Part 6: Verification
IEC 62196-3: This standard defines connectors and Part 7: Requirements for special installations or
inlets for fast DC charging to be used with mode 4 locations (for range of locations such as bathrooms,
charging according to IEC 61851-1. The standard is swimming pools, rooms/cabins, construction sites,
expected to be published in December 2013.
 caravans, external lighting, mobile units and others).

• IEC 60309-Plugs, socket-outlets and couplers • SAE J1772: This SAE Recommended Practice
for industrial purposes (IEC, 2012): IEC 60309, covers the general physical, electrical, functional
formerly known as IEC 309 is an international and performance requirements to facilitate
standard from the IEC for ‘plugs, socket-outlets conductive charging of EV/PHEV vehicles in
and couplers for industrial purposes’. The North America (SAE International, 2013). This
maximum limits under this standard include; document defines a common EV/PHEV and supply
voltage 690V AC or DC, current 125A, frequency equipment vehicle conductive charging method
500 Hz and temperature range -25 to 40oC. The including operational requirements and the
two parts of IEC 60309 are: functional and dimensional requirements for the
o IEC 60309-1: General requirements and vehicle inlet and mating connector.SAE J1772-
o IEC 60309-2: Dimensional requirements. A few 2009 is the most recent standard in use and
details outlined under this standard include i) a maintained by the SAE. The previous standard,
range of plugs and sockets of different sizes with SAE J772-2001 was manufactured by Avcon but is
differing numbers of pins, depending on the current being phased out.
supplied and the number of phases accommodated,
ii) limited weather proofing and iii) color coded Details on SAE J1772-2009 are described as follows:
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o Charging port has two parts; upper section retains

the configuration of the existing standard, meaning
that slow-charging EVs already on the market can
transition seamlessly to the new connector and
lower section contains a second set of pins to
accommodate fast-charging battery technology that
was not commercially available before 2010.
o All together the combo connector will enable
charging up to 500 volts, at 200A enabling a
Fig. 15: SAE J1772-2009 connector charger with a yield of 100kW.
o Final approval for this new standard is expected by
August 2012 and SAE expects the eight US and
German car makers to begin production of vehicles
equipped with the new J1772 in 2013. Figure 16
shows the combo connector.

CHAdeMO: CHAdeMO is a trade name for global

quick charging method that is proposed by the
CHAdeMO Association as an industry standard
(CHAdeMO, 2012). The CHAdeMO Association was
founded by the Tokyo Electric Power Company, Nissan
Motors, Mitsubishi Motors, Fuji Heavy Industries (the
Fig.16: The new SAE J1772-2010 connector manufacturer of Subaru vehicles and Toyota Motor
Corporation. Other members include automakers,
charger makers, supporting businesses, administrative
o Based on a connector design from a company entities and others united towards the core business of
called Yazaki. developing quick charging infrastructures. CHAdeMO
o Allows for both 120 V and 240 V quick charging is an abbreviation for “CHArge de MOve” equivalent to
with power delivery up to 16.8 kW at 70 amps. “charge for moving” and is a pun for "O cha demo
o Companies participating in or supporting the ikaga desuka" in Japanese, meaning "Let's have a tea
revised 2009 SAE J1772 standard include GM, while charging" in English. Under the CHAdeMO
Chrysler, Ford, Toyota, Honda, Nissan and Tesla. protocol, the charger sometimes also spelled
o Currently being used by Nissan Leaf (has both CHΛdeMO is capable of delivering up to 62.5 kW of
SAE J1772 and CHAdeMO protocol on board), high voltage direct current. This type of high voltage
Chevy Volt and other newer models high-current charging is called DC fast charge and is
o Manufacturers of the charging interface include sometimes referred to as level 3 charging to contrast
Coulomb Charge Point. with less powerful AC charging levels. The
o The connector is shown in Fig. 15. The connector approximate charging time is 15 min. Compatible
supports communication over power lines to vehicles with the CHAdeMO protocol include the
identify the vehicle and control charging. It is Nissan LEAF, Mitsubishi i-MiEV, Subaru R1e
designed to withstand up to 10,000 connection/ (prototype) and Citroen C-ZERO.
disconnection cycles and exposure to all kinds of The CHAdeMO connector has been designed for
elements. The connector lifespan given one
fail-safe operation. The CHAdeMO quick charger
connection/disconnection daily is estimated to be
design has a controller that receives EV commands via
27 years. The J1772 2009 standard includes several
a CAN bus and the quick charger sets the current to
levels of shock protection, ensuring the safety of
charging even in wet conditions. meet the EV’s command value. Via this mechanism,
optimal and fast charging becomes possible in response
Connection pins are isolated on the interior of the to battery performance. Currently, CHAdeMO chargers
connector when mated, ensuring no physical access to are very popular in Japan and Europe.
those pins. When not mated there is no voltage at the
pins. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In 2010, SAE developed a DC fast charging with a
combined charging system or ‘combo connector’ for Impact of EV charging on utility distribution
short. Details on SAE J1772-2010 are as follows: systems: EV charging is considered as a big load to the
utility. The worst case if all EVs are charged at the
o An adaptation of the existing J1772 connector. same time. However, this scenario will be unlikely to
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happen because of many factors. One of the factors is distribution of these EV will depend on promotional
that the number of charging station is limited. As for policies, incentives and the deployment of charging
the impact of EV battery chargers on the power supply infrastructures.
system, it depends on the technology of the chargers.
Older version of chargers is based on full-wave CONCLUSION
rectification using diodes and progressively, thyristors
are used. Later designs use microprocessor-controlled Electric vehicles are expected to enter the world
charging technologies with several algorithms being market such that by 2030, 10% of the vehicles will be
implemented for parameter monitoring and control. of EV type. To have a better understanding on EV
Today, smart battery chargers are available which can technology, this study outlines the various types of EV,
interactively communicate with the utility system in battery chargers and charging stations. A
order to receive and send information about the state of comprehensive review has also been made on the
charge, energy availability, tariffs and management data standards currently adopted for charging EV
in general. Such designs have resulted in reduction of worldwide. For better understanding on the state of the
harmonic distortion and power factor improvement. A art EV technology, a comparison is made on the
survey of battery charger manufacturers from 1993 to commercial and prototype electric vehicles in terms of
1995 shows that the average total harmonic distortion electric range, battery size, charger power and charging
decreases from 50.1 to 6.12% (Gomez and Morcos, time.
2003).
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