1.

General Description Page1of1

1. General Description

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Input Generation
1.3 Types of Structures
1.4 Unit Systems
1.5 Structure Geometry and Coordinate Systems
1.6 Finite Element Information
1.7 Member Properties
1.8 Member and Element Release
1.9 Truss and Tension- or Compression-Only Members
1.10 Tension, Compression - Only Springs
1.11 Cable Members
1.12 Member Offsets
1.13 Material Constants
1.14 Supports
1.15 Master/Slave Joints
1.16 Loads
1.17 Load Generator
1.18 Analysis Facilities
1.19 Member End Forces
1.20 Multiple Analyses
1.21 Steel, Concrete, and Timber Design
1.22 Footing Design
1.23 Printing Facilities
1.24 Plotting Facilities
1.25 Miscellaneous Facilities
1.26 Post Processing Facilities

Parent topic: STAAD.Pro Technical Reference

1.1 Introduction
The STAAD.Pro V8i Graphical User Interface (GUI) is normally used to create all input specifications and all
output reports and displays (See the STAAD.Pro Graphical Environment Help ). These structural modeling
and analysis input specifications are stored in STAAD input file – a text file with extension, .STD. When the
GUI opens an existing model file, it reads all of the information necessary from the STAAD input file. You may
edit or create this STAAD input file and then the GUI and the analysis engine will both reflect the changes.

The STAAD input file is processed by the STAAD analysis "engine" to produce results that are stored in several
files (with file extensions such as ANL, BMD, TMH, etc.). The STAAD analysis text file (file extension .ANL)
contains the printable output as created by the specifications in this manual. The other files contain the
results (displacements, member/element forces, mode shapes, section forces/moments/displacements, etc.)
that are used by the GUI in the post processing mode.

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This section of the manual contains a general description of the analysis and design facilities available in the
STAAD engine. Specific information on steel, concrete, and timber design is available in Sections 2, 3, and 4
of this manual, respectively. Detailed STAAD engine STD file command formats and other specific input
information is presented in Section 5.

The objective of this section is to familiarize you with the basic principles involved in the implementation of
the various analysis/design facilities offered by the STAAD engine. As a general rule, the sequence in which
the facilities are discussed follows the recommended sequence of their usage in the STAAD input file.

Parent topic: 1. General Description

1.2 Input Generation

The STAAD input file can be created through a text editor or the Graphical User Interface (GUI) modeling
facility. In general, any plain-text editor may be utilized to edit or create the STAAD input file. The GUI
Modeling facility creates the input file through an interactive, menu-driven graphics oriented procedure.

Note: Some of the automatic generation facilities of the STAAD command language will be re-interpreted by
the GUI as lists of individual model elements upon editing the file using the GUI. A warning message is
presented prior to this occurring. This does not result in any effective difference in the model or how it is
analyzed or designed.

It is important to understand that STAAD.Pro is capable of analyzing a wide range of structures. While some
parametric input features are available in the GUI, the formulation of input is the responsibility of you, the
user. The program has no means of verifying that the structure input is that which was intended by the
engineer.

Parent topic: 1. General Description

1.3 Types of Structures

A STRUCTURE can be defined as an assemblage of elements. STAAD is capable of analyzing and designing
structures consisting of both frame, plate/shell and solid elements. Almost any type of structure can be
analyzed by STAAD.

SPACE
A3D framed structure with loads applied in any plane. This structure type is the most general.
PLANE
This structure type is bound by a global X-Y coordinate system with loads in the same plane.
TRUSS
This structure type consists of truss members which can have only axial member forces and no
bending in the members.
FLOOR

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A 2D or 3D structure having no horizontal (global X or Z) movement of the structure [FX, FZ, and MY
are restrained at every joint]. The floor framing (in global X-Z plane) of a building is an ideal example of
a this type of structure. Columns can also be modeled with the floor in a FLOOR structure as long as
the structure has no horizontal loading. If there is any horizontal load, it must be analyzed as a SPACE
structure.

Specification of the correct structure type reduces the number of equations to be solved during the analysis.
This results in a faster and more economic solution for the user. The degrees of freedom associated with
frame elements of different types of structures is illustrated in the following figure.

Degrees of freedom in each type of Structure

Parent topic: 1. General Description

Related reference
5.2 Problem Initiation and Model Title

1.4 Unit Systems

You are allowed to input data and request output in almost all commonly used engineering unit systems
including "meter - kilonewton - second" (MKS), International System of Units (SI), and "feet - pound -
second" (FPS). In the input file, you may change units as many times as required. Mixing and matching
between length and force units from different unit systems is also allowed.

The input unit for angles (or rotations) is degrees. However, in JOINT DISPLACEMENT output, the rotations
are provided in radians.

For all output, the units are clearly specified by the program.

Parent topic: 1. General Description

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Related reference
5.3 Unit Specification

1.5 Structure Geometry and Coordinate Systems

A structure is an assembly of individual components such as beams, columns, slabs, plates etc.. In STAAD,
frame elements and plate elements may be used to model the structural components. Typically, modeling of
the structure geometry consists of two steps:

A. Identification and description of joints or nodes.

B. Modeling of members or elements through specification of connectivity (incidences) between joints.

In general, the term MEMBER will be used to refer to frame elements and the term ELEMENT will be used to
refer to plate/shell and solid elements. Connectivity for MEMBERs may be provided through the MEMBER
INCIDENCE command while connectivity for ELEMENTs may be provided through the ELEMENT INCIDENCE
command.

STAAD uses two types of coordinate systems to define the structure geometry and loading patterns. The
GLOBAL coordinate system is an arbitrary coordinate system in space which is utilized to specify the overall
geometry & loading pattern of the structure. A LOCAL coordinate system is associated with each member (or
element) and is utilized in MEMBER END FORCE output or local load specification.

1.5.1 Global Coordinate System

1.5.2 Local Coordinate System
1.5.3 Relationship Between Global and Local Coordinates

Parent topic: 1. General Description

Related reference
5.11 Joint Coordinates Specification
5.12 Member Incidences Specification
5.14.2 Element Mesh Generation
5.16.1 Listing of Entities (Members / Elements / Joints, etc.) by Specifying Groups
5.17 Rotation of Structure Geometry
5.26.1 Define Material

1.5.1 Global Coordinate System

The following coordinate systems are available for specification of the structure geometry.

Conventional Cartesian Coordinate System

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This coordinate system is a rectangular coordinate system (X, Y, Z) which follows the orthogonal right
hand rule. This coordinate system may be used to define the joint locations and loading directions. The
translational degrees of freedom are denoted by u1, u2, u3 and the rotational degrees of freedom are
denoted by u4, u5 & u6.

Cartesian (Rectangular) Coordinate System

Cylindrical Coordinate System

In this coordinate system, the X and Y coordinates of the conventional Cartesian system are replaced
by R (radius) and Ø (angle in degrees). The Z coordinate is identical to the Z coordinate of the Cartesian
system and its positive direction is determined by the right hand rule.

Cylindrical Coordinate System

Reverse Cylindrical Coordinate System

This is a cylindrical type coordinate system where the R- Ø plane corresponds to the X-Z plane of the
Cartesian system. The right hand rule is followed to determine the positive direction of the Y axis.

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Reverse Cylindrical Coordinate System

Parent topic: 1.5 Structure Geometry and Coordinate Systems

Related reference
5.11 Joint Coordinates Specification
5.12 Member Incidences Specification
5.14.2 Element Mesh Generation
5.16.1 Listing of Entities (Members / Elements / Joints, etc.) by Specifying Groups
5.17 Rotation of Structure Geometry
5.26.1 Define Material

1.5.2 Local Coordinate System

A local coordinate system is associated with each member. Each axis of the local orthogonal coordinate
system is also based on the right hand rule. Fig. 1.5 shows a beam member with start joint 'i' and end joint 'j'.
The positive direction of the local x-axis is determined by joining 'i' to 'j' and projecting it in the same
direction. The right hand rule may be applied to obtain the positive directions of the local y and z axes. The
local y and z-axes coincide with the axes of the two principal moments of inertia. Note that the local
coordinate system is always rectangular.

A wide range of cross-sectional shapes may be specified for analysis. These include rolled steel shapes, user
specified prismatic shapes etc.. Fig. 1.6 shows local axis system(s) for these shapes.

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When Global-Y is Vertical

When Global-Z is Vertical (that is, SET Z UP is specified)

Table 1. Local axis system for various cross sections when global Y axis is
vertical

Wide Flange - ST Wide Flange - TB Wide Flange - CM

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Angle - LD

(Long legs back-to-back)

Angle - ST

Angle - RA

Angle - SD
Wide Flange - T Channel - ST
(Short legs back-to-back)

Prismatic Tube - ST
Channel - D

Labels for the local axes of a single angle as defined in AISC publications.

Table 2. Local axis system for various cross sections when global Z axis is vertical
(SET Z UP is specified).

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Wide Flange - ST Wide Flange - TB Wide Flange - CM

Angle - SD
Angle - LD
Channel - ST

Channel - D Prismatic
Wide Flange - T

Angle - ST

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Tube - ST Angle - RA

Note: The local x-axis of the above sections is going into the paper

Parent topic: 1.5 Structure Geometry and Coordinate Systems

Related reference
5.11 Joint Coordinates Specification
5.12 Member Incidences Specification
5.14.2 Element Mesh Generation
5.16.1 Listing of Entities (Members / Elements / Joints, etc.) by Specifying Groups
5.17 Rotation of Structure Geometry
5.26.1 Define Material

1.5.3 Relationship Between Global and Local Coordinates

Since the input for member loads can be provided in the local and global coordinate system and the output
for member-end-forces is printed in the local coordinate system, it is important to know the relationship
between the local and global coordinate systems. This relationship is defined by an angle measured in the
following specified way. This angle will be defined as the beta (β) angle. For offset members the beta
angle/reference point specifications are based on the offset position of the local axis, not the joint positions.

Beta Angle
When the local x-axis is parallel to the global Vertical axis, as in the case of a column in a structure, the beta
angle is the angle through which the local z-axis (or local Y for SET Z UP) has been rotated about the local
x-axis from a position of being parallel and in the same positive direction of the global Z-axis (global Y axis for
SET Z UP).

When the local x-axis is not parallel to the global Vertical axis, the beta angle is the angle through which the
local coordinate system has been rotated about the local x-axis from a position of having the local z-axis (or
local Y for SET Z UP) parallel to the global X-Z plane (or global X-Y plane for SET Z UP)and the local y-axis

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(or local z for SET Z UP) in the same positive direction as the global vertical axis. Figure 1.7 details the
positions for beta equals 0 degrees or 90 degrees. When providing member loads in the local member axis, it
is helpful to refer to this figure for a quick determination of the local axis system.

Reference Point
An alternative to providing the member orientation is to input the coordinates (or a joint number) which will
be a reference point located in the member x-y plane (x-z plane for SET Z UP) but not on the axis of the
member. From the location of the reference point, the program automatically calculates the orientation of
the member x-y plane (x-z plane for SET Z UP).

Relationship between Global and Local axes

Reference Vector
This is yet another way to specify the member orientation. In the reference point method described above,
the X,Y,Z coordinates of the point are in the global axis system. In a reference vector, the X,Y,Z coordinates
are specified with respect to the local axis system of the member corresponding to the BETA 0 condition.

A direction vector is created by the program. The program then calculates the Beta Angle using this vector.

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Beta rotation of equal & unequal legged 'ST' angles

Note: The order of the joint numbers in the MEMBER INCIDENCES command determines the direction of the
member's local x-axis.

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Beta rotation of equal & unequal legged 'RA' anglesMember orientation for various Beta angles when Global-Y axis is
verticalMember orientation for various Beta angles when Global-Z axis is vertical (that is, SET Z UP is specified)Member
orientation for various Beta angles when Global-Y axis is vertical

Parent topic: 1.5 Structure Geometry and Coordinate Systems

Related reference
5.11 Joint Coordinates Specification
5.12 Member Incidences Specification
5.14.2 Element Mesh Generation
5.16.1 Listing of Entities (Members / Elements / Joints, etc.) by Specifying Groups
5.17 Rotation of Structure Geometry
5.26.1 Define Material
5.26.2 Specifying Constants for Members and Elements
5.20.8 Curved Member Specification

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1.6 Finite Element Information

STAAD.Pro is equipped with a plate/shell finite element, solid finite element and an entity called the surface
element. The features of each is explained in the following sections.

1.6.1 Plate and Shell Element

1.6.2 Solid Element
1.6.3 Surface Element

Parent topic: 1. General Description

Related reference
5.11 Joint Coordinates Specification
5.13 Elements and Surfaces
5.13.1 Plate and Shell Element Incidence Specification
5.13.2 Solid Element Incidences Specification
5.14 Plate Element Mesh Generation
5.14.2 Element Mesh Generation
5.21 Element/Surface Property Specification
5.21.1 Element Property Specification
5.24 Element Plane Stress and Ignore Inplane Rotation Specification
5.32.3 Element Load Specifications
5.32.3.1 Element Load Specification - Plates

1.6.1 Plate and Shell Element

The Plate/Shell finite element is based on the hybrid element formulation. The element can be 3-noded
(triangular) or 4-noded (quadrilateral). If all the four nodes of a quadrilateral element do not lie on one plane,
it is advisable to model them as triangular elements. The thickness of the element may be different from one
node to another.

"Surface structures" such as walls, slabs, plates and shells may be modeled using finite elements. For
convenience in generation of a finer mesh of plate/shell elements within a large area, a MESH GENERATION
facility is available.

You may also use the element for PLANE STRESS action only (i.e., membrane/in-plane stiffness only). The
ELEMENT PLANE STRESS command should be used for this purpose.

Parent topic: 1.6 Finite Element Information

Related reference

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Related reference
5.11 Joint Coordinates Specification
5.13 Elements and Surfaces
5.13.1 Plate and Shell Element Incidence Specification
5.13.2 Solid Element Incidences Specification
5.14 Plate Element Mesh Generation
5.14.2 Element Mesh Generation
5.21 Element/Surface Property Specification
5.21.1 Element Property Specification
5.24 Element Plane Stress and Ignore Inplane Rotation Specification
5.32.3 Element Load Specifications
5.32.3.1 Element Load Specification - Plates
5.22.2 Element Release Specification

Geometry Modeling Considerations

1. The program automatically generates a fictitious, center node "O" (see the following figure) at the
element center.

Fictitious center node (in the case of triangular elements, a fourth node; in the case of rectangular elements, a fifth
node)

2. While assigning nodes to an element in the input data, it is essential that the nodes be specified either
clockwise or counter clockwise (see the following figure). For better efficiency, similar elements should
be numbered sequentially.

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Examples of correct and incorrect numbering sequences

3. Element aspect ratio should not be excessive. They should be on the order of 1:1, and preferably less
than 4:1.
4. Individual elements should not be distorted. Angles between two adjacent element sides should not
be much larger than 90 and never larger than 180.

