6

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Overview

Design and construction of a sheet pile walling are dependent on the types
and location of the proposed or desire project, deserve careful consideration.
Coordination and cooperation among hydraulic, geotechnical, structural and
construction engineers must be continuous from the day of project inception to final
placement. Overall reviews, of the proposed project with the extent of determining
its effect on existing facilities and environment are clearly essential. The appropriate
placing of the walls, to reduce the post-construction problems requires attention
from the designers as well as the contractor.

The alignment of a sheet pile wall depends by par on its use and functions.
Such situations include those in harbor or port construction where the alignment is
dictated by the water source or where the wall serves as a tie-in to primary structures
such as locks, dams, etc. In urban or industrial areas, it will be necessary to look at
and consider several alternative alignments which must be closely coordinated with
 7

local authorities. The final alignment must meet the general requirements of
providing the most viable compromise between the scale of economy and
environmental impact. To enhance the ease and less-problem during construction
initial visit to the proposed site need to be made by all the relevant parties.

Site inspection in the planning phase should identify the potential obstruction
which may necessitate special construction of sheet pile procedures. These site
inspections need to be supplemented by information obtained from local agencies to
locate underground utilities such as sewers, water lines, power lines and telephone
lines. Undiscovered obstructions will likely result in construction delay and
additional costs for removal or relocation of such facilities. The field survey also
should identify any overhead obstructions, particularly the overhead transmission
power lines, to ensure sufficient vertical clearance to accommodate pile driving and
construction operations.

Construction of sheet pile wall can have a severe, sometime temporary and at
other times permanent impact in its immediate vicinity. Temporary impact of
construction can be mitigated, to some extent, by careful choice of construction
strategies and by placing restrictions on constructions. Permanent impact may
include modification, removal or relocation of existing services or structures. The
effects of pile driving on existing structures should be carefully considered.
 8

2.2 Sheet Piling System

The selection of wall, either cantilever or anchored need to be based on the

walling suitability, the characteristics of foundation soils and the proximity of the
wall to existing services and structures.

2.2.1 Cantilever walls.

Cantilever walls are usually used as floodwall or as earth retaining structure

with low wall height between 3 to 5 meter and sometimes less. Because cantilever
walls derive their support solely from the foundation soils, they may be installed in
relatively close proximity, which depth of embedment need not to be less than 1.5
times the overall length of the piling.(USACE Engineer Manual, 1994).Figure 2.1
shows a typical example of cantilever sheet pile walling system in the study.

Figure 2.1 Typical cantilever walls. (USACE Engineer Manual, 1994).

 9

2.2.2 Anchored walls.

An anchored wall is required when the height of the wall exceeds the height
suitable for the cantilever or when the lateral deflections deserve due consideration.
The proximity of an anchored wall to an existing structure is governed by the
horizontal distance required for installation of the anchor. Figure 2.2 shows the
typical example of the anchored walling system as deployed in the study.

Figure 2.2 Anchored walls.(Continued) (USACE Engineer Manual 1994)

 10

Figure 2.2 Anchored walls.(Concluded)(USACE Engineer Manual 1994)

 11

2.3 Sheet pile walls materials.

2.3.1 Timber Piles.

Timber sheet pile walls can be constructed either independent or tongue-and-

groove interlocking wood sheets. The advantage of timber is that construction is
simplified, requiring little or no excavation and no heavy equipment. This type of
piling should be restricted to short-to-moderate wall heights and used only for
temporary structures. Because of its rigidity and its substantially high resistance to
tension stress, timber piles often require no anchor or wales.

