History

Discoveries and early devices

Electroluminescence was discovered in 1907 by the British experimenter H. J. Round of Marconi Labs,
using a crystal of silicon carbide and a cat's-whisker detector. Russian Oleg Vladimirovich Losev
independently reported on the creation of an LED in 1927. His research was distributed in Russian,
German and British scientific journals, but no practical use was made of the discovery for several
decades. Rubin Braunstein of the Radio Corporation of America reported on infrared emission from
gallium arsenide (GaAs) and other semiconductor alloys in 1955. Braunstein observed infrared emission
generated by simple diode structures using gallium antimonide (GaSb), GaAs, indium phosphide (InP),
and silicon-germanium (SiGe) alloys at room temperature and at 77 kelvin.
In 1961, American experimenters Robert Biard and Gary Pittman working at Texas Instruments, found
that GaAs emitted infrared radiation when electric current was applied and received the patent for the
infrared LED.
The first practical visible-spectrum (red) LED was developed in 1962 by Nick Holonyak Jr., while
working at General Electric Company. Holonyak is seen as the "father of the light-emitting diode". M.
George Craford, a former graduate student of Holonyak, invented the first yellow LED and improved the
brightness of red and red-orange LEDs by a factor of ten in 1972. In 1976, T.P. Pearsall created the first
high-brightness, high efficiency LEDs for optical fiber telecommunications by inventing new
semiconductor materials specifically adapted to optical fiber transmission wavelengths.
Until 1968, visible and infrared LEDs were extremely costly, on the order of US $200 per unit, and so
had little practical use. The Monsanto Company was the first organization to mass-produce visible LEDs,
using gallium arsenide phosphide in 1968 to produce red LEDs suitable for indicators. Hewlett Packard
(HP) introduced LEDs in 1968, initially using GaAsP supplied by Monsanto. The technology proved to
have major uses for alphanumeric displays and was integrated into HP's early handheld calculators. In the
1970s commercially successful LED devices at under five cents each were produced by Fairchild
Optoelectronics. These devices employed compound semiconductor chips fabricated with the planar
process invented by Dr. Jean Hoerni at Fairchild Semiconductor. The combination of planar processing
for chip fabrication and innovative packaging methods enabled the team at Fairchild led by
optoelectronics pioneer Thomas Brandt to achieve the needed cost reductions. These methods continue to
be used by LED producers.

Practical use

Red, yellow and green (unlit) LEDs used in a traffic signal in Sweden.

The first commercial LEDs were commonly used as replacements for incandescent and neon indicator
lamps, and in seven-segment displays,[19] first in expensive equipment such as laboratory and electronics
test equipment, then later in such appliances as TVs, radios, telephones, calculators, and even watches
(see list of signal uses). These red LEDs were bright enough only for use as indicators, as the light output
was not enough to illuminate an area. Readouts in calculators were so small that plastic lenses were built
over each digit to make them legible. Later, other colors grew widely available and also appeared in
appliances and equipment. As LED materials technology grew more advanced, light output rose, while
maintaining efficiency and reliability at acceptable levels. The invention and development of the high
power white light LED led to use for illumination. Most LEDs were made in the very common 5 mm
T1¾ and 3 mm T1 packages, but with rising power output, it has grown increasingly necessary to shed
excess heat to maintain reliability, so more complex packages have been adapted for efficient heat
dissipation. Packages for state-of-the-art high power LEDs bear little resemblance to early LEDs.

Introduction to LED Lighting

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are a relatively old technology (1970s) that has advanced from use in
numeric displays and indicator lights to a range of new and potential new applications, including exit
signs, accent lights, task lights, traffic lights, signage, cove lighting, wall sconces, outdoor lighting and
downlighting.

LEDs offer benefits such as small size, long lamp life, low heat output, energy savings and durability.
LEDs currently dominate the exit sign market and many cities have adopted them as a replacement for
incandescent lamps in traffic signals. In the architectural market, the development of a visible/white light
LED has awakened lighting designers to new possibilities with this light source

Characteristics

LEDs are solid state semiconductor devices. LED illumination is achieved when a semiconductor crystal
is excited so that it directly produces visible light in a desired wavelength range (color). LED units are
small, typically 5mm (T 1-3/4).