Some examples of good and bad elements in terms of the angles

a. Opposite sides cross each other

b. Ratio of the lengths of the longest side to the shortest side exceeds eight
c. Ratio of the sides exceeds eight
d. Angle between two adjacent sides exceeds 120 degrees

Load Specification for Plate Elements

1. Joint loads at element nodes in global directions.
2. Concentrated loads at any user specified point within the element in global or local directions.
3. Uniform pressure on element surface in global or local directions.
4. Partial uniform pressure on user specified portion of element surface in global or local directions.
5. Linearly varying pressure on element surface in local directions.
6. Temperature load due to uniform increase or decrease of temperature.
7. Temperature load due to difference in temperature between top and bottom surfaces of the element.

Theoretical Basis

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Assumed stress distribution

The incomplete quadratic assumed stress distribution:

a1 through a10 = constants of stress polynomials

The following quadratic stress distribution is assumed for plate bending action:

Quadratic stress distribution assumed for bending

The incomplete quadratic assumed stress distribution:

a1 through a13 = constants of stress polynomials

The distinguishing features of this finite element are:

1. Displacement compatibility between the plane stress component of one element and the plate
bending component of an adjacent element which is at an angle to the first (see the following figure) is
achieved by the elements. This compatibility requirement is usually ignored in most flat shell/plate
elements.

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Adjacent elements at some angle

2. The out of plane rotational stiffness from the plane stress portion of each element is usefully
incorporated and not treated as a dummy as is usually done in most commonly available commercial
software.
3. Despite the incorporation of the rotational stiffness mentioned previously, the elements satisfy the
patch test absolutely.
4. These elements are available as triangles and quadrilaterals, with corner nodes only, with each node
having six degrees of freedom.
5. These elements are the simplest forms of flat shell/plate elements possible with corner nodes only and
six degrees of freedom per node. Yet solutions to sample problems converge rapidly to accurate
answers even with a large mesh size.
6. These elements may be connected to plane/space frame members with full displacement
compatibility. No additional restraints/releases are required.
7. Out of plane shear strain energy is incorporated in the formulation of the plate bending component.
As a result, the elements respond to Poisson boundary conditions which are considered to be more
accurate than the customary Kirchoff boundary conditions.
8. The plate bending portion can handle thick and thin plates, thus extending the usefulness of the plate
elements into a multiplicity of problems. In addition, the thickness of the plate is taken into
consideration in calculating the out of plane shear.
9. The plane stress triangle behaves almost on par with the well known linear stress triangle. The
triangles of most similar flat shell elements incorporate the constant stress triangle which has very
slow rates of convergence. Thus the triangular shell element is very useful in problems with double
curvature where the quadrilateral element may not be suitable.
10. Stress retrieval at nodes and at any point within the element.

Plate Element Local Coordinate System

1. The vector pointing from I to J is defined to be parallel to the local x- axis.
2. For triangles: the cross-product of vectors IJ and JK defines a vector parallel to the local z-axis, i.e., z =
IJ x JK.
For quads: the cross-product of vectors IJ and JL defines a vector parallel to the local z-axis, i.e., z = IJ x
JL.
3. The cross-product of vectors z and x defines a vector parallel to the local y- axis, i.e., y = z x x.
4. The origin of the axes is at the center (average) of the four joint locations (three joint locations for a
triangle).

Element origin

Output of Plate Element Stresses and Moments

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ELEMENT stress and moment output is available at the following locations:

A. Center point of the element.

B. All corner nodes of the element.
C. At any user specified point within the element.

Following are the items included in the ELEMENT STRESS output.

Table 1. Items included in the Stress Element output

Title Description
SQX, SQY Shear stresses (Force/ unit length/ thickness)
SX, SY Membrane stresses (Force/unit length/ thickness)
SXY Inplane Shear Stress (Force/unit length/ thickness)
MX, MY,
MXY Moments per unit width (Force x Length/length)

(For Mx, the unit width is a unit distance parallel to the local Y axis. For My, the unit
width is a unit distance parallel to the local X axis. Mx and My cause bending, while
Mxy causes the element to twist out-of-plane.)

SMAX, SMIN Principal stresses in the plane of the element (Force/unit area). The 3rd principal stress
is 0.0
TMAX Maximum 2D shear stress in the plane of the element (Force/unit area)
VONT,
VONB 3D Von Mises stress at the top and bottom surfaces, where:

VM = 0.707[(SMAX - SMIN)2 + SMAX2 + SMIN2]1/2

TRESCAT, Tresca stress, where TRESCA = MAX[ |(Smax-Smin)| , |(Smax)| , |(Smin)| ]

TRESCAB

Notes
1. All element stress output is in the local coordinate system. The direction and sense of the element
stresses are explained in the following section.
2. To obtain element stresses at a specified point within the element, you must provide the location
(local X, local Y) in the coordinate system for the element. The origin of the local coordinate system
coincides with the center of the element.
3. The 2 nonzero Principal stresses at the surface (SMAX & SMIN), the maximum 2D shear stress (TMAX),
the 2D orientation of the principal plane (ANGLE), the 3D Von Mises stress (VONT & VONB), and the 3D
Tresca stress (TRESCAT & TRESCAB) are also printed for the top and bottom surfaces of the elements.
The top and the bottom surfaces are determined on the basis of the direction of the local z-axis.
4. The third principal stress is assumed to be zero at the surfaces for use in Von Mises and Tresca stress
calculations. However, the TMAX and ANGLE are based only on the 2D inplane stresses (SMAX & SMIN)
at the surface. The 3D maximum shear stress at the surface is not calculated but would be equal to the
3D Tresca stress divided by 2.0.

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Sign Convention of Plate Element Stresses and Moments

Sign conventions for plate stresses and moments

Sign convention for plate bending

Mx is the Bending Moment on the local x face and the local x-face is the face perpendicular to the local x-axis.

My is the Bending Moment on the local y face and the local y-face is the face perpendicular to the local
y-axis.

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Stress caused by Mx

Stress caused by My

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Torsion

Membrane stress Sx and Sy

In-plane shear stresses Sxy and Syx

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Out-of-plane shear stresses SQX and SQY

Members, plate elements, solid elements and surface elements can all be part of a single STAAD model. The
MEMBER INCIDENCES input must precede the INCIDENCE input for plates, solids or surfaces. All
INCIDENCEs must precede other input such as properties, constants, releases, loads, etc. The selfweight of
the finite elements is converted to joint loads at the connected nodes and is not used as an element pressure
load.

Plate Element Numbering

Therefore, to save some computing time, similar elements should be numbered sequentially. The following
figure shows examples of efficient and non-efficient element numbering.

However, you have to decide between adopting a numbering system which reduces the computation time
versus a numbering system which increases the ease of defining the structure geometry.

Examples of efficient and inefficient element numbering

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1.6.2 Solid Element

Solid elements enable the solution of structural problems involving general three dimensional stresses. There
is a class of problems such as stress distribution in concrete dams, soil and rock strata where finite element
analysis using solid elements provides a powerful tool.

Theoretical Basis
The solid element used in STAAD is of eight-noded, isoparametric type. These elements have three
translational degrees-of-freedom per node.

eight-noded, isoparametric solid element

By collapsing various nodes together, an eight noded solid element can be degenerated to the following
forms with four to seven nodes. Joints 1, 2, and 3 must be retained as a triangle.

Forms of a collapsed eight-noded solid element

The stiffness matrix of the solid element is evaluated by numerical integration with eight Gauss-Legendre
points. To facilitate the numerical integration, the geometry of the element is expressed by interpolating
functions using natural coordinate system, (r,s,t) of the element with its origin at the center of gravity. The
interpolating functions are shown below:

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, ,

where x, y and z are the coordinates of any point in the element and xi, yi, zi, i=1,..,8 are the coordinates of
nodes defined in the global coordinate system. The interpolation functions, hi are defined in the natural
coordinate system, (r,s,t). Each of r,s and t varies between -1 and +1. The fundamental property of the
unknown interpolation functions hi is that their values in natural coordinate system is unity at node, i, and
zero at all other nodes of the element. The element displacements are also interpreted the same way as the
geometry. For completeness, the functions are given below:

, ,

where u, v and w are displacements at any point in the element and ui,vi, wi, i=1,8 are corresponding nodal
displacements in the coordinate system used to describe the geometry.

Three additional displacement "bubble" functions which have zero displacements at the surfaces are added
in each direction for improved shear performance to form a 33x33 matrix. Static condensation is used to
reduce this matrix to a 24x24 matrix at the corner joints.

Local Coordinate System

The local coordinate system used in solid element is the same as the global system.

Local coordinate system for a solid element

Properties and Constants

Unlike members and shell (plate) elements, no properties are required for solid elements. However, the
constants such as modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio are to be specified. Also, density needs to be
provided if selfweight is included in any load case.

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Output of Element Stresses

Element stresses may be obtained at the center and at the joints of the solid element. The items that are
printed are :

• Normal Stresses : SXX, SYY and SZZ

• Shear Stresses : SXY, SYZ and SZX
• Principal stresses : S1, S2 and S3

• Von Mises stresses:

Direction cosines : six direction cosines are printed, following the expression DC, corresponding to the first
two principal stress directions.

Parent topic: 1.6 Finite Element Information

Related reference
5.32.3.2 Element Load Specification - Solids
5.11 Joint Coordinates Specification
5.13 Elements and Surfaces
5.13.1 Plate and Shell Element Incidence Specification
5.13.2 Solid Element Incidences Specification
5.14 Plate Element Mesh Generation
5.14.2 Element Mesh Generation
5.21 Element/Surface Property Specification
5.21.1 Element Property Specification
5.24 Element Plane Stress and Ignore Inplane Rotation Specification
5.32.3 Element Load Specifications
5.32.3.1 Element Load Specification - Plates

1.6.3 Surface Element

For any panel type of structural component, modeling requires breaking it down into a series of plate
elements for analysis purposes. This is what is known in stress analysis parlance as meshing. When you
choose to model the panel component using plate elements, you are then taking on the responsibility of
meshing. Thus, what the program sees is a series of elements. It is your responsibility to ensure that meshing
is done properly. Examples of these are available in example problems 9, 10, 23, 27, etc. where individual
plate elements are specified.

By using the Surface type of entity, the burden of meshing is shifted from you to the program to some
degree. The entire wall or slab is hence represented by just a few "Surface" entities, instead of hundreds of
elements. When the program goes through the analysis phase, it will then automatically subdivide the

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surface into elements. Therefore, you do not have to instruct the program in what manner to carry out the
meshing.

The attributes associated with the surface element, and the sections of this manual where the information
may be obtained, are listed below:

Attributes Related Sections

Surfaces incidences 5.13.3 Surface Entities Specification
Openings in surfaces 5.13.3 Surface Entities Specification
Local coordinates system for surfaces 1.6.3 Surface Element
Specifying sections for stress/force output 5.13.3 Surface Entities Specification
Property for surfaces 5.21.2 Surface Property Specification
Material constants 5.26.3 Surface Constants Specification
Surface loading 5.32.3.4 Surface Loads Specification
Stress/Force output printing 5.42 Print Specifications
Shear wall design 3.8.2 Shear Wall Design, 5.55 Shear Wall Design

Local Coordinate system for surfaces

The origin and orientation of the local coordinate system of a surface element depends on the order in which
the boundary nodal points are listed and position of the surface element in relation to the global coordinate
system.

Let X, Y, and Z represent the local and GX, GY, and GZ the global axis vectors, respectively. The following
principles apply.

a. Origin of X-Y-Z is located at the first node specified.

b. Direction of Z may be established by the right hand corkscrew rule, where the thumb indicates the
positive Z direction, and the fingers point along the circumference of the element from the first to the
last node listed.
c. X is a vector product of GY and Z (X = GY x Z). If GY and Z are parallel, X is taken as a vector parallel to
GX.
d. Finally, Y is a vector product of Z and X (Y = Z x X).

The diagram below shows directions and sign convention of local axes and forces.

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Local axis & sign convention of surface forces

Parent topic: 1.6 Finite Element Information

Related reference
5.11 Joint Coordinates Specification
5.13 Elements and Surfaces
5.13.1 Plate and Shell Element Incidence Specification
5.13.2 Solid Element Incidences Specification
5.14 Plate Element Mesh Generation
5.14.2 Element Mesh Generation
5.21 Element/Surface Property Specification
5.21.1 Element Property Specification
5.24 Element Plane Stress and Ignore Inplane Rotation Specification
5.32.3 Element Load Specifications
5.32.3.1 Element Load Specification - Plates
5.13.3 Surface Entities Specification
5.21.2 Surface Property Specification
5.26.3 Surface Constants Specification
5.42 Print Specifications
5.43 Stress/Force Output Printing for Surface Entities
5.55 Shear Wall Design

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1.7 Member Properties

The following types of member property specifications are available in STAAD:

Shear Area for members refers to the shear stiffness effective area. Shear stiffness effective area is used to
calculate shear stiffness for the member stiffness matrix.

As an example: for a rectangular cross section, the shear stiffness effective area is usually taken as 0.83
(Roark) to 0.85 (Cowper) times the cross sectional area. A shear area of less than the cross sectional area will
reduce the stiffness. A typical shearing stiffness term is

(12EI/L3)/(1+Φ)

where

Φ = (12 EI) / (GAs L2)

As = the shear stiffness effective area

Phi (Φ) is usually ignored in basic beam theory. STAAD will include the PHI term unless the SET SHEAR
command is entered.

Shear stress effective area is a different quantity that is used to calculate shear stress and in code checking.
For a rectangular cross section, the shear stress effective area is usually taken as two-thirds (0.67x) of the
cross sectional area.

Shear stress in STAAD may be from one of three methods.

1. (Shear Force)/(Shear stress effective area)

This is the case where STAAD computes the area based on the cross section parameters.
2. (Shear Force)/(Shear stiffness effective area)
This is the case where STAAD uses the shear area entered.
3. (V Q)/(I t)
In some codes and for some cross sections, STAAD uses this method.

The values that STAAD uses for shear area for shear deformation calculation can be obtained by specifying
the command PRINT MEMBER PROPERTIES.

The output for this will provide this information in all circumstances: when AY and AZ are not provided, when
AY and AZ are set to zero, when AY and AZ are set to very large numbers, when properties are specified using
PRISMATIC, when properties are specified through a user table, when properties are specified through from
the built-in-table, etc.

1.7.1 Prismatic Properties

1.7.2 Built-In Steel Section Library
1.7.3 User Provided Steel Table
1.7.4 Tapered Sections
1.7.5 Assign Command
1.7.6 Steel Joist and Joist Girders
1.7.7 Composite Beams and Composite Decks

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1.7.8 Curved Members

Parent topic: 1. General Description

Related reference
5.20 Member Property Specification

1.7.1 Prismatic Properties

The following prismatic properties are required for analysis:

AX = Cross sectional area

IX = Torsional constant
IY = Moment of inertia about y-axis.
IZ = Moment of inertia about z-axis.