Figure 2.3 Typical timber section. (USACE Design Manual 1994)

 12

2.3.2 Reinforced Concrete.

Reinforced concrete walls are usually precast sheets with 150mm to 300mm
thick, 750mm to 1200mm wide, and provided with tongue-and-groove or grouted
joints. The grouted-type joint is cleaned and grouted after driving, to provide a
reasonably watertight wall. Reinforced concrete is the most common construction
material for small to modest size structures, such as those used for residential and
condominium earth slope protection. Concrete sheet piles are usually prestressed to
facilitate handling and driving. Special corner and angle sections are typically made
from reinforced concrete due to the limited numbers required. (Figure 2.4). Concrete
piling are used considerably less than steel piling, as the penetration is somewhat
limited in depth. Material strength limits the concrete sheet piles to about 15 to 18
meters long. Concrete sheet pile is also difficult to handle and impractical to drive
with common piling driving equipment.

Figure 2.4 Typical concrete section. (USACE Engineer Manual 1994)

 13

2.3.3 Light-gauge aluminum.

Aluminum sheet piling is available as interlocking corrugated sheet made

from alloy 5052 or 6061.(Figure 2.5). These sections have a relatively low-section
modulus and moment inertia necessitating tiebacks for most situations. Aluminum
sections should be considerer for shoreline erosion projects and low bulkheads
exposed to salt water when embedment will be in free-draining granular
material.(USACE Engineer Manual, 1994)

Figure 2.5 Typical aluminum sheet piling. (USACE Engineer Manual, 1994)

2.3.4 Heavy-gauge steel.

Steel is the common material used for sheet pile walls due to its inherent
strength, relatively light weight and long service life. They are suitable for structure
requiring deep penetration, large water depths, free standing or the combination.
These piles consist of interlocking sheet manufactured by either a hot-rolled or cold-
formed process. Sheet piles are available in a variety of standard cross sections. The
Z-type and U-type piling are predominantly used in retaining and floodwall
application, where bending strength governs the design.(Figure 2.6). When interlock
 14

tension is the primary consideration for design, and arch or straight web piling
should be used. Turns in the wall alignment can be made with standard bent or
fabricated corners. The used of steel sheet piling should be considered for any sheet
pile structure.(USACE Engineer Manual, 1994)

Figure 2.6 Typical cross section of heavy-gauge steel piling.

The exact shapes, dimensions and section identifications vary between
manufacturers. (USACE Engineer Design, 1994).

2.3.5 Light-gauge steel.

Light-gauge steel pilings are shallow-depth section, cold formed to a

constant thickness of less than 7mm.(Figure 2.7). The yield strength is depend on the
gauge thickness and this section have low-section module and very low moment of
 15

inertia in comparison to heavy-gauge sections. Specialized coatings such as hot dip

galvanized, zinc plated and aluminized steel are available for improved corrosion
resistance. Light-gauge steel pile should be considered for temporary or minor
structure.

Figure 2.7 Typical light-gauge steel piling. (USACE Engineer Design, 1994).

2.3.6 Other materials.

Sheet piles made from special materials such as vinyl, polyvinyl chloride,
and fiberglass are also available. These pilings have low structural capacities and are
normally used in tie-back situations. Available lengths of piling are short compared
to other materials and the material properties are varies depend on the manufacturer.
(USACE Engineer Design, 1994).
 16

2.4 Installation of sheet pile.

The basic objective, in procedure of driving sheet piles, is to drive the sheet
piles in the geometrical arrangement as required and to drive them properly to the
desired depth. To ensure successful sheet pile installation, the first thing to do is to
make a thorough, but representative, site soils investigation. This investigation shall
indicate, if not revealing the location underground obstacles, such as boulders, rock
outcroppings, and rock slopes, and of course the basic depth of hard strata, whether
they are rock or dense soil. All of these obstacles can stop driving prematurely,
damage sheet piling, or skew the wall from the plumb orientation that is normal for
sheet pile walls.

