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On the basis of functionality oriented sublayers :

DATA LINK LAYER
# Data Link Control - for data link control
# Multiple Access Resolution - for resolving access to
shared media

Note : if the link is dedicated, we do not require the lower sublayer.

* Dedicated – line / channel reserved exclusively for one type of
communication.

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• Point to Point : networks are those in which, when a

message is sent from one computer to another, it actually
has to be sent via other computers in the network.
• Broadcast : networks have a single channel that is shared
by all the
machines in the network.

When nodes or stations are connected and use a

common link, called a multipoint or broadcast link (or
network), we need a Multiple Access protocol to
coordinate access to the link.
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Multiple Access (protocols) allows several

terminals connected to the same multi-point transmission
medium to transmit over it and to share its capacity.
It allows several data streams or signals to
share the same communication channel or physical medium.

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• No station is superior to another station.

• None is assigned the control over another.
• No station permits, or does not permit, another station to send.
• At each instance, a station that has data to send uses a procedure
defined by the protocol to make a decision on whether or not to send.
• Random Access Protocols :
ALOHA
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD) Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Avoidance (CSMA/CA)

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• One of the earliest multiple access

scheme
• Just sent it!
• Wait for ack
• If no ack, try again after a random waiting
time
• No back off

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• CONCEPT - Each station sends a frame, when it has frame to send.

• Since only one channel to share, there is a possibility of collision between
frames of different stations.
• Frames in Pure ALOHA network :

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• To improve the efficiency of Pure ALOHA.

• CONCEPT - Divide the time into slots of Tfr and force the station to
send only at the beginning of the time slot.

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• To minimize the chance of collision and increase the

performance.
• CONCEPT - Each Station listen before sending i.e. “Listen
before Talk”.
• It reduce collisions but cannot eliminate it.
• Space/Time model of collision in CSMA :

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What should a station do if the channel is

busy? What should a channel do if
channel is idle?

Three Methods devised to answer these questions :

• I - persistence method : the station finds the line idle, it sends its
frame immediately.
• Non persistence method : a station that has a frame to send senses
the line. If the line is idle, it sends immediately. If the line is not idle, it
waits a random amount of time and then senses the line again.
• P - persistence method : is used if the channel has time slots with a slot
duration equal to or greater than the maximum propagation time. The
p-persistent approach combines the advantages of the other two
strategies.
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• Employ algorithm to handle collision.

• A station monitors the medium after it sends a frame to see if the
transmission was successful. If so, the station is finished. If, however,
there is a collision, the frame is sent again.
• Collision of first bit in CSMA/CD :

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• Basic Idea - is that a station needs to be able to receive while

transmitting to
detect a collision.
• When there is no collision, the station receives one signal: its own signal.
When there is a collision, the station receives two signals: its own signal
and the signal transmitted by a second station.
• Timing in CSMA/CA :

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• Stations consult one another to find which station has the

right to send.
• A station cannot send unless it has been authorized
by other stations.
• Three Popular Controlled access methods :-
Reservation
Polling
Token Passing

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• A station needs to make a reservation before sending data.

• Time is divided into intervals.
• In each interval, a reservation frame precedes the data frames sent
in that interval.
• If there are N stations in the system, there are exactly N reservation
minislots in the reservation frame.
• Reservation access method :

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• Polling works with topologies.

• One device acts as PRIMARY station and the other devices acts as
SECONDARY
stations; Primary device is the initiator of a session.
• All data exchanges must be made through the primary device.
• Primary device controls the link; the secondary devices follow its
instructions.
• Select and Poll functions in polling access methods :

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The select function is used whenever the primary device has something to
send.
If the primary is neither sending nor receiving data, it knows the link is
available. If it
has something to send, the primary device sends it.
So the primary must alert the secondary to the upcoming transmission and
wait for an acknowledgment of the secondary's ready status. Before sending
data, the primary creates and transmits a select (SEL) frame, one field of
which includes the address of the intended secondary.

Poll -
The poll function is used by the primary device to solicit transmissions from
the secondary devices. When the primary is ready to receive data, it must ask
(poll) each device in turn if it has anything to send. When the first secondary is
approached, it responds either with a NAK frame if it has nothing to send or
with data (in the form of a data frame) if it does. If the response is negative (a
NAK frame), then the primary polls the next secondary in the same manner
until it finds one with data to send.
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• The stations in a network are organized in a logical ring.

• For each station, there is a predecessor and a successor.
• The right to this access has been passed from the predecessor to
the current station. The right will be passed to the successor when
the current station has no more data to send.
• The RIGHT passed from by means of special packet called “TOKEN”.

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• Bandwidth of Link is shared in time, frequency or

through code, between different stations.
• Three Channelization protocol :
Frequency-Division Multiple Access
(FDMA) Time-Division Multiple
Access (TDMA)

Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

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• Available bandwidth is divided into frequency bands.

• Each band is reserved for a specific station.
• Each station also uses a bandpass filter to confine the transmitter
frequencies.

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• Stations share the bandwidth of the channel in time.

• Each station is allocated a time slot during which it can
send data.
• Time Division Multiple Access :

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• CDMA differs from FDMA because only one channel occupies

the entire bandwidth of the link.
• CDMA differs from TDMA because all stations can send data
simultaneously;
there is no timesharing.
• Simple IDEA of Communication with code :

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• CDMA is based on coding theory. Each station is assigned a code,

which is a sequence of numbers called chips.
• Chip Sequence :

• These are the orthogonal sequences and have the following

properties:
1. Each sequence is made of N elements, where N is the number of
stations.
2. If we multiply a sequence by a number, every element in the
sequence is
multiplied by that element. This is called multiplication of a
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sequence by a
 3. If we multiply two equal sequences, element by element, and add the results,
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we get N, where N is the number of elements in the each sequence. This is
called the inner product of two equal sequences.

For example,
[+1 +1 -1 -1] *[+1 +1 -1 -1] = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 4

4. If we multiply two different sequences, element by element, and add the

results, we
get 0. This is called inner product of two different sequences.

For example,
[+1 +1 -1 -1] * [+1 +1 +1 +1] = 1 + 1- 1- 1= 0

5. Adding two sequences means adding the corresponding elements. The result
is
another sequence.

For example,
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[+1 +1 -1 -1] + [+1 +1 +1 +1]=[+2 +2 0 0]

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If a station needs to send a 0 bit, it encodes it as -1; if it needs

to send a 1 bit, it encodes it as +1. When a station is idle, it
sends no signal, which is interpreted as a 0.

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• To generate chip sequences, we use a Walsh table, which is a

two-dimensional table with an equal number of rows and columns.

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