In addition, the user may choose to specify the following properties:

AY = Effective shear area for shear force parallel to local y-axis.

AZ = Effective shear area for shear force parallel to local z-axis.
YD = Depth of section parallel to local y-axis.
ZD = Depth of section parallel to local z-axis.

For T-beams, YD, ZD, YB & ZB must be specified. These terms, which are shown in the next figure are:

YD = Total depth of section (top fiber of flange to bottom fiber of web)

ZD = Width of flange
YB = Depth of stem
ZB = Width of stem

For Trapezoidal beams, YD, ZD & ZB must be specified. These terms, which too are shown in the next figure
are:

YD = Total depth of section

ZD = Width of section at top fiber
ZB = Width of section at bottom fiber

Top & bottom are defined as positive side of the local Z axis, and negative side of the local Z axis respectively.

STAAD automatically considers the additional deflection of members due to pure shear (in addition to
deflection due to ordinary bending theory). To ignore the shear deflection, enter a SET SHEAR command
before the joint coordinates. This will bring results close to textbook results.

The depths in the two major directions (YD and ZD) are used in the program to calculate the section moduli.
These are needed only to calculate member stresses or to perform concrete design. You can omit the YD &
ZD values if stresses or design of these members are of no interest. The default value is 253.75 mm (9.99
inches) for YD and ZD. All the prismatic properties are input in the local member coordinates.

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Prismatic property nomenclature for a T and Trapezoidal section

To define a concrete member,you must not provide AX, but instead, provide YD and ZD for a rectangular
section and just YD for a circular section. If no moment of inertia or shear areas are provided, the program
will automatically calculate these from YD and ZD.

Table 1.1 is offered to assist the user in specifying the necessary section values. It lists, by structural type, the
required section properties for any analysis. For the PLANE or FLOOR type analyses, the choice of the
required moment of inertia depends upon the beta angle. If BETA equals zero, the required property is IZ.

Table 1. Required Section Properties

Structure Type Required Properties
TRUSS structure AX
PLANE structure AX, IZ, or IY
FLOOR structure IX, IZ or IY
SPACE structure AX, IX, IY, IZ

Parent topic: 1.7 Member Properties

Related reference
5.20.2 Prismatic Property Specification

1.7.2 Built-In Steel Section Library

This feature of the program allows you to specify section names of standard steel shapes manufactured in
different countries.

Since the shear areas of the sections are built into the tables, shear deformation is always considered for
these sections.

Parent topic: 1.7 Member Properties

Related reference
2.2.1 Built-in Steel Section Library

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Related reference
5.20.1 Assigning Properties from Steel Tables

1.7.3 User Provided Steel Table

You can provide a customized steel table with designated names and proper corresponding properties. The
program can then find member properties from those tables. Member selection may also be performed with
the program selecting members from the provided tables only.

These tables can be provided as a part of a STAAD input or as separately created files from which the
program can read the properties. If you do not use standard rolled shapes or only use a limited number of
specific shapes, you can create permanent member property files. Analysis and design can be limited to the
sections in these files.

Parent topic: 1.7 Member Properties

Related reference
5.19 User Steel Table Specification
5.20.4 Property Specification from User Provided Table

1.7.4 Tapered Sections

Properties of tapered I-sections may be provided through MEMBER PROPERTY specifications. Given key
section dimensions, the program is capable of calculating cross-sectional properties which are subsequently
used in analysis.

Tapered I-sections have constant flange dimensions and a linearly varying web depth along the length of the
member.

Parent topic: 1.7 Member Properties

Related concepts Related reference

2.3.3.7 Design of Web-Tapered Members 5.20.3 Tapered Member Specification

1.7.5 Assign Command

If you want to avoid the trouble of defining a specific section name but rather leave it to the program to
assign a section name, the ASSIGN command may be used. The section types that may be assigned include
BEAM, COLUMN, CHANNEL, ANGLE and DOUBLE ANGLE.

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When the keyword BEAM is specified, the program will assign an I-shaped beam section (Wide Flange for
AISC, UB section for British).

For the keyword COLUMN also, the program will assign an I-shaped beam section (Wide Flange for AISC, UC
section for British).

If steel design-member selection is requested, a similar type section will be selected.

Parent topic: 1.7 Member Properties

Related reference
5.20.5 Assign Profile Specification

1.7.6 Steel Joist and Joist Girders

STAAD.Pro includes facilities for specifying steel joists and joist girders. The basis for this implementation is
the information contained in the 1994 publication of the American Steel Joist Institute called Standard
Specifications, Load Tables, and Weight Tables for Steel Joists and Joist Girders, Fortieth edition. The following
are the salient features of the implementation.

Member properties can be assigned by specifying a joist designation contained in tables supplied with the
program. The following joists and joist girder types have been implemented:

Open web steel joists – K series and KCS joists

Longspan steel joists – LH series
Deep Longspan steel joists – DLH series
Joist Girders – G series

The pages in the Steel Joist Institute publication where these sections are listed are shown in the following
table.

Table 1. SJI joist types

Joist type Beginning page number
K series 24
KCS 30
LH series 54
DLH series 57
Joist girders 74

The designation for the G series Joist Girders is as shown in page 73 of the Steel Joist Institute publication.
STAAD.Pro incorporates the span length also in the name, as shown in the next figure.

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STAAD nomenclature for SJI joist girders

Theoretical basis for modeling the joist

Steel joists are prefabricated, welded steel trusses used at closely spaced intervals to support floor or roof
decking. Thus, from an analysis standpoint, a joist is not a single member in the same sense as beams and
columns of portal frames that one is familiar with. Instead, it is a truss assembly of members. In general,
individual manufacturers of the joists decide on the cross section details of the members used for the top and
bottom chords, and webs of the joists. So, joist tables rarely contain any information on the cross-section
properties of the individual components of a joist girder. The manufacturer’s responsibility is to guarantee
that, no matter what the cross section details of the members are, the joist simply has to ensure that it
provides the capacity corresponding to its rating.

The absence of the section details makes it difficult to incorporate the true truss configuration of the joist in
the analysis model of the overall structure. In STAAD, selfweight and any other member load applied on the
joist is transferred to its end nodes through simply supported action. Also, in STAAD, the joist makes no
contribution to the stiffness of the overall structure.

As a result of the above assumption, the following points must be noted with respect to modeling joists:

1. The entire joist is represented in the STAAD input file by a single member. Graphically it will be drawn
using a single line.
2. After creating the member, the properties should be assigned from the joist database.
3. The 3D Rendering feature of the program will display those members using a representative Warren
type truss.
4. The intermediate span-point displacements of the joist cannot be determined.

Example rendering of a joist member in STAAD.Pro

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Assigning the joists

The procedure for assigning the joists is explained in the Graphical User Interface manual.

The STAAD joists database includes the weight per length of the joists. So, for selfweight computations in the
model, the weight of the joist is automatically considered.

Parent topic: 1.7 Member Properties

1.7.7 Composite Beams and Composite Decks

There are two methods in STAAD for specifying composite beams. Composite beams are members whose
property is comprised of an I-shaped steel cross section (like an American W shape) with a concrete slab on
top. The steel section and concrete slab act monolithically. The two methods are:

1. The EXPLICIT definition method – In this method, the member geometry is first defined as a line. It is
then assigned a property from the steel database, with the help of the "CM" attribute. Additional
parameters like CT (thickness of the slab), FC (concrete strength), CW (effective width of slab), CD
(concrete density), etc., some optional and some mandatory, are also provided.
Hence, the responsibility of determining the attributes of the composite member, like concrete slab
width, lies upon you, the user. If you wish to obtain a design, additional terms like rib height, rib width,
etc. must also be separately assigned with the aid of design parameters. Hence, some amount of effort
is involved in gathering all the data and assigning them.
2. The composite deck generation method – The laboriousness of the previous procedure can be
alleviated to some extent by using the program’s composite deck definition facilities. The program
then internally converts the deck into individual composite members (calculating attributes like
effective width in the process) during the analysis and design phase. The deck is defined best using the
graphical tools of the program since a database of deck data from different manufacturers is accessible
from easy-to-use dialogs. Since all the members which make up the deck are identified as part of a
single object, load assignment and alterations to the deck can be done to just the deck object, and not
the individual members of the deck.

Parent topic: 1.7 Member Properties

Related concepts Related reference

2.4.1.7 Composite Beam Design as per 5.20.1 Assigning Properties from Steel
AISC-ASD Tables
2.5.9 Composite Beam Design per the 5.20.7 Composite Decks
AISC LRFD 3rd edition code

1.7.8 Curved Members

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Members can be defined as being curved. Tapered sections are not permitted. The cross-section should be
uniform throughout the length.

The design of curved members is not supported.

Parent topic: 1.7 Member Properties

Related reference
5.20.8 Curved Member Specification
5.26.2 Specifying Constants for Members and Elements

1.8 Member and Element Release

STAAD allows releases for members and plate elements.

One or both ends of a member or element can be released. Members/Elements are assumed to be rigidly
framed into joints in accordance with the structural type specified. When this full rigidity is not applicable,
individual force components at either end of the member can be set to zero with member release
statements. By specifying release components, individual degrees of freedom are removed from the analysis.
Release components are given in the local coordinate system for each member. Note that PARTIAL moment
release is also allowed.

Only one of sections 1.8 and 1.9 properties can be assigned to a given member. The last one entered will be
used. In other words, a MEMBER RELEASE should not be applied on a member which is declared TRUSS,
TENSION ONLY, or COMPRESSION ONLY.

1.8.1 Connection Tags

Parent topic: 1. General Description

Related reference
5.22 Member/Element Releases
5.22.1 Member Release Specification
5.22.2 Element Release Specification
5.22.3 Element Ignore Stiffness

1.8.1 Connection Tags

Connection tags provide a means for assigning both connection type data and connection capacities, which
can be used for checking in STAAD.Pro.

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Note: This feature is available in STAAD.Pro V8i (SELECTseries 4), release 20.07.09.21 and higher.

Connection tags consist of two pieces of data:

i. A Connection Tags XML file, which contains the connection categories, tag names, and member end
releases for the connection tag. Connection capacities are also specified for each combination of
member and connecting member which may utilize a connection tag. Refer to "Connection Tags
XML File Schema " in the STAAD User Interface help for additional information on the required
structure of this XML file.
ii. Assignments of connection tags to members are stored in the STAAD input file. Though this is done
within the DEFINE MEMBER ATTRIBUTE command, it is strongly recommended that the user
interface features be used to make connection tag assignments as these must utilize only the
connection categories and tag names in the associated XML file. See "Connection Tag Member
Attribute" for additional information on this command.

Parent topic: 1.8 Member and Element Release

Related reference
5.29.2 Connection Tag Member Attribute

1.9 Truss and Tension- or Compression-Only Members

For analyses which involve members that carry axial loads only (i.e., truss members) there are two methods
for specifying this condition. When all the members in the structure are truss members, the type of structure
is declared as TRUSS whereas, when only some of the members are truss members (e.g., bracings of a
building), the MEMBER TRUSS command can be used where those members will be identified separately.

In STAAD, the MEMBER TENSION or MEMBER COMPRESSION command can be used to limit the axial load
type the member may carry.

Parent topic: 1. General Description

Related reference
5.23.1 Member Truss Specification
5.23.3 Member Tension/Compression Specification

1.10 Tension, Compression - Only Springs

In STAAD, the SPRING TENSION or SPRING COMPRESSION command can be used to limit the load
direction the support spring may carry. The analysis will be performed accordingly.

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Parent topic: 1. General Description

Related reference
5.27.5 Spring Tension/Compression Specification
5.23.1 Member Truss Specification

1.11 Cable Members

STAAD.Pro supports the following types of analysis for cable members:

1.11.1 Linearized Cable Members

1.11.2 Nonlinear Cable and Truss Members
1.11.3 Nonlinear Cable Members for Advanced Cable Analysis

Parent topic: 1. General Description

1.11.1 Linearized Cable Members

Cable members may be specified by using the MEMBER CABLE command. While specifying cable members,
the initial tension in the cable must be provided. The following paragraph explains how cable stiffness is
calculated.

The increase in length of a loaded cable is a combination of two effects. The first component is the elastic
stretch, and is governed by the familiar spring relationship:

F = Kx

where

Kelastic = EA/L

The second component of the lengthening is due to a change in geometry (as a cable is pulled taut, sag is
reduced). This relationship can be described by

F = Kx

but here,

where

w = weight per unit length of cable

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T = tension in cable
α = angel that the axis of the cable makes with a horizontal plane (= 0,
cable is horizontal; = 90, cable is vertical)

Therefore, the "stiffness" of a cable depends on the initial installed tension (or sag). These two effects may be
combined as follows:

Note: When T = ∞ (infinity), Kcomb = EA/L and that when T = 0, Kcomb = 0. It should also be noted that as
the tension increases (sag decreases) the combined stiffness approaches that of the pure elastic situation.

The following points need to be considered when using the cable member in STAAD :

1. The linear cable member is only a truss member whose properties accommodate the sag factor and
initial tension. The behavior of the cable member is identical to that of the truss member. It can carry
axial loads only. As a result, the fundamental rules involved in modeling truss members have to be
followed when modeling cable members. For example, when two cable members meet at a common
joint, if there isn't a support or a 3rd member connected to that joint, it is a point of potential
instability.
2. Due to the reasons specified in 1) above, applying a transverse load on a cable member is not
advisable. The load will be converted to two concentrated loads at the 2 ends of the cable and the true
deflection pattern of the cable will never be realized.
3. A tension only cable member offers no resistance to a compressive force applied at its ends. When the
end joints of the member are subjected to a compressive force, they "give in" thereby causing the
cable to sag. Under these circumstances, the cable member has zero stiffness and this situation has to
be accounted for in the stiffness matrix and the displacements have to be recalculated. But in STAAD,
merely declaring the member to be a cable member does not guarantee that this behavior will be
accounted for. It is also important that you declare the member to be a tension only member by using
the MEMBER TENSION command, after the CABLE command. This will ensure that the program will
test the nature of the force in the member after the analysis and if it is compressive, the member is
switched off and the stiffness matrix re-calculated.
4. Due to potential instability problems explained in item 1 above, you should also avoid modeling a
catenary by breaking it down into a number of straight line segments. The cable member in STAAD
cannot be used to simulate the behavior of a catenary. By catenary, we are referring to those
structural components which have a curved profile and develop axial forces due their self weight. This
behavior is in reality a non-linear behavior where the axial force is caused because of either a change
in the profile of the member or induced by large displacements, neither of which are valid assumptions
in an elastic analysis. A typical example of a catenary is the main U shaped cable used in suspension
bridges.
5. The increase of stiffness of the cable as the tension in it increases under applied loading is updated
after each iteration if the cable members are also declared to be MEMBER TENSION. However,
iteration stops when all tension members are in tension or slack; not when the cable tension
converges.