2.4.1 Setting

Sheet piles are normally provided with standard handling holes at the point
of manufacture. Z-type piles require a hole at each end. U-shaped, arch web, flat
profile and most lightweight sheets need only a single hole. For handling sheet
piles in pairs tack welding, or a bolt through the interlocks, are required to ensure
that they will hold them together for safe and convenient driving and pulling.
Cutting one side of an interlock at the top corner of a sheet back 100 to 150mm
will make start of threading easier. Piles should be picked off individual lifts with
some skill since long, flat sheets particularly can be permanently damaged during
pick-up. (Z-type piles should be stored so that the crane line can reach the pick-up
ends of opposing sheets in the wall.) Crane booms must be of sufficient length to
handle what amounts to double length sheet piling. This is not as much a problem'
n water as it might be on land. Crane booms must be of sufficient length to handle
 17

what amounts to double length sheet piling, and of sufficient capacity to handle
any combination of pile and driving apparatus that might be used.

Generally, all sheet piles in a section should be set, if practical, before any
are driven. Then all should be driven a few feet at a time, say 1.5m to one-third of
their length, before any are driven to their full depth. If some sheet piles strike an
obstruction, move to the next piles that can be driven; come back- later to the piles
that resist driving. With interlock guides on both sides, and perhaps a heavier
hammer, it may be possible to drive the sheets to the desired depth. If sheets
adjacent to those being driven tend to move down below required depth, they
should be stopped by welding or bolting to the guide wales. It generally will be
better to fill in with a short length at the top rather than trying to pull the sheet
back up to plan location.

Once lifted, they should be set (setting is alternatively called "threading" or

"pitching") in loose pairs so that adjustments for threading can be made. Threading
the piles into the interlocks before final setting can be a very tricky operation,
especially in a high wind. The first sheet or pair is lifted above first and temporarily
secured to the frame. The second sheet is lifted above the first and threaded therein,
either by a member of the pile crew straddling the first pile and guiding the
interlocks together or with the use of a pile threader, as shown in Figure 2.8. Some
tricks of the trade include immersing the sheet in water (where depth permits) to
lubricate the interlocks, removing several inches of interlock finger (not
recommended with rented piling), or installing a bolt in the hole of the interlock to
help keep it open when it is necessary to drive the female interlock first.
 18

Figure 2.8 Operation of Pile Threader (Personnel communication)

The method of operation shown in Figure 2.8 is as follows:

l. The threader is pre-loaded by pulling the pull wires and vice block against
spring pressure and cocking.
2 The pile to be pitched is lifted until the bottom end is about one metre above
ground level. The threader is then clamped onto the pile with the vice. The
relative position of the pile is governed by a stop plate to suit the pile sections
being used.
3. The pile with the threader attached is then lifted by the crane to the last pile in
the panel. By means of rollers, the lower part of the threader is then clamped to
the last pile of the panel so that the interlocks are adjacent to each other. The
clamping operation is designed to permit free movement of pile and threader in a
vertical direction but prevent movement in any other direction. This attachment
is normally done at the top frame level.
4. The cocking device inside the vice slide tubes are then released.
5. The crane lifts the pile to be pitched until its bottom edge is above the previous
pile in the panel. The spring pressure on the vice block forces the pile across into
the locking position. As the pile is lowered it interlocks. The threader is then
unclamped at the top frame level.
 19

Wall dimensions found on project drawings are based on theoretical

dimensions determined by multiplying the number of sheets by the catalogue
dimensions of each sheet. While mill dimensions are carefully controlled, in a long
run of wall it may be possible to lose or gain several feet due to positioning of the
piles, crowding or stretching of the interlocks or other factors. One method to deal
with this problem is to first mark the template for each pair of piles. This will
indicate whether the line of piling being set is gaining or losing wall length. Another
method is to insert timbers between the piles and the wales to misalign the sheets
and thus shorten or length their effective length. This is shown in Figure 2.9. Figure
2.10 shows a typical sheet pile driving at a selected site in the study.

Figure 2-9 Correction for Wall Length. (Personnel communication).

 20

Figure 2.10 On-site treading in process.