Method of Operation

When an LED unit is activated, a power supply converts AC voltage into sufficient DC voltage, which is
applied across the diode semiconductor crystal. This results in electrons (negative charge carriers [N]) in
the diode’s electron transport layer and holes (positive charge carriers [P]) in the diode’s hole transport
layer combining at the P-N junction and converting their excess energy into light. The LED is sealed in a
clear or diffuse plastic lens that can provide a range of angular distributions of the light.
Color

The color composition of the light being emitted by the LED is based on the chemical composition of the
material being excited. LEDs are available that can produce colors including white, deep blue, blue,
green, yellow, amber, orange, red, bright red and deep red.

: Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials, producing the
following colors:

• Aluminum gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) - red and infrared

• Aluminum gallium phosphide (AlGaP) – green

• Aluminum gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) - high-brightness orange-red, orange, yellow,

and green

• Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) - red, orange-red, orange, and yellow

• Gallium phosphide (GaP) - red, yellow and green

• Gallium nitride (GaN) - green, pure green (or emerald green), and blue also white (if it has an

AlGaN Quantum Barrier)

• Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) - near ultraviolet, bluish-green and blue

• Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate — blue

• Silicon (Si) as substrate — blue (under development)

• Sapphire (Al2O3) as substrate — blue

• Zinc selenide (ZnSe) - blue

• Diamond (C) - ultraviolet

• Aluminum Nitride (AlN), aluminum gallium nitride (AlGaN) - near to far ultraviolet (down to

210 nm)

Efficacy

LEDs are low-voltage, low-current devices and efficient light sources. For red, amber, yellow, green and
blue LEDs, new materials have been developed that are more efficient than traditional materials,
producing efficacies (lumens per watt) greater than incandescent lamps and rivaling fluorescent lamps
White Light LEDs

The utilization of indium gallium nitride (InGaN) as a semiconductor material resulted in the brightest
LEDs and enabled the development of the white light LED.

White light LEDs feature a phosphor added to a blue LED that converts some of the light emission into
yellow, resulting in a bluish-white light. White light LEDs are therefore a cool light source with a
spectrum of correlated color temperatures of 4,000-11,000K. Color rendering is considered poor. White
light can also be achieved by color mixing the light produced by red, blue and green LEDs. The
production of visible white light offers the promise that LEDs can be used in general lighting
applications. As the light output and color rendering capabilities of LEDs improve, many more
architectural applications will open up for this source.

Types of LED Lights

Light emitting diodes, or LEDs, are electronic lights. There are several types of LED lights, which can be
found in any number of electronic devices and have various functions..

 Miniature LEDs
Miniature LEDs are some of the most common types of LED lights and can be found in an array
of devices with surface-mount or through-hole designs. Miniature LED lights are used mostly as
indicator lights on devices such as cell phones or calculators. It is possible to use a miniature
LED light without a casing, or package, such as a dome or cube. Lights not packaged are simple
semiconductor chips connected to conductive wires. Miniature LED lights fall into one of three
categories: low current, standard and ultra-high output.

 High-Power LEDs
High-power LEDs (HPLED) produce a much stronger light source than most other LEDs. The
danger of an HPLED overheating is high and must, therefore, be mounted on heat-absorbent
material, allowing the light to cool through convection. Too much heat can cause an HPLED to
burn out quickly.

HPLEDs are becoming common replacements for fluorescent and incandescent lights as they are
proving to be more energy efficient. Their initial cost is relatively high but due to a long lifespan,
they typically save on energy costs in the long term.

Many HPLEDs are known as solid state lights. Their electroluminescence is generated through a
small, solid mass, rather than through more sensitive and brittle bulbs or fluorescent tubes.

 Super Flux LEDs

 Flashing LEDs
Flashing LEDs are stand-alone lights that serve as indicators. To make a LED flash or blink, a
vibrator is integrated into the circuit that interrupts its flow in intervals.
  Bi-color LEDs
Bi-color LEDs combines two light emitting dies connected to one lead in one encasing, allowing
for the case to emit two different colors. The current flow of the dies alternates to produce the
color variation. These LEDs can also produce a third light when the flow of both dies is equal.

 Tri-color and RGB LEDs

Tri-color LEDs combines two light emitting dies in one encasing. In contrast to the bi-color
LEDs, the tri-color dies are connected to two leads. This enables the two LEDs to light up
simultaneously and be controlled. The third lead shares one of the common leads.