Parent topic: 1.11 Cable Members

Related concepts Related reference

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Related concepts Related reference

1.11.2 Nonlinear Cable and Truss 5.23.2 Member Cable Specification
Members 5.37.3 Nonlinear Cable Analysis
1.18.2.7 Nonlinear Cable/Truss Analysis
5.23.1 Member Truss Specification

1.11.2 Nonlinear Cable and Truss Members

Cable members for the Nonlinear Cable Analysis may be specified by using the MEMBER CABLE command.
While specifying cable members, the initial tension in the cable or the unstressed length of the cable must be
provided. you should ensure that all cables will be in sufficient tension for all load cases to converge. Use
selfweight in every load case and temperature if appropriate; i.e., don’t enter component cases (e.g., wind
only).

The nonlinear cable may have large motions and the sag is checked on every load step and every equilibrium
iteration.

In addition there is a nonlinear truss which is specified in the Member Truss command. The nonlinear truss is
simply any truss with pretension specified. It is essentially the same as a cable without sag. This member
takes compression. If all cables are taut for all load cases, then the nonlinear truss may be used to simulate
cables. The reason for using this substitution is that the truss solution is more reliable.

Points 1, 2, and 4 in the previous section will not apply to nonlinear cable analysis if sufficient pretension is
applied, so joints may be entered along the shape of a cable (in some cases a stabilizing stiffness may be
required and entered for the first loadstep). Point 3 above: The Member Tension command is unnecessary
and ignored for the nonlinear cable analysis. Point 5 above: The cable tensions are iterated to convergence in
the nonlinear cable analysis.

Parent topic: 1.11 Cable Members

Related concepts Related reference

1.11.1 Linearized Cable Members 5.23.2 Member Cable Specification
1.18.2.7 Nonlinear Cable/Truss Analysis 5.37.3 Nonlinear Cable Analysis
5.23.1 Member Truss Specification

1.11.3 Nonlinear Cable Members for Advanced Cable Analysis

Cable members used for a Advanced Cable Analysis are specified by using the MEMBER CABLE command.

When specifying cable members, either the initial tension in the cable or the unstressed length of the cable
must first be provided. The initial tension is sufficient for keeping the cable in tension because the catenary
theory behind the element formulation will prevent the cable from behaving in compression. However, a
larger initial tension (or smaller unstressed length) increases the numerical stability

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A nonlinear cable may have large deformation. The force equilibrium at cable ends is checked on every load
step and on every equilibrium iteration.

Following considerations exist in Advanced Cable Analysis:

1. The nonlinear cable element provides stiffness and resistance forces to only three translational
degrees (i.e., FX, FY, and FZ). It is not able to carry any moments. So, when two nonlinear cable
elements meet at a common joint –and if there isn’t a support or a 3rd member connected to the joint
– it is a point of potential instability. The program introduces a very weak spring to overcome this
problem.
2. Due to the reason as described in item 1, applying any moment to a cable element is not advisable.
3. The cable is not able to carry any compression forces. So, when the load tends to cause compression in
a cable –and if there are no other members connected to the cable and the cable can deform freely–
there will be some numerical instability.
4. Due to the instability problem explained in item 1, subdividing a cable member into several smaller
cable elements should be done only when it is necessary. An example of one such necessary case may
be when there is force load applied in the middle of the cable member. For this case, the cable
member has to be broken so that the forces can be applied as joint loads at cable nodes.
5. The increase of stiffness of the cable (by increasing the initial tension or decreasing unstressed length)
is always beneficial for numerical stability. The iteration will stop only when the force equilibrium is
reached.
6. In advanced cable analysis, the self weight of a cable member is initially considered to obtain the initial
configuration of cable members under self weight. Any additional weight required along with self
weight can be included using FWY parameter in the MEMBER CABLE command.

Note: This analysis feature can be used only when Advanced Analysis License is active.

Parent topic: 1.11 Cable Members

Related concepts Related reference

1.18.2.8 Advanced Nonlinear Cable 5.23.2 Member Cable Specification
Analysis
5.37.3 Nonlinear Cable Analysis

1.12 Member Offsets

Some members of a structure may not be concurrent with the incident joints thereby creating offsets. This
offset distance is specified in terms of global or local coordinate system (i.e., X, Y and Z distances from the
incident joint). Secondary forces induced, due to this offset connection, are taken into account in analyzing
the structure and also to calculate the individual member forces. The new offset centroid of the member can
be at the start or end incidences and the new working point will also be the new start or end of the member.
Therefore, any reference from the start or end of that member will always be from the new offset points.

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Example of working points (WP)

In the figure above, WP refers to the location of the centroid of the starting or ending point of the member.

Parent topic: 1. General Description

Related reference
5.25 Member Offset Specification

1.13 Material Constants

The material constants are: modulus of elasticity (E); weight density (DEN); Poisson's ratio (POISS); co-
efficient of thermal expansion (ALPHA), Composite Damping Ratio, and beta angle (BETA) or coordinates for
any reference (REF) point.

E value for members must be provided or the analysis will not be performed. Weight density (DEN) is used
only when selfweight of the structure is to be taken into account. Poisson's ratio (POISS) is used to calculate
the shear modulus (commonly known as G) by the formula,

G = 0.5⋅E/(1 + POISS)

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If Poisson's ratio is not provided, STAAD will assume a value for this quantity based on the value of E.
Coefficient of thermal expansion (ALPHA) is used to calculate the expansion of the members if temperature
loads are applied. The temperature unit for temperature load and ALPHA has to be the same.

Composite damping ratio is used to compute the damping ratio for each mode in a dynamic solution. This is
only useful if there are several materials with different damping ratios.

BETA angle and REFerence point are discussed in Section 1.5.3 and are input as part of the member
constants.

Note: Poisson's Ratio must always be defined after the Modulus of Elasticity for a given member/element.

Parent topic: 1. General Description

Related reference
5.26 Specifying and Assigning Material Constants

1.14 Supports
STAAD.Pro allows specifications of supports that are parallel as well as inclined to the global axes.

Supports are specified as PINNED, FIXED, or FIXED with different releases. A pinned support has restraints
against all translational movement and none against rotational movement. In other words, a pinned support
will have reactions for all forces but will resist no moments. A fixed support has restraints against all
directions of movement.

The restraints of a fixed support can also be released in any desired direction as specified.

Translational and rotational springs can also be specified. The springs are represented in terms of their spring
constants. A translational spring constant is defined as the force to displace a support joint one length unit in
the specified global direction. Similarly, a rotational spring constant is defined as the force to rotate the
support joint one degree around the specified global direction.

For static analysis, Multi-linear spring supports can be used to model the varying, non-linear resistance of a
support (e.g., soil).

The Support command is also used to specify joints and directions where support displacements will be
enforced.

Parent topic: 1. General Description

Related reference
5.27 Support Specifications
5.27.1 Global Support Specification
5.27.2 Inclined Support Specification

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Related reference

1.15 Master/Slave Joints

The master/slave option is provided to enable you to model rigid links in the structural system.

This facility can be used to model special structural elements like a rigid floor diaphragm. Several slave joints
may be provided which will be assigned same displacements as the master joint. You are also allowed the
flexibility to choose the specific degrees of freedom for which the displacement constraints will be imposed
on the slaved joints. If all degrees of freedom (Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My and Mz) are provided as constraints, the
joints will be assumed to be rigidly connected.

Parent topic: 1. General Description

Related reference
5.28.1 Master/Slave Specification

1.16 Loads
Loads in a structure can be specified as joint load, member load, temperature load and fixed-end member
load. STAAD can also generate the self-weight of the structure and use it as uniformly distributed member
loads in analysis. Any fraction of this self-weight can also be applied in any desired direction.

1.16.1 Joint Load

1.16.2 Member Load
1.16.3 Area Load, One-way, and Floor Loads
1.16.4 Fixed End Member Load
1.16.5 Prestress and Poststress Member Load
1.16.6 Temperature and Strain Load
1.16.7 Support Displacement Load
1.16.8 Loading on Elements

Parent topic: 1. General Description

1.16.1 Joint Load

Joint loads, both forces and moments, may be applied to any free joint of a structure. These loads act in the
global coordinate system of the structure. Positive forces act in the positive coordinate directions. Any
number of loads may be applied on a single joint, in which case the loads will be additive on that joint.

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Parent topic: 1.16 Loads

Related reference
1.18.3 Dynamic Analysis
5.32.1 Joint Load Specification
5.32.10 Dynamic Loading Specification

1.16.2 Member Load

Three types of member loads may be applied directly to a member of a structure. These loads are uniformly
distributed loads, concentrated loads, and linearly varying loads (including trapezoidal). Uniform loads act on
the full or partial length of a member. Concentrated loads act at any intermediate, specified point. Linearly
varying loads act over the full length of a member. Trapezoidal linearly varying loads act over the full or
partial length of a member. Trapezoidal loads are converted into a uniform load and several concentrated
loads.

Any number of loads may be specified to act upon a member in any independent loading condition. Member
loads can be specified in the member coordinate system or the global coordinate system. Uniformly
distributed member loads provided in the global coordinate system may be specified to act along the full or
projected member length. See "1.5.1 Global Coordinate System" to find the relation of the member to the
global coordinate systems for specifying member loads. Positive forces act in the positive coordinate
directions, local or global, as the case may be.

Uniform moment may not be applied to tapered members. Only uniform load over the entire length is
available for curved members.

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Member Load Configurations for A) linear loads, B) concentrated loads, C) linear loads, D) trapezoidal load, E) triangular
(linear) loads, and E) uniform load

Parent topic: 1.16 Loads

Related reference
5.32.2 Member Load Specification

1.16.3 Area Load, One-way, and Floor Loads

Often a floor is subjected to a uniform pressure. It could require a lot of work to calculate the equivalent
member load for individual members in that floor. However, with the AREA, ONEWAY or FLOOR LOAD
facilities, you can specify the pressure (load per unit square area). The program will calculate the tributary
area for these members and calculate the appropriate member loads. The Area Load and Oneway load are
used for one way distribution and the Floor Load is used for two way distribution.

The following assumptions are made while transferring the area/floor load to member load:

a. The member load is assumed to be a linearly varying load for which the start and the end values may
be of different magnitude.
b. Tributary area of a member with an area load is calculated based on half the spacing to the nearest
approximately parallel members on both sides. If the spacing is more than or equal to the length of the
member, the area load will be ignored. Oneway load does not have this limitation.

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c. These loading types should not be specified on members declared as MEMBER CABLE, MEMBER
TRUSS, MEMBER TENSION, MEMBER COMPRESSION, or CURVED.

Note: Floor Loads and One-way Loads can be reduced when included in a load case defined as “Reducible”
according to the UBC/IBC rules.

An example:

Example floor structure with area load specification of 0.1

Member 1 will have a linear load of 0.3 at one end and 0.2 at the other end. Members 2 and 4 will have a
uniform load of 0.5 over the full length. Member 3 will have a linear load of 0.45 and 0.55 at respective ends.
Member 5 will have a uniform load of 0.25. The rest of the members, 6 through 13, will have no contributory
area load since the nearest parallel members are more than each of the member lengths apart. However, the
reactions from the members to the girder will be considered.

Only member loads are generated from the Area, Oneway, and Floor load input. Thus, load types specific to
plates, solids or surface are not generated. That is because, the basic assumption is that, a floor load or area
load is used in situations where the basic entity (plate, solid or surface) which acts as the medium for
application of that load, is not part of the structural model.

The Oneway load is intended to be used in areas with relatively large aspect rations between adjacent sides.
It should not be used on members with square tributary areas unless the TOWARDS option is used, which then
specifies to which of the two equal directions the load should be applied. Otherwise, the Floor Load type
should be used.

Note: Failure to specify a TOWARD side on a Oneway load applied to a square tributary area will likely result in
lost load or unintended load path changes.

Parent topic: 1.16 Loads

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Related reference
5.32.4 Area, One-way, and Floor Load Specifications
5.32.4.1 Area Load Specification
5.32.4.2 One-way Load Specification
5.32.4.3 Floor Load Specification

1.16.4 Fixed End Member Load

Load effects on a member may also be specified in terms of its fixed end loads. These loads are given in terms
of the member coordinate system and the directions are opposite to the actual load on the member. Each
end of a member can have six forces: axial; shear y; shear z; torsion; moment y, and moment z.

Parent topic: 1.16 Loads

Related reference
5.32.7 Fixed-End Load Specification

1.16.5 Prestress and Poststress Member Load

Members in a structure may be subjected to prestress load for which the load distribution in the structure
may be investigated. The prestressing load in a member may be applied axially or eccentrically. The
eccentricities can be provided at the start joint, at the middle, and at the end joint. These eccentricities are
only in the local y-axis. A positive eccentricity will be in the positive local y-direction. Since eccentricities are
only provided in the local y-axis, care should be taken when providing prismatic properties or in specifying
the correct BETA angle when rotating the member coordinates, if necessary. Two types of prestress load
specification are available; PRESTRESS, where the effects of the load are transmitted to the rest of the
structure, and POSTSTRESS, where the effects of the load are experienced exclusively by the members on
which it is applied.

1. The cable is assumed to have a generalized parabolic profile. The equation of the parabola is assumed
to be

y = ax2 + bx + c
where

a = 1/L2 (2es - 4em + 2ee)

b = 1/L (4em - ee - 3es)
c = es
es = eccentricity of the cable at the start of the member (in local
y-axis)

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em = eccentricity of the cable at the middle of the member (in

local y-axis)
ee = eccentricity of the cable at the end of the member (in
local y-axis)
L = Length of the member
2. The angle of inclination of the cable with respect to the local x-axis (a straight line joining the start and
end joints of the member) at the start and end points is small which gives rise to the assumption that
sinθ = θ = dy/dx
Hence, if the axial force in the cable is P, the vertical component of the force at the ends is P(dy/dx)
and the horizontal component of the cable force is,
P[1 - (dy/dx)2]1/2
Users are advised to ensure that their cable profile meets this requirement. An angle under 5 degrees
is recommended.
3. The member is analyzed for the prestressing / poststressing effects using the equivalent load method.
This method is well documented in most reputed books on Analysis and Design of Prestressed
concrete. The magnitude of the uniformly distributed load is calculated as

udl = 8⋅Pe/L2
where

P = Axial force in the cable

e = (es + ee)/2 - em
L = Length of the member
4. The force in the cable is assumed to be same throughout the member length. No reduction is made in
the cable forces to account for friction or other losses.
5. The term MEMBER PRESTRESS as used in STAAD signifies the following condition. The structure is
constructed first. Then, the prestressing force is applied on the relevant members. As a result, the
members deform and depending on their end conditions, forces are transmitted to other members in
the structure. In other words, "PRE" refers to the time of placement of the member in the structure
relative to the time of stressing.
6. The term MEMBER POSTSTRESS as used in STAAD signifies the following condition. The members on
which such load is applied are first cast in the factory. Following this, the prestressing force is applied
on them. Meanwhile, the rest of the structure is constructed at the construction site. Then, the
prestressed members are brought and placed in position on the partially built structure. Due to this
sequence, the effects of prestressing are "experienced" by only the prestressed members and not
transmitted to the rest of the structure. In other words, "POST" refers to the time of placement of the
member in the structure relative to the time of stressing.
7. As may be evident from Item (6) above, it is not possible to compute the displacements of the ends of
the POSTSTRESSED members for the effects of poststressing, and hence are assumed to be zero. As a
result, displacements of intermediate sections (See SECTION DISPLACEMENT command) are measured
relative to the straight line joining the start and end joints of the members as defined by their initial
JOINT COORDINATES.