2.4.2 Driving

Sheet piling tends to lean in two directions unless properly guided during
installation. Guide templates described previously help control plumbness of the
wall; proper installations procedures help maintain plumbness of individual sheets
along the line of the wall. Sheet piles may "gain" over their nominal width as they
are installed as there may be a tendency to lean in the direction of driving; or there
may be other deviation. It is best to mark on the supporting guides the planned
edge location of each pile so any change is noted and can be corrected while small.
Making on two levels of guides, or frequent use of a plumb device, is essential.
 21

Driving sheet piles, one generally thinks of driving them down a row, pair
by pair (at least - sheet piles today are seldom driven one at a time). This means
that there are two possible directions which one can choose to drive them.
Generally, sheet piles should be driven with the male interlock, ball, or thumb
pointing in the direction of the driving. This minimizes the tilling of the interlocks
with soil, which will increase the driving resistance. Fine sand will clog interlocks
and could produce symptomatic hard driving in which the entering interlock must
extrude the sand before progressing. Continuing this for any length of time could
damage the interlock and should be discontinued. Water jetting will generally
assist in penetrating these materials. A vibratory driver/extractor is generally the
best choice for installation.

Funnel-like guide devices may also be used. It is generally recommended

that Z-type piles be driven with the ball end leading so that the socket slides over
the ball rather than the ball slide into the socket. It is common practice now to
supply sheets pre-threaded as doubles at the mill. In this case, the first set-up
would involve a complete pair of piles. When driving sheet piles and the lodging
or packing of material into the interlocks is a concern the following suggestion
may help, procedurally; by placing a bolt in the bottom end of the forward thumb
and finger or on Z sheets, drive with the ball ahead.

There are no firm rules for installation; however, experience indicates that
once the sheets are set and are ready to be driven, they should be "gang" or "step"
driven, that is to say the sheets should be driven a short length, and then another
short length, and so on in sequence until the desired depth is obtain. The steps can
be set up for the whole wall or the wall can be divided 'in sections and each step is
a "step behind" the one behind it. This minimizes the risk of an undriven sheet
cocking with a fully driven neighbour, with the potential of skewing the entire
 22

wall. It is important here not to make the steps too long driving a sheet pile too far
ahead of its neighbour.

There are situations where it is advantageous to break the pattern of "down

the row" driving. In these cases, one can first drive every other pair, or perhaps
every fourth or fifth pair. This can be done when a set wall needs initial
stabilization. Another way of obtaining this goal is to "panel" drives the sheets. In
this method, the first pair is plumbed in both directions and partially driven.
Succeeding sheets in the first "panel" are threaded until five or ten pairs are in
place. The last pair in this group is plumbed and partially driven. The last pair set
is also not driven to grade since it will now be the first pair in the next panel. The
"panel" method affords a relatively simple method of correcting problems before
they become serious (see Fig.2.11).

Figure 2.11 Panel method of driving.(Personnel communication).

 23

Figure 2.12 The work progress of sheet piling at a typical site in

the study.

In difficult soil conditions, staggered driving of the sheets should modify the
panel driving method. This technique is shown in Figure 2.13. In some cases, the
sheets driven first need toe reinforcement; these sheets always lead the driving.
Underground obstacles should be removed before driving begins; however, should
these be encountered, the simplest way to deal with these is to cease driving when
they are encountered. If this is not possible, or it is difficult to monitor the exact time
of such an encounter, then one can bevel the toes of the sheets, weld various guide or
reinforcement plates, or use pile points. Some special techniques one can use in
driving are shown in Figure 2.14.
 24

Figure 2.13 Staggered driving method.(Personnel communication).

 25

Figure 2.14 Obstructions in Sheet Pile Driving.(Personnel communication).

 26

2.4.3 Skewing

Skewing is a serious concern during pile driving, as it can affect the

arrangement of sheet piling as well as its vertical inclination. Z-type piles are
especially prone to skewing. Keeping sheet piles plumb is particularly important
since correcting it is not a simple business. In addition to the methods already
described, other measures can be taken to prevent or minimize pile skewing. This
first is an accurate and rigid template, especially one that is closely formed to the
piles. Other methods involve beveling the pile toe or adding angled guide plates,
both of which use wedge action to act as a rudder, or to use tapered piles. These
should be set to have the wedge action push the pile in the opposite direction of the
skewing. Another method is to use a wire rope to pull the sheets back into plumb,
as shown in Figure 2.15. The hammer can also be placed off centre in conjunction
with this method.