RGB LEDs are the red, green and blue light emitting diodes, commonly found in LED televisions
and projections. The LEDs are emitted through a four-wire connection on a common lead.

Advantages

• Efficiency: LEDs emit more light per watt than incandescent bulbs. Their efficiency is not

affected by shape and size, unlike Fluorescent light bulbs or tubes.

• Color: LEDs can emit light of an intended color without using any color filters as traditional

lighting methods need. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs.

• Size: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm2[) and are easily populated onto printed circuit

boards.

• On/Off time: LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achieve full brightness

in under a microsecond. LEDs used in communications devices can have even faster response

times.

• Cycling: LEDs are ideal for uses subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike fluorescent lamps that

fail faster when cycled often, or HID lamps that require a long time before restarting.

• Dimming: LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by pulse-width modulation or lowering the

forward current.

• Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat in the form of IR that
 can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is dispersed as heat through the

base of the LED.

• Slow failure: LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt failure of

incandescent bulbs.

• Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates 35,000 to 50,000

hours of useful life, though time to complete failure may be longer. Fluorescent tubes typically

are rated at about 10,000 to 15,000 hours, depending partly on the conditions of use, and

incandescent light bulbs at 1,000–2,000 hours.

• Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid state components, are difficult to damage with external

shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs which are fragile.

• Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light. Incandescent and

fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and direct it in a usable

manner.

• Low toxicity: LEDs do not contain mercury, unlike fluorescent lamps.

Disadvantages

• Some Fluorescent lamps can be more efficient.

• High initial price: LEDs are currently more expensive, price per lumen, on an initial capital cost

basis, than most conventional lighting technologies. The additional expense partially stems from

the relatively low lumen output and the drive circuitry and power supplies needed.

• Temperature dependence: LED performance largely depends on the ambient temperature of the

operating environment. Over-driving an LED in high ambient temperatures may result in

overheating the LED package, eventually leading to device failure. Adequate heat sinking is

needed to maintain long life. This is especially important in automotive, medical, and military

uses where devices must operate over a wide range of temperatures, and need low failure rates.

• Voltage sensitivity: LEDs must be supplied with the voltage above the threshold and a current

below the rating. This can involve series resistors or current-regulated power supplies.[
• Light quality: Most cool-white LEDs have spectra that differ significantly from a black body

radiator like the sun or an incandescent light. The spike at 460 nm and dip at 500 nm can cause

the color of objects to be perceived differently under cool-white LED illumination than sunlight or

incandescent sources, due to metamerism, red surfaces being rendered particularly badly by

typical phosphor based cool-white LEDs. However, the color rendering properties of common

fluorescent lamps are often inferior to what is now available in state-of-art white LEDs.

• Area light source: LEDs do not approximate a “point source” of light, but rather a lambertian

distribution. So LEDs are difficult to apply to uses needing a spherical light field. LEDs cannot

provide divergence below a few degrees. In contrast, lasers can emit beams with divergences of

0.2 degrees or less.

• Blue hazard: There is a concern that blue LEDs and cool-white LEDs are now capable of

exceeding safe limits of the so-called blue-light hazard as defined in eye safety specifications such

as ANSI/IESNA RP-27.1-05: Recommended Practice for Photobiological Safety for Lamp and

Lamp Systems.

• Blue pollution: Because cool-white LEDs (i.e., LEDs with high color temperature) emit

proportionally more blue light than conventional outdoor light sources such as high-pressure

sodium vapor lamps, the strong wavelength dependence of Rayleigh scattering means that cool-

white LEDs can cause more light pollution than other light sources. The International Dark-Sky

Association discourages using white light sources with correlated color temperature above 3,000 K.

• Droop: The efficiency of LEDs tends to decrease as one increases current.

• The Future? - OLED Lighting

• OLEDs
Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) represent another emerging technology that is still in the
laboratory. If it can be made practical, it may make even more of a dramatic impact on how spaces are
lighted than LEDs. In fact, it may one day replacing LEDs as an energy-efficient alternative for general
lighting.

OLEDs are similar to electroluminescent lighting, in which a sheet of material is excited so that it emits
light. An OLED light source is a thin, flexible sheet of material consisting of three layers, a polymer or
sublimed molecular film sandwiched between two layers of electrodes, one of them transparent. Current
passes through the material until it emits light through its transparent layer.