Parent topic: 1.16 Loads

Related reference

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Related reference
5.32.5 Prestress Load Specification

1.16.6 Temperature and Strain Load

Uniform temperature difference throughout members and elements may be specified. Temperature
differences across both faces of members and through the thickness of plates may also be specified (uniform
temperature only for solids).. The program calculates the axial strain (elongation and shrinkage) due to the
temperature difference for members. From this it calculates the induced forces in the member and the
analysis is done accordingly. The strain intervals of elongation and shrinkage can be input directly.

Parent topic: 1.16 Loads

Related reference
5.32.6 Temperature Load Specification for Members, Plates, and Solids

1.16.7 Support Displacement Load

Static Loads can be applied to the structure in terms of the displacement of the supports. Displacement can
be translational or rotational. Translational displacements are provided in the specified length while the
rotational displacements are always in degrees. Note that displacements can be specified only in directions in
which the support has an "enforced" specification in the Support command.

Parent topic: 1.16 Loads

Related reference
5.32.8 Support Joint Displacement Specification

1.16.8 Loading on Elements

On Plate/Shell elements, the types of loading that are permissible are:

1. Pressure loading which consists of loads which act perpendicular to the surface of the element. The
pressure loads can be of uniform intensity or trapezoidally varying intensity over a small portion or
over the entire surface of the element.
2. Joint loads which are forces or moments that are applied at the joints in the direction of the global
axes.
3. Temperature loads which may be constant throughout the plate element (causing only elongation /
shortening) or may vary across the depth of a plate element causing bending on the plate element..

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The coefficient of thermal expansion for the material of the element must be provided in order to
facilitate computation of these effects.
4. The self-weight of the elements can be applied using the SELFWEIGHT loading condition. The density
of the elements has to be provided in order to facilitate computation of the self-weight.

On Solid elements, the loading types available are:

1. The self-weight of the solid elements can be applied using the SELFWEIGHT loading condition. The
density of the elements has to be provided in order to facilitate computation of the self-weight.
2. Joint loads which are forces or moments that are applied at the joints in the direction of the global
axes.
3. Temperature loads which may be constant throughout the solid elements (causing only elongation /
shortening). The coefficient of thermal expansion for the material of the element must be provided in
order to facilitate computation of these effects.
4. Pressure on the faces of solids.

Only translational stiffness is supported in solid elements. Thus, at joints where there are only solid elements,
moments may not be applied. For efficiency, rotational supports should be used at these joints.

Parent topic: 1.16 Loads

Related reference
5.32.3 Element Load Specifications

1.17 Load Generator

Load generation is the process of taking a load causing unit such as wind pressure, ground movement or a
truck on a bridge, and converting it to a form such as member load or a joint load which can be then be used
in the analysis.

For seismic loads, a static analysis method or a dynamic analysis method can be adopted. The static analysis
method, which is the one referred to here, is based on codes such as UBC, IBC, AIJ, IS1893 etc. For dynamic
analysis, see the sections in this chapter on response spectrum and time history analysis.

Input for the load generation facility consists of two parts:

1. Definition of the load system(s).

2. Generation of primary load cases using previously defined load system(s).

1.17.1 Moving Load Generator

1.17.2 Seismic Load Generator
1.17.3 Wind Load Generator
1.17.4 Snow Load

Parent topic: 1. General Description

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Related reference
5.31 Definition of Load Systems

1.17.1 Moving Load Generator

This feature enables the user to generate static loads on members due to vehicles moving on a structure.
Moving load system(s) consisting of concentrated loads at fixed specified distances in both directions on a
plane can be defined by the user. A user specified number of primary load cases will be subsequently
generated by the program and taken into consideration in analysis. American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) vehicles are available within the program and can be specified using
standard AASHTO designations.

Parent topic: 1.17 Load Generator

Related reference
5.31.1 Definition of Moving Load System
5.32.12.1 Generation of Moving Loads

1.17.2 Seismic Load Generator

The STAAD.Pro seismic load generator follows the procedure of equivalent lateral load analysis explained in
UBC, IBC and several other codes. It is assumed that the lateral loads will be exerted in X and Z (or X and Y if Z
is up) directions (horizontal) and Y (or Z if Z is up) will be the direction of the gravity loads. Thus, for a building
model, Y (or Z if Z is up) axis will be perpendicular to the floors and point upward (all Y (or Z if Z is up) joint
coordinates positive). The user is required to set up his model accordingly. Total lateral seismic force or base
shear is automatically calculated by STAAD using the appropriate equation from the code. IBC 2003, IBC
2000, UBC 1997, 1994, or 1985, IS:1893, Japanese, Colombian and other specifications may be used.

For load generation per the codes, the user is required to provide seismic zone coefficients, importance
factors, soil characteristic parameters, etc.

Instead of using the approximate code based formulas to estimate the building period in a certain direction,
the program calculates the period using Rayleigh quotient technique. This period is then utilized to calculate
seismic coefficient C.

After the base shear is calculated from the appropriate equation, it is distributed among the various levels
and roof per UBC specifications. The distributed base shears are subsequently applied as lateral loads on the
structure. These loads may then be utilized as normal load cases for analysis and design.

Parent topic: 1.17 Load Generator

Related reference

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Related reference
5.31.2.14 Chinese Static Seismic per GB50011-2001
5.32.12.2 Generation of Seismic Loads
5.31.2.13 IBC 2006/2009 Seismic Load Definition
5.31.2.12 Turkish Seismic Code
5.32.4 Area, One-way, and Floor Load Specifications
5.31.2.11 Canadian Seismic Code (NRC) – 2005 Volume 1
5.31.2.10 Canadian Seismic Code (NRC) - 1995
5.31.2.8 NTC (Normas Técnicas Complementarias) Seismic Load
5.31.2.9 RPA (Algerian) Seismic Load
5.31.2.7 CFE (Comisión Federal De Electricidad) Seismic Load
5.31.2.6 IBC 2000/2003 Load Definition
5.31.2.5 IS:1893 (Part 1) 2002 & Part 4 (2005) Codes - Lateral Seismic Load
5.31.2.4 Japanese Seismic Load
5.31.2.3 Colombian NSR-98 Seismic Load
5.31.2 Definitions for Static Force Procedures for Seismic Analysis
5.31.2.1 UBC 1997 Load Definition
5.31.2.2 UBC 1994 or 1985 Load Definition

1.17.3 Wind Load Generator

The Wind Load Generator is a utility which takes as input wind pressure and height ranges over which these
pressures act and generates nodal point and member loads.

This facility is available for two types of structures.

• Panel type or Closed structures

• Open structures

Closed structures are ones like office buildings where non-structural entities like a glass facade, aluminum
sheets, timber panels or non-load bearing walls act as an obstruction to the wind. If these entities are not
included in the structural model, the load generated as a result of wind blowing against them needs to be
computed. So, the steps involved in load generation for such structures are:

i. Identify the panels – regions circumscribed by members so that a polygonal closed area is formed. The
area may also be formed between the ground level along one edge and members along the other.
ii. Calculate the panel area and multiply it by the wind pressure.
iii. Convert the resulting force into nodal point loads.

Plates and solids are not considered in the calculation of the panel area. Openings within the panels may be
modeled with the help of exposure factors. An exposure factor is associated with each joint of the panel and
is a fractional number by which the area affecting a joint of the panel can be reduced or increased.

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The automated load generator should only be used for vertical panels. Panels not parallel to the global Y axis
(for Y UP) should be loaded separately.

Open structures are those like transmission towers, in which the region between members is “open” allowing
the wind to blow through. The procedure for load generation for open structures is i) Calculate the exposed
area of the individual members of the model. ii) Multiply that exposed area by the wind pressure to arrive at
the force and apply the force on individual members as a uniformly distributed load. It is assumed that all
members of the structure within the specified ranges are subjected to the pressure and hence, they will all
receive the load. The concept of members on the windward side shielding the members in the inside regions
of the structure does not exist for open structures. Members loaded as an open structure need not be
vertical.

Parent topic: 1.17 Load Generator

Related reference
5.31.3 Definition of Wind Load
5.32.12.3 Generation of Wind Loads

1.17.4 Snow Load

STAAD.Pro is capable of generating snow loading on a structure in accordance with the provisions of the
ASCE-7-02 code. The feature is currently implemented for structures with flat or sloping roofs. Snow load
generation for members of open lattice structures like electrical transmission towers is currently not part of
this facility. Hence, the feature is based on panel areas, not the exposed width of individual members.

Parent topic: 1.17 Load Generator

Related reference
5.31.5 Definition of Snow Load
5.32.13 Generation of Snow Loads

1.18 Analysis Facilities

Salient features of each type of analysis are discussed in the following sections. Detailed theoretical
treatments of these features are available in standard structural engineering textbooks.

1.18.1 Stiffness Analysis

1.18.2 Second Order Analysis
1.18.3 Dynamic Analysis

Parent topic: 1. General Description

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Related reference
5.37.1 Linear Elastic Analysis

1.18.1 Stiffness Analysis

The stiffness analysis implemented in STAAD is based on the matrix displacement method. In the matrix
analysis of structures by the displacement method, the structure is first idealized into an assembly of discrete
structural components.

Structural systems such as slabs, plates, spread footings, etc., which transmit loads in two directions (frame
members or finite elements). Each component has an assumed form of displacement in a manner which
satisfies the force equilibrium and displacement compatibility at the joints. have to be discretized into a
number of three or four noded finite elements connected to each other at their nodes. Loads may be applied
in the form of distributed loads on the element surfaces or as concentrated loads at the joints. The plane
stress effects as well as the plate bending effects are taken into consideration in the analysis.

Assumptions of the Analysis

For a complete analysis of the structure, the necessary matrices are generated on the basis of the following
assumptions:

1. The structure is idealized into an assembly of beam, plate and solid type elements joined together at
their vertices (nodes). The assemblage is loaded and reacted by concentrated loads acting at the
nodes. These loads may be both forces and moments which may act in any specified direction.
2. A beam member is a longitudinal structural member having a constant, doubly symmetric or near-
doubly symmetric cross section along its length. Beam members always carry axial forces. They may
also be subjected to shear and bending in two arbitrary perpendicular planes, and they may also be
subjected to torsion. From this point these beam members are referred to as "members" in the
manual.
3. A plate element is a three or four noded planar element having variable thickness. A solid element is a
four-to-eight- noded, three dimensional element. These plate and solid elements are referred to as
"elements" in the manual.
4. Internal and external loads acting on each node are in equilibrium. If torsional or bending properties
are defined for any member, six degrees of freedom are considered at each node (i.e., three
translational and three rotational) in the generation of relevant matrices. If the member is defined as
truss member (i.e., carrying only axial forces) then only the three degrees (translational) of freedom
are considered at each node.
5. Two types of coordinate systems are used in the generation of the required matrices and are referred
to as local and global systems.

Local coordinate axes are assigned to each individual element and are oriented such that computing effort
for element stiffness matrices are generalized and minimized. Global coordinate axes are a common datum
established for all idealized elements so that element forces and displacements may be related to a common
frame of reference.

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Basic Equation
The complete stiffness matrix of the structure is obtained by systematically summing the contributions of the
various member and element stiffness. The external loads on the structure are represented as discrete
concentrated loads acting only at the nodal points of the structure.

The stiffness matrix relates these loads to the displacements of the nodes by the equation:

Aj = aj + Sj⋅Dj

This formulation includes all the joints of the structure, whether they are free to displace or are restrained by
supports. Those components of joint displacements that are free to move are called degrees of freedom. The
total number of degrees of freedom represent the number of unknowns in the analysis.

Method to Solve for Displacements

There are many methods to solve the unknowns from a series of simultaneous equations.

In STAAD.Pro, the element stiffness matrices are assembled into a global stiffness matrix by standard matrix
techniques used in FEA programs. The technique used by STAAD was copied from SAP IV. The global stiffness
matrix is then decomposed as

[ K ] = [LT] [D] [L]

which is a modified Gauss method.

[K] {d} = {F}

becomes

[LT] [D] [L] {d} = {F}

which can be manipulated into a forward and a backward substitution step to obtain {d}. STAAD can detect
singular matrices and solve then via a technique copied from Stardyne.

Basic Solver
An approach which is particularly suited for structural analysis is called the method of decomposition.
This method has been selected for use in STAAD. Since the stiffness matrices of all linearly elastic
structures are always symmetric, an especially efficient form of the decomposition called Modified
Cholesky's method may be applied to these problems. This method is reasonably accurate and well
suited for the Gaussian elimination process in solving the simultaneous equations.
Advanced Solver
(Available effective 2007 Build 01): An approach is used that is mathematically equivalent to the
modified Choleski method. However the order of operations, memory use, and file use is highly
optimized. Run times are often 10 to 100 (even 1000) times faster.

Consideration of Bandwidth

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For the Basic Solver only. The method of decomposition is particularly efficient when applied to a
symmetrically banded matrix. For this type of matrix fewer calculations are required due to the fact that
elements outside the band are all equal to zero.

STAAD takes full advantage of this bandwidth during solution, as it is important to have the least bandwidth
to obtain the most efficient solution. For this purpose, STAAD offers features by which the program can
internally rearrange the joint numbers to provide a better bandwidth.

For the Advanced Solver only. Internal storage order is automatically calculated to minimize time and
memory.

Multiple Structures & Structural Integrity

The integrity of the structure is a very important requirement that must be satisfied by all models. You must
make sure that the model developed represents one or more properly connected structures.

An "integral" structure may be defined as a system in which proper "stiffness connections" exist between the
members/elements. The entire model functions as one or more integrated load resisting systems. STAAD
checks structural integrity using a sophisticated algorithm and reports detection of multiple structures within
the model. If you did not intend for there to be multiple structures, then you can fix it before any analysis.
There are several additional model checking options within the Tools and Geometry menus.

Modeling and Numerical Instability Problems

Instability problems can occur due to two primary reasons.