Figure 2.15 Correction of longitudinal lean. .(Personnel communication).

 27

2.4.4 Limited Headroom

If sheeting is driven under a bridge or other structure, normal pitching of the

pile can be difficult if not impossible. Although the sheets could be driven in
sections and added on to, this can be expensive. A more sensible alternative is show
in Figure 2.16; it involves assembling the sheets into panels with the sheet joining
the two panels be made shorter than the others. The panels can then be threaded with
the short sheet already completely into the ground level, initial threading takes place
at or near ground level, giving maximum use of the headroom. The short sheet is
then make to complete length using a welded or fish plated splice.

Figure 2.16 Pitching in panels with limited headroom.

. (Personnel communication).
 28

2.4.5 Alignment of Sheet Piles

As has been described in detail, proper alignment of sheet piles is important to

their successful installation. The following are guidelines for typical sheeting
installations and may vary with specific situations;
• Deviation normal to the wall line at the pile heads should be no more that 50
mm.
• Deviation at the finished level from nominal level should be no more than 20
mm at the pile heads and 120 mm at the pile toes.
• Deviation of verticality normal to the line of piles should be no greater than
1% of the driving depth
• Deviation of verticality along the line of piles should be not greater than 1%
for piles driven by a "pitch and drive" method or 0.5% for panel driven piles.

2.4.6 Driving Equipment

Presently there are two types of driving equipment which are used for driving
steel sheet piling, impact and vibratory. Each has advantages and disadvantages
depending upon the application. Although there are no hard and fast rules for the
application and use of each type, some guidelines can be followed, tempered of
course by experience. One problem that many designers do not consider is the
ability of a given sheeting design to be installed. Table 1 shows a very general
“rule of thumb” guide for sheet piling configuration for drivability. The table is
based on sheeting no wider than 500 mm, adjustments should be for wider
sheeting.
 29

Table 2.1 Sheeting Configuration for Drivability

SPT minimum Wall modulus

Dominant N value
(cm²/m)

Low- yield High – yield

Steel steel

0 – 10 500

11 – 20 500

21 – 25 1000

26 – 30 1000

31 – 35 1300

36 – 40 1300

41 – 45 2300

46 – 50 2300

51 – 60 3000

61 – 70 3000

71 – 80 4000

81 – 140 4000

Where N represents the Standard Penetration Test value. “Dominant” means the
average of the high values for the soils to be penetrated.
Where piles are to be driven only to a toe-hold in rock, the N value shall be divided
by a factor of 4 for that stratum only.
 30

2.4.7 Vibratory Drivers

The reputation of vibratory drivers for fast, efficient, and relatively quiet
operation was largely established on sheet piles; and productivity, making vibratory
hammers, generally, the driver of choice in the installation of sheet piles. A vibratory
hammer driving sheet piling is shown in Figure 2.17. The clamp, attached to the pile,
connects the pile to the hammer. Generally, these hydraulic grippers make a firm,
frictional connection between the hammer and the pile. Most modem clamp have the
capability of clamping onto it least two sheet piles at a time, using a jaw with two
clamping faces and a space between them for the interlock (see Figure 2.17).

Figure 2.17 Electric Vibratory Hammer Driving Sheet Pile.

(Personnel communication).

Connected to the crane hook is the suspension. This contains rubber or

metal springs that dampen the vibrations from the hammer to the crane. This is
most important during extraction; when the suspension is called on to transmit the
static pull of the crane within the dynamic force of the exciter. Most popular
vibratory hammer used for limited sheet pile height is the hydraulic vibratory
hammer that attached to an excavator (see Figure 2.18).
 31

Between clamp and suspension is the exciter. This contains the rotating weights
that produce the alternating force. These eccentrics can be driven by hydraulic or
electric motors, which are mounted and connected to the eccentrics in a variety of
ways depending upon the machine. Hydraulic units must be powered by a
hydraulic power pack; electric ones use a generator, when suitable mains to plug
into cannot be found.

Figure 2.18 Vibratory Hammer attached to an excavator.

 32

2.4.8 Drivability of Vibratory Hammers

Although generally vibratory hammers are the most effective tools

available to drive sheet piling, their ability to drive piling is extremely variable
with the soil. Generally, vibratory hammers perform best in cohesionless soils and
progressively worse as the cohesive nature of the soil becomes more pronounced.
There are exceptions to this rule, and of course, the basic soil resistance is a very
important factor in determining whether a vibratory hammer needs to be used and
what size of hammer is needed. Experience with the local conditions becomes very
important in this determination. However, no matter what the soil resistance is, as
a rule of thumb the dynamic force of the hammer should be at least nine (9) times
the vibratory weight of the pile.

Finally, one needs to know the point where a vibratory hammer is not
suited for a particular job. Generally, it the pile is penetrating the soil at a rate less
than 1 ft/min (5 mm/sec) the contractor should switch to an impact hammer. Once
the hammer is clamped to the pile and adequate clamping pressure has been reached,
the hammer is ready to vibrate. Engage the "start" control. The exciter case and pile
will begin vibrating. In driving, the combined weight of the hammer and pile will
force the pile into the ground. As the driving resistance increases, the drive pressure
or amperage will increase until it reaches the maximum power output of the power
pack. The crane hook should be lowered so that the crane does not inhibit the
sinking of the pile; on the other hand, there should not be so much free cable that the
sheet being driven might buckle under the weight of the vibratory. The cable can be
completely slackened, however, during the final stage of driving.

Should skewing be encountered, the vibrator can be pulled in the opposite

direction of the skewing to compensate for this. This is dependent upon the nature of
 33

the suspension and the direction in which it is laterally loaded. If simple lateral loads
are not enough, the pile can be extracted and redriven, frequently without completely
disengaging the interlocks from the neighbouring pile and thus undoing the work of
pile setting.

2.4.9 Impact Hammers

Impact driving is the oldest way of driving sheet piles, and in some cases, it
is the only way possible to do the job. This is especially true with piles facing high
soil resistances. There are three different types of impact hammers. The first is the
air/steam hammer, where the energy for operation is provided by an air compressor
or (in rare instances) by a steam boiler. These hammers can be obtained in either the
single acting or double/differential acting type, the former using only gravity to push
the ram down and the latter using the air or steam pressure to assist the ram's
descent. For driving sheet piles, a double or differential acting hammer is preferred
because of the higher blow rate and because the effect of pile rebound upon the
striking energy is not critical -with sheet piling. The second type of hammers in use
is the diesel hammer, an example of which is shown in Figure 2.19. These are very
popular with the impact driving of sheet piling because they do not require an
external power source but produce their power internally through the combustion of
fuel in the hammer with air/steam hammers and diesel hammers come in single
acting and double acting hammers, but double acting diesel hammers have a bounce
chamber at the tap, which acts as an accumulator.
 34

Figure 2.19 Diesel Hammer Driving Sheet Piling.(Personnel Communication).

The final type of impact hammer used is the hydraulic hammer. From a
theoretical standpoint, these hammers operate on the same principle as the air/steam
hammers, except pressurized hydraulic fluid is used in place of air or steam. This
change, however, introduces many, complexities to the hammers that make them
quite expensive. These hammers too come in single and double acting types.
 35

2.4.10 Drivability of Impact Hammers

Since most sheet piling does not act as bearing piling, experience is the first
and best teacher for choosing the size of an impact hammer to drive sheet piling. The
next criterion used is the ratio of the ram weight to the pile weight; as a general rule,
the pile should weigh no more than 25% of the ram for air/steam hammers or 50-
100% for diesel hammers. Wave equation type analyses, and their field brethren
CAPWAP, are generally not employed in the prediction of the prediction of either
the drivability or bearing capacity of sheet piling; however, as sheet piling find more
and more use as bearing pile, these methods will find. No matter what method is
used for determining drivability and/or capacity, there are blow count limits that
should be observed. The hammer should not be allowed to exceed the
manufacturer's rated capacity, which in most cases is 120 blows per 300mm.