1. Modeling problem
There are a variety of modeling problems which can give rise to instability conditions. They can be
classified into two groups.
a. Local instability - A local instability is a condition where the fixity conditions at the end(s) of a
member are such as to cause an instability in the member about one or more degrees of
freedom. Examples of local instability are:
i. Member Release: Members released at both ends for any of the following degrees of
freedom (FX, FY, FZ and MX) will be subjected to this problem.
ii. A framed structure with columns and beams where the columns are defined as "TRUSS"
members. Such a column has no capacity to transfer shears or moments from the
superstructure to the supports.
b. Global Instability - These are caused when the supports of the structure are such that they
cannot offer any resistance to sliding or overturning of the structure in one or more directions.
For example, a 2D structure (frame in the XY plane) which is defined as a SPACE FRAME with
pinned supports and subjected to a force in the Z direction will topple over about the X-axis.
Another example is that of a space frame with all the supports released for FX, FY or FZ.
2. Math precision
A math precision error is caused when numerical instabilities occur in the matrix inversion process.
One of the terms of the equilibrium equation takes the form 1/(1-A), where A=k1/(k1+k2); k1 and k2
being the stiffness coefficients of two adjacent members. When a very "stiff" member is adjacent to a
very "flexible" member, viz., when k1>>k2, or k1+k2 k1, A=1 and hence, 1/(1-A) =1/0. Thus, huge
variations in stiffnesses of adjacent members are not permitted. Artificially high E or I values should be
reduced when this occurs.

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Math precision errors are also caused when the units of length and force are not defined correctly for
member lengths, member properties, constants etc.
Users also have to ensure that the model defined represents one single structure only, not two or
more separate structures. For example, in an effort to model an expansion joint, you may end up
defining separate structures within the same input file. Multiple structures defined in one input file
can lead to grossly erroneous results.

Parent topic: 1.18 Analysis Facilities

Related reference
5.37 Analysis Specification

1.18.2 Second Order Analysis

STAAD offers the capability to perform second order stability analyses.

1.18.2.1 P-Delta Analysis

1.18.2.2 Buckling Analysis
1.18.2.3 Static Geometrically Nonlinear Analysis
1.18.2.4 Imperfection Analysis
1.18.2.5 Multilinear Analysis
1.18.2.6 Tension- / Compression-Only Analysis
1.18.2.7 Nonlinear Cable/Truss Analysis
1.18.2.8 Advanced Nonlinear Cable Analysis

Parent topic: 1.18 Analysis Facilities

1.18.2.1 P-Delta Analysis

Structures subjected to lateral loads often experience secondary forces due to the movement of the point of
application of vertical loads. This secondary effect, commonly known as the P-Delta effect, plays an
important role in the analysis of the structure.

In textbooks this secondary effect is typically referred to as stress stiffening for members in tension (or
softening for compression). The stiffness changes due to P-Delta are known as geometric stiffness, [Kg].
There are two types of P-Delta effects for members. P-Δ which is due to the displacement of one end of a
member relative to the other end (e.g., story drift of column members). A second effect is P-δ which is due to
the bending of the member.

P-δ due to the bending of the member not only affects the local & global stiffness, nodal displacements, and
member end forces; it also has an additional effect on the section displacements and section moments. The
(axial compressive member force) times (the local relative to the ends section displacement) gives a section
moment in addition to the flexural moment. This additional section moment will cause an additional

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sectional displacement; and so on. Normally this process will converge after 5-20 iterations if the member
buckling load is not exceeded. STAAD uses up to 20 iterations unless convergence or divergence occurs.

P-δ due to the bending of the member can also occur with tension if the member has sufficient bending.
STAAD only iterates once for tension.

STAAD does not include the effects of geometric stiffness for solids. If the part of the structure that deforms
involves non-trivial motions of solids, then the results will be erroneous for P-Delta analysis (as well as for
buckling analysis).

1.18.2.1.1 P-Delta Analysis – Large Delta and Small Delta

1.18.2.1.2 P-Delta Kg Analysis
1.18.2.1.3 P-Delta K+Kg Dynamic Analysis
Add New: Load Items

Parent topic: 1.18.2 Second Order Analysis

1.18.2.2 Buckling Analysis

In STAAD, two procedures have been adopted to incorporate the calculation of the Buckling Factor for a load
case. The buckling factor is the amount by which all of the loadings in a load case must be factored to cause
global buckling of the structure.

Note: This feature is available in STAAD.Pro 2007 Build 01 and greater.

STAAD does not include the effects of geometric stiffness for solids. If the part of the structure that deforms
during buckling involves non-trivial motions of solids, then the results will be erroneous for buckling (as well
as for P-Delta analysis).

1.18.2.2.1 Buckling Analysis - Basic Solver

1.18.2.2.2 Buckling Analysis - Advanced Solver

Parent topic: 1.18.2 Second Order Analysis

Related reference
5.37.4 Buckling Analysis

1.18.2.3 Static Geometrically Nonlinear Analysis

In STAAD, a procedure has been adopted to incorporate the geometric nonlinearities into the analysis by
updating the global stiffness matrix and the global geometric stiffness matrix [K+Kg] on every step based on
the deformed position. The deformations significantly alter the location or distribution of loads, such that

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equilibrium equations must be written with respect to the deformed geometry, which is not known in
advance.

Note: This feature is available in STAAD.Pro 2007 Build 05 and greater.

1. First, the primary deflections are calculated by linear static analysis based on the provided external
loading.
2. Primary deflections are used to calculate member axial forces and plate center membrane stresses.
These forces and stresses are used to calculate geometric stiffness terms. Both the large delta effects
and the small delta effects are calculated. These terms are the terms of the Kg matrix which are added
to the global stiffness matrix K.
3. Next the deflections are re-calculated. Now equilibrium is computed in the deformed position to get
out of balance forces. The tangential stiffness matrix is determined from each members new position;
the Kg matrix is updated; and the out of balance forces are applied to get the next iteration result.
4. Repeat until converged. If displacements are much too large, then try using ARC 5 to limit
displacements on the first linear static step to 5 inches or some suitable value. The STEP 10
parameter may help by loading the structure over many steps.
5. The options for Newton-Raphson, Kg, Steps = 1 are usually taken; but these options are available for
some difficult cases.
6. Offset beams, curved beams, cables are not permitted. Tension/compression is not permitted.

Nonlinear effects are calculated for springs, frame members and plate elements only. They are not calculated
for solid elements.

The maximum displacement should be reviewed for Nonlinear analyses because this analysis type may result
in buckling or large displacements.

The following limitations should be noted regarding static, geometrically nonlinear analyses:

• Large rotations in one step should be avoided by using more steps.

• Very large displacements, unstable structures, and/or post-buckling should be avoided.
• Geometrically nonlinear only. No tension/compression or contact is considered. No yield, plastic
moment hinges or bilinear behavior is considered.
• Solids cannot be used for this analysis method.

Note: The nonlinear analysis command requires the Advanced Analysis Engine package.

Parent topic: 1.18.2 Second Order Analysis

Related reference
5.37.8 Geometric Nonlinear Analysis

1.18.2.4 Imperfection Analysis

Structures subjected to vertical and lateral loads often experience secondary forces due to curvature
imperfections in the columns and beams. This secondary effect is similar to the P-Delta effect. In STAAD the
procedure consists of the following steps:

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1. First, the deflections and the axial forces in the selected imperfect members are calculated based on
the provided external loading.
2. The axial forces and the input imperfections are then used to compute an additional loading on the
selected imperfect members that are in compression. These additional loads are combined with the
originally applied loading.
3. The static analysis is performed with the combined loading to obtain the final result.

The section moment due to tension and the section displacements due to shear/bending are added to the
moment diagram, if small delta is selected. This is no iteration performed for this step.

Parent topic: 1.18.2 Second Order Analysis

Related reference
5.26.6 Member Imperfection Information
5.37.9 Imperfection Analysis

1.18.2.5 Multilinear Analysis

When soil is to be modeled as spring supports, the varying resistance it offers to external loads can be
modeled using this facility, such as when its behavior in tension differs from its behavior in compression.
Stiffness-Displacement characteristics of soil can be represented by a multi-linear curve. Amplitude of this
curve will represent the spring characteristic of the soil at different displacement values. The load cases in a
multi-linear spring analysis must be separated by the CHANGE command and PERFORM ANALYSIS
command. The SET NL command must be provided to specify the total number of primary load cases. There
may not be any PDELTA, dynamic, or TENSION/ COMPRESSION member cases. The multi-linear spring
command will initiate an iterative analysis which continues to convergence.

Parent topic: 1.18.2 Second Order Analysis

Related reference
5.27.4 Multilinear Spring Support Specification

1.18.2.6 Tension- / Compression-Only Analysis

When some members or support springs are linear but carry only tension (or only compression), then this
analysis may be used. This analysis is automatically selected if any member or spring has been given the
tension or compression only characteristic. This analysis is an iterative analysis which continues to
convergence. Any member/ spring that fails its criteria will be inactive (omitted) on the next iteration.
Iteration continues until all such members have the proper load direction or are inactive (default iteration
limit is 10).

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This is a simple method that may not work in some cases because members are removed on interim
iterations that are needed for stability. If instability messages appear on the second and subsequent
iterations that did not appear on the first cycle, then do not use the solution. If this occurs on cases where
only springs are the tension/compression entities, then use multilinear spring analysis.

Note: If the list of members that are to be considered as tension changes between load cases (which would
be characterized with the inclusion of an additional MEMBER TENSION command with the revised member
list), then this should be followed by an additional analysis command (and a CHANGE command) before
starting the next load case definition.

If the list of members does not change (i.e., there is no new MEMBER TENSION command defined between
these load cases), then it is not necessary to include any additional analysis and change commands, the
analysis will automatically reset the axial status and iterate to solve for all the specified tension members.

Parent topic: 1.18.2 Second Order Analysis

1.18.2.7 Nonlinear Cable/Truss Analysis

Note: This feature is available in limited form.

When all of the members, elements and support springs are linear except for cable and/or preloaded truss
members, then this analysis type may be used. This analysis is based on applying the load in steps with
equilibrium iterations to convergence at each step. The step sizes start small and gradually increase (15-20
steps is the default). Iteration continues at each step until the change in deformations is small before
proceeding to the next step. If not converged, then the solution is stopped. You can then select more steps or
modify the structure and rerun.

Structures can be artificially stabilized during the first few load steps in case the structure is initially unstable
(in the linear, small displacement, static theory sense).

The user has control of the number of steps, the maximum number of iterations per step, the convergence
tolerance, the artificial stabilizing stiffness, and the minimum amount of stiffness remaining after a cable
sags.

This method assumes small displacement theory for all members/trusses/elements other than cables &
preloaded trusses. The cables and preloaded trusses can have large displacement and moderate/large strain.
Cables and preloaded trusses may carry tension and compression but cables have a reduced E modulus if not
fully taut. Pretension is the force necessary to stretch the cable/truss from its unstressed length to enable it
to fit between the two end joints. Alternatively, you may enter the unstressed length for cables.

The current nonlinear cable analysis procedure can result in compressive forces in the final cable results. The
procedure was developed for structures, loadings, and pretensioning loads that will result in sufficient
tension in every cable for all loading conditions. The possibility of compression was considered acceptable in
the initial implementation because most design codes strongly recommend cables to be in tension to avoid
the undesirable dynamic effects of a slack cable such as galloping, singing, or pounding. The engineer must
specify initial preloading tensions which will ensure that all cable results are in tension. In addition this

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procedure is much more reliable and efficient than general nonlinear algorithms. To minimize the
compression the SAGMIN input variable can be set to a small value such as 0.01, however that can lead to a
failure to converge unless many more steps are specified and a higher equilibrium iteration limit is specified.
SAGMIN values below 0.70 generally requires some adjustments of the other input parameters to get
convergence.

Currently the cable and truss are not automatically loaded by selfweight, but the user should ensure that
selfweight is applied in every load case. o not enter component load cases such as wind only; every case must
be realistic. Member loads will be lumped at the ends for cables and trusses. Temperature load may also be
applied to the cables and trusses. It is OK to break up the cable/truss into several members and apply forces
to the intermediate joints. Y-up is assumed and required.

The member force printed for the cable is Fx and is along the chord line between the displaced positions of
the end joints.

The analysis sequence is as follows:

1. Compute the unstressed length of the nonlinear members based on joint coordinates, pretension, and
temperature.
2. Member/Element/Cable stiffness is formed. Cable stiffness is from EA/L and the sag formula plus a
geometric stiffness based on current tension.
3. Assemble and solve the global matrix with the percentage of the total applied load used for this load
step.
4. Perform equilibrium iterations to adjust the change in directions of the forces in the nonlinear cables,
so that the structure is in static equilibrium in the deformed position. If force changes are too large or
convergence criteria not met within 15 iterations then stop the analysis.
5. Go to step 2 and repeat with a greater percentage of the applied load. The nonlinear members will
have an updated orientation with new tension and sag effects.
6. After 100% of the applied load has converged then proceed to compute member forces, reactions, and
static check. Note that the static check is not exactly in balance due to the displacements of the
applied static equivalent joint loads.

The load cases in a nonlinear cable analysis must be separated by the CHANGE command and PERFORM
CABLE ANALYSIS command. The SET NL command must be provided to specify the total number of
primary load cases. There may not be any Multi-linear springs, compression only, PDelta, NONLINEAR, or
dynamic cases.

Also for cables and preloaded trusses:

1. Do not use Member Offsets.

2. Do not include the end joints in Master/Slave command.
3. Do not connect to inclined support joints.
4. Y direction must be up.
5. Do not impose displacements.
6. Do not use Support springs in the model.
7. Applied loads do not change global directions due to displacements.
8. Do not apply Prestress load, Fixed end load.
9. Do not use Load Combination command to combine cable analysis results. Use a primary case with
Repeat Load instead.

Parent topic: 1.18.2 Second Order Analysis

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Related concepts Related reference

1.11.1 Linearized Cable Members 5.37.3 Nonlinear Cable Analysis
1.11.2 Nonlinear Cable and Truss 5.23.2 Member Cable Specification
Members 5.23.1 Member Truss Specification

1.18.2.8 Advanced Nonlinear Cable Analysis

Note: This feature is available in limited form.

When all of the members, elements, and support springs are linear except for cable members, then this
analysis type may be used.

You have control of the number of steps, the maximum number of iterations per step, the convergence
tolerance, include/exclude Kg matrix and use full/modified Newton-Raphson method.

The nonlinear static solver employs the Newton method (full Newton or modified Newton method) to
analyze nonlinear problems. In STAAD.Pro, cable elements and P-Delta effect in beam/column and plates
cause geometric nonlinearity.

Numerical representation of the nonlinear static solver with full Newton method

Steps Included in the Analysis

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The nonlinear static analysis has several steps.

1. Final applied loading vector {Pext} is assembled. Incremental load vector {P} = {Pext}/nSteps is
calculated where nSteps is the number of load steps. {uprev}= {0} is also defined
2. For the first iteration, the unbalanced loading {ΔP}={P} and displacement vector {u}={uprev}, the
stiffness matrix [K] are assembled. If any elements are performing nonlinearly, their element stiffness
matrix will be determined based on their current nonlinear status.
3. The equation [K]{Δu} ={ΔP} is solved to find out the incremental displacement {Δu}.
4. The current displacement vector is calculated as {u} ={u}+{Δu}.
5. This newly calculated {u} is used to update all elements nodal coordinates.
6. Based on the updated elements, the element reaction {R} is calculated.
7. The unbalanced loading now becomes {ΔP}={P}-{R}.
8. Convergence is checked by comparing |{ΔP}|/{P} with ε. If convergence is achieved the current
displacement is saved as the displacement of previous iteration, i.e. {uprev} = {u}. The next load
increment is applied and same all steps are repeated.
9. If convergence is not achieved, steps 2-7 are repeated until convergence is achieved or the maximum
iteration number is reached.