2.4.11 Extraction of Sheet Piling

Sheet pile usually is extracted as singles to facilitate handling, storage and

rehabilitation. With cofferdams, when removal is necessary it must be removed in
approximately the reverse order of driving. Once the cofferdam is flooded to the
level of the outside water, any berms are removed the fill material inside the cell is
clammed out to the water line. If there is no overburden outside of the cell,
depositing this fill next to the cells will help balance the soil pressure.

If extracting with a vibratory hammer, the crane or the excavator attached

must exert a net pull on the hammer-pile system. This will cause the pile to move
 36

upward. When extracting, in general the best procedure is to start the exciter without
crane pull, allowing it to came up to speed, loosen the sail and to drive a little. Once
this loosening has taken place, extraction is easier. It is very important that the crane
not exert an upward pull greater than the rated capacity of the exciter's suspension.
The pulling capacity of the crane should be at least twice that of the combined
hammer and pile weight for piles which have been in the ground for a short time,
and 3-4 times that when they have been in the ground for an extended one.

Although it is a mostly obsolete technology- same mention should be made of

the impact extraction of piles. The extractor has a ram which impacts upward on an
anvil, which is connected by sidebars or cables to the bottom of the extractor. This is
in turn connected to the pile either by pins or by a wedge action clamp. The impact
action of the extractor breaks the sail friction, allowing the pile to be pulled out of
the ground by the crane. Same impact hammers can be rigged to act as extractors as
well.

2.4.12 Vibration and Noise Control

As environmental concerns become more pronounced, more attention will he

given to both the noise sheet pile driving produces and the ground vibrations that
emanate from a sheet pile being driven. Both of these can be dealt with but there are
limitations with the methods used. With impact hammers, there is not much that can
be done to control the ground vibrations they produce, short of reducing the energy
output of the machine. If the piles can still be driven after this, then all is well. As
for noise, the two main sources of noise (in general order of amplitude) are the crack
 37

of the exhaust and the impact on the pile. Using adequate and fresh cushion, which
will also lengthen the life of the hammer, best controls pile impact noise.

With vibratory hammers, the most important thing to do to keep the noise
down is to remove all loosely hanging objects (such as pile shackles) from the
vibrating hammer and pile, thus eliminating their rattle. Most vibratory hammer
exciters are reasonably quiet, and if necessary sound deadening can be fitted to the
power pack. As for ground vibrations, if these are a problem the best solution is to
use a. vibrator with an operating frequency higher than 2000 RPM/33.3 Hz. This
generally will take the vibration frequency above that of the soil resonance. In some
cases, higher frequency will produce an intense interlock noise, and there is no
known remedy for this now.

2.5 Pressures on the wall.

Earth pressures reflect the state of stress in the soil mass. The concept of an
earth pressure coefficient, K, is often used to describe this state of stress. The earth
pressure coefficient is defined as the ratio of horizontal stresses to the vertical
stresses at any depth below the soil surface:

K = (σh) / ( σv ) (2.1)
 38

Earth pressures for any given soil-structure system may vary from any initial
state of stress referred to as at-rest, Ko, to minimum limit state referred to as active,
KA, or to a maximum limit state referred to as passive, KP. The magnitude of the
earth pressure exerted on the wall depends on the physical and strength properties of
the soil, the interaction at the soil-structure interface, the ground-water conditions,
and the deformations of the soil-structure system. These limits states are determined
by the shear strength of the soil:

τf = c + σn tanφ (2.2)

where

τf & σn = shear and normal stresses on a failure plane.

c & φ = shear strength parameters of the soil, cohesion, and angle of internal
friction, respectively.

Figure 2.20 Shear strength parameters.(Whitman, 1978)

 39

Figure 2.21 Definition of passive earth pressures.(Whitman, 1978)

There are two predominant methods for analysis of Active and Passive
earth pressures, based on the Rankine’s and Coulomb’s Theories of Earth
Pressure.(Figure 2.20 & Figure 2.21)

2.5.1 Rankine Active Earth Pressure

Consider a frictionless vertical wall of height, H, that exhibits movement

away from the soil. As lateral movement continues, the horizontal force will
decrease until failure planes develop throughout the soil wedge. Given the equation
for the Mohr’s circle,
Rankine active pressure is as follows:

σh (a) = σ'v · [( 1- sin φ′ )/(1+ sin φ’)] – 2c′√ [( 1- sin φ′ )/(1+ sin φ’)] (2.3)
 40

Rankine active pressure coefficient;

KA = [( 1- sin φ′ )/(1+ sin φ’)] (2.4)

Rankine active pressure may be simplified as follows;

σh = σv Ka - 2 c′ √ Ka (2.5)

For and incline backfill at angle of β, the Rankine active pressure is incline at
an angle of β, and the Rankine active coefficient becomes;

KA = cosβ - √ (cos2β - cos2 φ′)

cosβ + √ (cos2β - cos2 φ′) (2.6)

Note that a sufficient amount of lateral displacement must occur for active
condition to develop, the amount typically small and usually occurs in field
applications.
 41

Figure 2.22. Rankine Active Earth Pressures.(Personnel communication)

 42

2.5.2 Rankine Passive Earth Pressure

Consider a frictionless vertical wall of height, H, that exhibits movement into

the soil. As lateral movement continues, the horizontal force will increase until
failure of passive soil wedge occurs. Failure planes will develop in the soil wedge as
shown below;

Figure 2.23 Rankine Passive Earth Pressures.(Personnel communication)

 43

Given the equation for the Mohr’s circle, the Rankine passive pressure is shown as
follows;

σh (p) = σz · [( 1+ sin φ′ )/(1- sin φ’)] + 2c′√ [( 1+ sin φ′ )/(1- sin φ’)] (2.7)

Rankine passive pressure coefficient

KA = [( 1+ sin φ′ )/(1- sin φ’) (2.8)

The Rankine passive pressure may be simplified as follows

σh = σ'z Kp - 2c′ √ Kp
` (2.9)

For and incline backfill at angle of α, the Rankine passive pressure is incline at an
angle of α, and the Rankine passive coefficient becomes

Kp = cosα + √ cos2α - cos2φ′

cosα - √ cos2α - cos2φ′
(2.10)

Note that a sufficient amount of lateral displacement must occur for active
condition to develop, the amount typically small and usually occurs in field
applications.That it is not ideal to use a cohesive backfill and gravels are the best
construction materials.
 44

2.5.3 Coulomb’s Active Earth Pressure

Coulomb’s theory allows for an inclined backfill, inclined retaining structure and
wall friction as shown below;

Figure 2.24 Coulomb’s Active Earth Pressure.(Personnel communication)

Coulomb’s active pressure coefficient may be derived as follows;

(2.7)

(2.11)

The friction between the soil and retaining structure is usually set to:
1/2Ф < δ > 2/3Ф. Coulomb’s theory is more general than Rankine’s but may, under
some circumstances, underestimate Active EP and overestimate passive resistance.
 45

2.5.4 Coulomb’s Passive Earth Pressure.

Coulomb’s theory allows for an inclined backfill, inclined retaining structure

and wall friction as shown below;

Figure 2.25 Coulomb’s Passive Earth Pressures. .(Personnel

communication)

Coulomb’s passive pressure coefficient may be derived as follows

(2.12)

The friction between the soil and retaining structure is usually set to:
1/2Ф < δ > 2/3Ф