Theory of Cable Elements

3D cable sketch

The cable element formulation follows the catenary theory. It is a nonlinear element with geometric
nonlinearity, but without material nonlinearity. For a 3D cable element shown in Figure 2, the free body
equilibrium is:

(1a)

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(1b)

(1c)

With geometrical constraint equations and constitutive equations, the relationship between chord length
components lx, ly, lz and end support force components F1, F2, F3 could be derived as:

(2a)

(2b)

(2c)

Then the derivative express of equation (2) is the flexibility matrix, as shown in equation (3). For brevity, the
terms in the equation are not listed.

The inverse of the flexibility matrix is the stiffness matrix. So the deformation-force relationship and the
stiffness matrix are found. Hence the nonlinear equations can be solved using the finite element analysis
solvers.

In the step list of the nonlinear static solver, step 4 will provide the cable element the new updated
displacement. And step 2 and step 5 will ask the cable element’s stiffness matrix and reaction forces, which
can be calculated with equation (3).

Limitation of cable elements

One limitation of using catenary theory is that the cable element cannot be loaded with non-uniformly
distributed load, point load inside the element. In order to do such doing, the physical cable must be
modeled with multiple analytical cable elements, so that the non-uniform load could be approximately
simulated by uniform loads on each analytical cable elements, and there are nodes at locations where point
loads are applied.

Notes
The load cases in a nonlinear cable analysis must be separated by the CHANGE command and PERFORM
CABLE ANALYSIS ADVANCED command. The SET NL command must be provided to specify the total

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number of primary load cases. There may not be any Multi-linear springs, compression only, PDelta,
NONLINEAR, or dynamic cases.

Also for cables:

1. Do not use Member Offsets.

2. Do not include the end joints in Master/Slave command.
3. Do not connect to inclined support joints.
4. Y direction must be up.
5. Do not impose displacements.
6. Do not use Support springs in the model.
7. Applied loads do not change global directions due to displacements.
8. Do not apply Prestress load, Fixed end load.
9. Do not use Load Combination command to combine cable analysis results. Use a primary case with
Repeat Load instead.

Note: This analysis feature can be used only when Advanced Analysis License is active.

Parent topic: 1.18.2 Second Order Analysis

Related concepts Related reference

1.11.3 Nonlinear Cable Members for 5.23.2 Member Cable Specification
Advanced Cable Analysis
5.37.3 Nonlinear Cable Analysis

1.18.3 Dynamic Analysis

Available dynamic analysis facilities include solution of the free vibration problem (eigenproblem), response
spectrum analysis and forced vibration analysis.

1.18.3.1 Solution of the Eigenproblem

1.18.3.2 Mass Modeling
1.18.3.3 Damping Modeling
1.18.3.4 Response Spectrum
1.18.3.5 Response Time History
1.18.3.6 Steady State and Harmonic Response
1.18.3.7 Pushover Analysis

Parent topic: 1.18 Analysis Facilities

Related concepts Related reference

1.16.1 Joint Load 5.32.1 Joint Load Specification
5.32.10 Dynamic Loading Specification
5.32.10.2 Application of Time Varying
Load for Response History Analysis

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Related concepts Related reference

5.31.4 Definition of Time History Load
5.32.10.1.2 Response Spectrum
Specification in Conjunction with the
Indian IS: 1893 (Part 1)-2002
5.30 Miscellaneous Settings for Dynamic
Analysis
5.34 Frequency Calculation
5.32.10.1.4 Response Spectrum
Specification per Eurocode 8 2004
5.32.10.1.3 Response Spectrum
Specification per Eurocode 8 1996
5.30.1 Cut-Off Frequency, Mode Shapes,
or Time
5.32.10.1.1 Response Spectrum
Specification - Generic Method
5.34.2 Modal Calculation Command
5.34.1 Rayleigh Frequency Calculation
5.30.2 Mode Selection
5.37.6 Steady State and Harmonic
Analysis

1.18.3.1 Solution of the Eigenproblem

The eigenproblem is solved for structure frequencies and mode shapes considering a diagonal, lumped mass
matrix, with masses possible at all active d.o.f. included. Two solution methods may be used: the subspace
iteration method for all problem sizes (default for all problem sizes), and the Arnoldi/Lanczos method for
evaluating eigenvectors (Advanced Math Solver only). Additionally, load dependant Ritz vectors (LDR) can be
used for dynamically loaded structures.

For large scale eigen value problems, the Arnoldi method is very efficient.

Autoshifting of Eigenvectors
For large models having a large number of d.o.f and a large number of modes extracted (i.e., memory-
bound), an incremental solver mode called autoshifting can be used by the advanced math solver. A mode
shift value is specified to indicate the fixed number of modes the solution tries to find in each shift. The main
benefit of using the incremental solver is that it is memory efficient (e.g. problems that were not solvable
before on 32-bit systems might be solved with that technique). It is recommended to be used only when
memory allocation failure takes place during eigen solution using subspace-iteration or Arnoldi/Lanczos
methods. When the program fails to extract eigen vectors due to insufficient memory, you can use auto-
shifting which significantly reduces memory demand.

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Note: Generally, the Arnoldi/Lanczos is more robust than subspace iteration with autoshifting. The
Arnoldi/Lanczos method is very efficient at finding large eigen vectors with autoshift. Thus, if memory
problems occur with subspace-iteration (regular mode), it is recommended to switch to the Arnoldi/Lanczos
method (regular mode). If memory problems occur with this method in regular mode, then autoshift can be
applied to reduce the memory demand.

Since autoshifting can provide significant reduction in memory demand in the solution, it can be ideal for the
eigenvalue solution of large systems. In this case, the you are required to provide a “targeted” number of
eigen modes to be searched in each shift. The solution starts with “0” shift and tries to find targeted number
of eigen modes. Once completed, a new shift is applied and it tries to find next set of eigenvalues within the
new shift. This continues until all required number of eigenvalues are found.

The subspace iteration method is very sensitive to calculated shift resulting in a partial extraction of mode. It
is recommended to use this solution as a supplemental or alternative solution to existing (default mode).
Whenever the program extracts partial set of eigen vectors, it issues a warning message.

If the solution return partial results, it means that not all the required number of eigen modes were found.
But the solution guarantees that no eigen values are missed among returned results. Partial results can be
still useable for dynamic analysis if they satisfy other analysis requirements. For example, “m” modes satisfy
90% mass participation.

Partial results can be also returned by the subspace method (Advanced Math Solver) without using auto
shifting method.

The program may miss some Eigen values because of applied shift while performing Eigen solution using
Subspace-iteration method. In this case, a warning message is given. In this case, the results returned include
missing modes. These results should be used with caution and it is strongly advised for further investigation
(dynamic contribution from missing modes might be too important to ignore in analysis).

When the Arnoli/Lanczos method is used with autoshifting, an initial frequency shift may also be specified.

Load-Dependent Ritz Vectors

Research has indicated that considering the effect of natural free-vibration mode shapes may not be the
most efficient basis for mode-superposition analysis of structures subjected to dynamic loads. This implies
that dynamic analyses —like response spectrum and time history analysis— based on a special set of load-
dependent Ritz vectors may yield more accurate results than the use of the same number of natural modes.

There are several reasons to consider Ritz vector analysis as a more efficient approach.

a. For large structural systems, the solution to find free-vibration modes and frequencies may require a
significant amount of computational effort.
b. The Ritz vectors method takes into account the spatial distribution of the dynamic loading, whereas
the direct use of natural modes neglects this information. Therefore, many of the natural mode shapes
that are calculated may not have significant contribution to the dynamic response.
c. Ritz vector analysis by default does not include static correction due to higher mode truncation. The
command MIS is required to be issued to include missing mass correction.

The Ritz vectors method is recommended where the solution with eigen vectors fails to capture 90% mass
participation (a mandatory requirement of most country seismic codes) with a reasonable number of modes.

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It is also recommended where eigen vectors capture irrelevant modes. Even though they are real modes,
they are not relevant to the structural response due to the applied dynamic loading.

Leger P, Wilson EL, Clough RW., The use of load-dependent Ritz vectors for dynamic and earthquake analyses.
Technical Report UC13/EERC86/04, Earthquake Engineering Research Center, University of California
Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 1986.

Parent topic: 1.18.3 Dynamic Analysis

Related reference
5.5 Set Command Specification
5.30.1 Cut-Off Frequency, Mode Shapes, or Time
5.30 Miscellaneous Settings for Dynamic Analysis
5.32.10 Dynamic Loading Specification
5.34 Frequency Calculation

1.18.3.2 Mass Modeling

The natural frequencies and mode shapes of a structure are the primary parameters that affect the response
of a structure under dynamic loading. The free vibration problem is solved to extract these values. Since no
external forcing function is involved, the natural frequencies and mode shapes are direct functions of the
stiffness and mass distribution in the structure. Results of the frequency and mode shape calculations may
vary significantly depending upon the mass modeling. This variation, in turn, affects the response spectrum
and forced vibration analysis results. Thus, extreme caution should be exercised in mass modeling in a
dynamic analysis problem.

In STAAD, all masses that are capable of moving should be modeled as loads applied in all possible directions
of movement. Even if the loading is known to be only in one direction there is usually mass motion in other
directions at some or all joints and these mass directions (applied as loads, in weight units) must be entered
to be correct. Joint moments that are entered will be considered to be weight moment of inertias (force-
length2 units).

Note: Take care to enter selfweight, joint, and element loadings in global directions with the same sign as
much as possible so that the representative masses do not cancel each other.

Member/Element loadings may also be used to generate joint translational masses. Note that loads
(representing the masses) defined as member concentrated loads, or partially distributed member loads, on
non-globally aligned members may result in additional mass being included in orthogonal directions at the
nodes. This is because the resolution of these loads (masses) onto the nodes is only considered in the positive
direction, and thus does not account for any directional sign of the effect at the node. Member end joint
moments that are generated by the member loading (including concentrated moments) are discarded as
irrelevant to dynamics. Enter mass moments of inertia, if needed, at the joints as joint moments.

STAAD uses a diagonal mass matrix of six lumped mass equations per joint. The selfweight or uniformly
loaded member is lumped 50% to each end joint without rotational mass moments of inertia. The other

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element types are integrated but—roughly speaking—the weight is distributed equally amongst the joints of
the element.

The members/elements of finite element theory are simple mathematical representations of deformation
meant to apply over a small region. The finite element analysis (FEA) procedures will converge if you
subdivide the elements and rerun; then subdivide the elements that have significantly changed results and
rerun; an so on, until the key results are converged to the accuracy needed.

An example of a simple beam problem that needs to subdivide physical members to better represent the
mass distribution (as well as the dynamic response and the force distribution response along members) is a
simple floor beam between two columns will put all of the mass on the column joints. In this example, a
vertical ground motion will not bend the beam even if there is a concentrated force (mass) at mid span.

Masses that are assigned to slave degrees of freedom (dof) are moved to the master node with a rotatory
mass moment of inertia applied at the master. This will be an approximation if the master node is not at the
center of gravity (CG, i.e., center of mass) of the slave masses.

In addition, the dynamic results will not reflect the location of a mass within a member (i.e., the masses are
lumped at the joints). This means that the motion, of a large mass in the middle of a member relative to the
ends of the member, is not considered. This may affect the frequencies and mode shapes. If this is important
to the solution, split the member into two. Another effect of moving the masses to the joints is that the
resulting shear/moment distribution is based as if the masses were not within the member.

Note: If one end of a member is a support, then half of the member mass is lumped at the support and will
not move during the dynamic response. Use ENFORCED supports to minimize this limitation.

Parent topic: 1.18.3 Dynamic Analysis

Related concepts Related reference

1.18.3.5 Response Time History 5.32 Loading Specifications
5.31.6 Defining Reference Load Types
5.28.2 Floor Diaphragm
5.31.8 Mass Model Using Reference
Load
5.31.4 Definition of Time History Load
5.32.10.2 Application of Time Varying
Load for Response History Analysis

1.18.3.3 Damping Modeling

Damping may be specified by entering values for each mode (either explicitly or calculated), by using a
formula based on the first two frequencies, or by using composite modal damping. Composite modal
damping permits computing the damping of a mode from the different damping ratios for different materials
(steel, concrete, soil). Modes that deform mostly the steel would have steel damping ratio, whereas modes
that mostly deform the soil, would have the soil damping ratio.

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Modeling Methods
Damping Method Related STAAD Command
A single specified value, used by all modes DAMP

Composite damping based on values specified for each CDAMP

material which can include the effect of spring damping, if
defined.
Modal damping which is explicitly defined for each mode. MDAMP

Modal damping which is calculated for all modes. MDAMP, using either the CALCULATE
or EVALUATE method

1.18.3.3.1 Composite Damping

1.18.3.3.2 Modal Damping

Parent topic: 1.18.3 Dynamic Analysis

Related reference
5.37.6.4 Steady Ground Motion Loading
5.26.1 Define Material
5.26.4 Modal Damping Information
5.37.6.5 Steady Force Loading
5.37.6.6 Harmonic Ground Motion Loading
5.37.6.8 Print Steady State/Harmonic Results
5.32.10.1.8 Response Spectrum Specification per IBC 2012
5.32.10.1.7 Response Spectrum Specification per SP 14.13330.2011
5.32.10.1.6 Response Spectrum Specification per SNiP II-7-81
5.32.10.1.5 Response Spectrum Specification per IBC 2006
5.32.10.1.4 Response Spectrum Specification per Eurocode 8 2004
5.32.10.1.3 Response Spectrum Specification per Eurocode 8 1996
5.32.10.1.2 Response Spectrum Specification in Conjunction with the Indian IS:
1893 (Part 1)-2002
5.32.10.1.1 Response Spectrum Specification - Generic Method

1.18.3.4 Response Spectrum

This capability allows the user to analyze the structure for seismic loading. For any supplied response
spectrum (either acceleration vs. period or displacement vs. period), joint displacements, member forces,
and support reactions are calculated for each mode used in the spectrum solution. These individual modal

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responses are combined using one of the square root of the sum of squares (SRSS), the complete quadratic
combination (CQC), the ASCE4-98 (ASCE), the Ten Percent (TEN) or the absolute (ABS) methods to obtain the
resultant responses. Results of the response spectrum analysis may be combined with the results of the static
analysis to perform subsequent design. To account for reversibility of seismic activity, load combinations can
be created to include either the positive or negative contribution of seismic results.

Calculation of Forces and Moments at Intermediate Sections

For static load cases, if there is no load applied within the span of a member, for any given degree of freedom
(FX, FY, FZ, MX, MY, and MZ), the force or moment value at intermediate span locations can be calculated by
linearly interpolating between the values for that degree of freedom at the start and end nodes of the
member.

But for response spectrum load cases, this approach is applied at the individual mode basis following which
the modal values are combined using the combination method specified in the input. The details of the
procedure are as follows:

For any given member, we define the terms RAP and RBP as

RAP = The force/moment value of the d.o.f under consideration for mode P at the start node of the
member (End A)
RBP = The force/moment value of the d.o.f under consideration for mode P at the end node of the
member (End B)

Note: RAP and RBP are quantities with signs because these are at the individual mode level.

Using linear interpolation, calculate the value of that d.o.f at each of 11 equally spaced intermediate sections
along the member length.

So, we now define the term RIP as the value of the d.o.f under consideration at section location "I" for mode
"P".

If the spectrum solution is based on "N" modes, the resultant value for that d.o.f at section location "I" is
obtained as:

SRSS(RI1, RI2, RI3, RI4, …, RIN)

or

CQC(RI1, RI2, RI3, RI4, …, RIN)

or a similar calculation for the other modal combination methods.

The values calculated in the above fashion can then be obtained in the output file using the PRINT SECTION
FORCES command and in tabular or graphical form in the post processing mode.

Parent topic: 1.18.3 Dynamic Analysis

Related reference

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Related reference
5.32.10.1 Response Spectrum Analysis

1.18.3.5 Response Time History

STAAD.Pro is equipped with a facility to perform a response history analysis on a structure subjected to time
varying forcing function loads at the joints and/or a ground motion at its base. This analysis is performed
using the modal superposition method. Hence, all the active masses should be modeled as loads in order to
facilitate determination of the mode shapes and frequencies. Please refer to the previous section on "mass
modeling" for additional information on this topic. In the mode superposition analysis, it is assumed that the
structural response can be obtained from the "p" lowest modes. The equilibrium equations are written as

[m]{x''} + [c]{x'} + [k]{x} = {P(t)}

Note: The double-prime notation ('') designates the second derivative (i.e., acceleration) and a prime
notation (') designates the first derivative (i.e., velocity).

Using the transformation

The equation for {P(t)} reduces to "p" separate uncoupled equations of the form

q''i + 2 ξiωiq'i + ωi2qi = Ri(t)

where:

ξ = the modal damping ration

ω = the natural frequency for the ith mode.

These are solved by the Wilson- θ method which is an unconditionally stable step by step scheme. The time
step for the response is entered by you or set to a default value, if not entered. The qis are substituted in
equation 2 to obtain the displacements {x} at each time step.

Time History Analysis for a Structure Subjected to a Harmonic Loading

A Harmonic loading is one in which can be described using the following equation

F(t) = F0sin(ωt + φ)

Where:

F(t) = Value of the forcing function at any instant of time "t"

F0 = Peak value of the forcing function
ω = Frequency of the forcing function
φ = Phase angle

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A plot of the above equation is shown in the figure below.

Harmonic loading function

The results are the maximums over the entire time period, including start-up transients. So, they do not
match steady-state response.

Definition of Input in STAAD for the above Forcing Function

As can be seen from its definition, a forcing function is a continuous function. However, in STAAD, a set of
discrete time-force pairs is generated from the forcing function and an analysis is performed using these
discrete time-forcing pairs. What that means is that based on the number of cycles that you specify for the
loading, STAAD will generate a table consisting of the magnitude of the force at various points of time. The
time values are chosen from this time '0' to n*tc in steps of "STEP" where n is the number of cycles and tc is
the duration of one cycle. STEP is a value that you may provide or may choose the default value that is built
into the program. STAAD will adjust STEP so that a 1/4 cycle will be evenly divided into one or more steps.
See "5.31.4 Definition of Time History Load" for a list of input parameters that need to be specified for a
Time History Analysis on a structure subjected to a Harmonic loading.

The relationship between variables that appear in the STAAD input and the corresponding terms in the
equation shown above is explained below.

F0 = Amplitude
ω = Frequency
φ = Phase

Forces applied at slave dof will be ignored; apply them at the master instead.

Parent topic: 1.18.3 Dynamic Analysis

Related concepts Related reference

1.18.3.2 Mass Modeling 5.31.4 Definition of Time History Load
5.32.10.2 Application of Time Varying
Load for Response History Analysis

1.18.3.6 Steady State and Harmonic Response

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A structure [subjected only to harmonic loading, all at a given forcing frequency and with non-zero damping]
will reach a steady state of vibration that will repeat every forcing cycle. This steady state response can be
computed without calculating the transient time history response prior to the steady state condition.

R(t) = R0sin(ωt + φ)

The result, R, has a maximum value of R0 and a phase angle φ . These two values for displacement, velocity,
and acceleration at each joint may be printed or displayed.

This analysis is performed using the modal superposition method. Hence, all the active masses should be
modeled as loads in order to facilitate determination of the mode shapes and frequencies. See "1.18.3.2
Mass Modeling" for additional information on this topic. In the mode superposition analysis, it is assumed
that the structural response can be obtained from the "p" lowest modes.

A Harmonic loading is one in which can be described using the following equation

F(t) = F0sin(ωt + φ)

where

F(t) = Value of the forcing function at any instant of time "t"

F0 = Peak value of the forcing function
ω = Frequency of the forcing function
φ = Phase angle

A plot of the above equation is shown in Section 1.18.3.5.

The results are the steady-state response which is the absolute maximum of displacement (and other output
quantities) and the corresponding phase angle after the steady state condition has been reached.

In addition, a Harmonic response can be calculated. This response consists of a series of Steady State
responses for a list of frequencies. The joint displacement, velocity, or acceleration can be displayed as the
response value versus frequency. Load case results are the maximums over all of the frequencies.

All results are positive as in the Response Spectrum and Time history analyses. This means section results
should be ignored (BEAM 0.0 in Parameters for code checking). Because of this, you may want to add the
steady state response to Dead & Live loads for one combination case and subtract the steady state response
from those loads for another combination case.

Ground motion or a joint force distribution may be specified. Each global direction may be at a different
phase angle.

Output frequency points are selected automatically for modal frequencies and for a set number of
frequencies between modal frequencies. There is an option to change the number of points between
frequencies and an option to add frequencies to the list of output frequencies.

The load case that defines the mass distribution must be the case just before the PERFORM STEADY STATE
ANALYSIS command. Immediately after that command is a set of data starting with BEGIN STEADY and
ending with END STEADY. The list of additional frequencies and the steady state load cases with joint loads
or ground accelerations and phasing data are entered here. The optional print command for the maximum
displacement and associated phase angle for selected joints must be at the end of this block of input.

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Note: Stardyne-Dynre2 data beginning with START2 and ending with ALL DONE may substitute for the
BEGIN to END STEADY data if the STRESS data is omitted.

Note: A license for the advanced analysis module is required to access this feature.

Parent topic: 1.18.3 Dynamic Analysis

Related reference
5.37.6 Steady State and Harmonic Analysis

1.18.3.7 Pushover Analysis

Pushover analysis is a static, nonlinear procedure using simplified nonlinear technique to estimate seismic
structural deformations. It is an incremental static analysis used to determine the force-displacement
relationship, or the capacity curve, for a structure or structural element.

In STAAD, the basis for this analysis is the information published in the documents FEMA 356 : 2000 and ATC
40.

Note: A license for the advanced analysis module is required to access this feature.

Parent topic: 1.18.3 Dynamic Analysis

Related reference
5.37.7 Pushover Analysis

1.19 Member End Forces

Member end forces and moments in the member result from loads applied to the structure. These forces are
in the local member coordinate system. The following figures show the member end actions with their
directions.

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Member end forces when Global Y is vertical

Member end moments when Global Y is vertical

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Member end forces when Global Z is vertical (that is, SET Z UP is specified)

Member end moments when Global Z is vertical (that is, SET Z UP is specified)

Stress Zones Due to Bending

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Stress zones due to bending about the Y axis (MY) for various section types

Note: Local X axis goes into the page; Global Y is vertically upwards; Shaded area indicates zone under
compression; Non-shaded area indicates zone under tension

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Stress zones due to bending about the Z axis (MZ) for various section types

Note: Local X axis goes into the page; Global Y is vertically upwards; Shaded area indicates zone under
compression; Non-shaded area indicates zone under tension.

1.19.1 Secondary Analysis

Parent topic: 1. General Description

Related reference
5.41 Section Specification
5.42 Print Specifications
5.40 Load Envelope

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Related reference

1.19.1 Secondary Analysis

Solution of the stiffness equations yield displacements and forces at the joints or end points of the member.
STAAD is equipped with the following secondary analysis capabilities to obtain results at intermediate points
within a member.

1.19.1.1 Member Forces at Intermediate Sections

1.19.1.2 Member Displacements at Intermediate Sections
1.19.1.3 Member Stresses at Specified Sections
1.19.1.4 Force Envelopes

Parent topic: 1.19 Member End Forces

Related reference
5.41 Section Specification
5.42 Print Specifications
5.44 Printing Section Displacements for Members
5.45 Printing the Force Envelope

1.19.1.1 Member Forces at Intermediate Sections

With the SECTION command, you may choose any intermediate section of a member where forces and
moments need to be calculated. These forces and moments may also be used in design of the members. The
maximum number of sections specified may not exceed five, including one at the start and one at the end of
a member. If no intermediate sections are requested, the program will consider the start and end member
forces for design. However, of the sections provided, they are the only ones to be considered for design.

Parent topic: 1.19.1 Secondary Analysis

Related reference
5.41 Section Specification
5.42 Print Specifications
5.40 Load Envelope

1.19.1.2 Member Displacements at Intermediate Sections

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Like forces, displacements of intermediate sections of members can be printed or plotted. This command
may not be used for truss or cable members.

Parent topic: 1.19.1 Secondary Analysis

Related reference
5.41 Section Specification
5.42 Print Specifications
5.44 Printing Section Displacements for Members
5.45 Printing the Force Envelope

1.19.1.3 Member Stresses at Specified Sections

Member stresses can be printed at specified intermediate sections as well as at the start and end joints.
These stresses include:

a. Axial stress, which is calculated by dividing the axial force by the cross sectional area,
b. Bending-y stress, which is calculated by dividing the moment in local-y direction by the section
modulus in the same direction,
c. Bending-z stress, which is the same as above except in local-z direction,
d. Shear stresses (in y and z directions), and
e. Combined stress, which is the sum of axial, bending-y and bending-z stresses.

All the stresses are calculated as the absolute value.

Parent topic: 1.19.1 Secondary Analysis

Related reference
5.41 Section Specification
5.42 Print Specifications
5.40 Load Envelope

1.19.1.4 Force Envelopes

Force envelopes of the member forces FX (axial force), FY (Shear-y), and MZ (moment around local z-axis, i.e.,
strong axis) can be printed for any number of intermediate sections. The force values include maximum and
minimum numbers representing maximum positive and maximum negative values. The following is the sign
convention for the maximum and minimum values:

• FX A positive value is compression, and negative tension.

• FY A positive value is shear in the positive y-direction, and negative in the negative y-direction.

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• FZ Same as above, except in local z-direction.

• MZ A positive moment will mean a moment causing tension at the top of the member. Conversely, a
negative moment will cause tension at the bottom of the member. The top of a member is defined as
the side towards positive local y-axis.
• MY Same as above, except about local z axis.

Parent topic: 1.19.1 Secondary Analysis

Related reference
5.43 Stress/Force Output Printing for Surface Entities
5.45 Printing the Force Envelope

1.20 Multiple Analyses

Structural analysis/design may require multiple analyses in the same run. STAAD allows you to change input
such as member properties, support conditions etc. in an input file to facilitate multiple analyses in the same
run. Results from different analyses may be combined for design purposes.

For structures with bracing, it may be necessary to make certain members inactive for a particular load case
and subsequently activate them for another. STAAD provides an INACTIVE facility for this type of analysis.

Inactive Members
With the INACTIVE command, members can be made inactive. These inactive members will not be
considered in the stiffness analysis or in any printout. The members made inactive by the INACTIVE
command are made active again with the CHANGE command. This can be useful in an analysis where stage
construction is modeled due to which, a set of members should be inactive for certain load cases. This can be
accomplished by:

a. making the desired members inactive

b. providing the relevant load cases for which the members are inactive
c. performing the analysis
d. using the CHANGE command to make all the inactive members active
e. making another set of members inactive and providing the proper load cases for which the members
are meant to be inactive, performing the analysis and repeating the procedure as necessary.

Parent topic: 1. General Description

Related reference
5.18 Inactive/Delete Specification

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1.21 Steel, Concrete, and Timber Design

Parent topic: 1. General Description

Related reference
3. American Concrete Design
2. American Steel Design
4. American Timber Design

1.22 Footing Design

Note: This section has been removed.

Contact Bentley's Technical Support Group for further information.

Parent topic: 1. General Description

1.23 Printing Facilities

All input data and output may be printed using PRINT commands available in STAAD. The input is normally
echoed back in the output. However, if required, the echo can be switched off.

Extensive listing facilities are provided in almost all PRINT commands to allow you to specify joints, members
and elements for which values are required.

Parent topic: 1. General Description

Related concepts Related reference

1.24 Plotting Facilities 5.44 Printing Section Displacements for
Members
5.45 Printing the Force Envelope
5.46 Post Analysis Printer Plot
Specifications

1.24 Plotting Facilities

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Please refer to the STAAD.Pro Graphical Environment Help for a complete description of the extensive
screen and hardcopy graphical facilities available and information on using them.

Parent topic: 1. General Description

Related concepts Related reference

1.23 Printing Facilities 5.44 Printing Section Displacements for
Members
5.45 Printing the Force Envelope
5.46 Post Analysis Printer Plot
Specifications

1.25 Miscellaneous Facilities

STAAD offers the following miscellaneous facilities for problem solution.

Perform Rotation
This command can be used to rotate the structure shape through any desired angle about any global axis.
The rotated configuration can be used for further analysis and design. This command may be entered after
the Joint Coordinates or between two Joint Coordinate commands or after all Member/Element Incidences
are specified.

Substitute
Joint and member numbers may be redefined in STAAD through the use of the SUBSTITUTE command. After
a new set of numbers are assigned, input and output values will be in accordance with the new numbering
scheme. This facility allows the user to specify numbering schemes that will result in simple input
specification as well as easy interpretation of data.

Calculation of Center of Gravity

STAAD is capable of calculating the center of gravity of the structure. The PRINT CG command may be
utilized for this purpose.

Parent topic: 1. General Description

Related reference
5.15 Redefinition of Joint and Member Numbers

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Related reference
5.17 Rotation of Structure Geometry
5.42 Print Specifications

1.26 Post Processing Facilities

All output from the STAAD engine may be utilized for further processing by the STAAD.Pro Graphical
Interface. Please refer to the STAAD.Pro Graphical Environment Help for a complete description of the
extensive screen and hardcopy graphical facilities available and for information on how to use them.

Parent topic: 1. General Description

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