Factors in Student Motivation: Esources Steven C. Howey
Factors in Student Motivation: Esources Steven C. Howey
Motivation
www.nacada.ksu.edu
8 mins read
R
esources dealing with motivation
Authored by: Steven C. Howey
2008
Educators across the country are frustrated with the challenge of how
to motivate the ever increasing number of freshmen students
entering college who are psychologically, socially, and academically
unprepared for the demands of college life. Such students often
exhibit maladaptive behavior such as tardiness, hostility towards
authority, and unrealistic aspirations.
The standard approach is to address the problem as an academic
issue through remedial or developmental instruction. Developmental
education programs however do not address the whole problem. Lack
of motivation is not limited to the academically weak student.
Successful remedial and study strategies courses aimed at the
underprepared student have demonstrated that students who really
want to improve their skills can do so when motivated. However,
even the best remedial instruction programs have failed to positively
impact the student who is both underprepared academically and
unmotivated. When students have both a lack of academic skills and
lack motivation, the greater problem is motivation (Kelly, 1988).
Faculty often have neither the time or inclination to address difficult
motivational issues in the classroom, consequently, the task of trying
to effectively motivate such students often falls to academic advisors.
Opinions about the role of motivation in academic achievement and
what can be done about it vary widely among college faculty,
administrators, and student services professionals. Consideration
about unmotivated students opens a Pandora’s box of questions: Can
anything be done about these students? Can motivation be taught?
What kind of strategies can be used to influence motivation? Is this
time wasted that might better be used on those students who are
already motivated?
The problem of devising effective strategies that influence motivation
relies initially on the identification of specific motivational factors.
The histories of psychology and education are abundant with research
on motivation and its effect on behavior. The study of motivation in
education has undergone many changes over the years, moving away
from reinforcement contingencies to the more current social-
cognitive perspective emphasizing learners’ constructive
interpretations of events and the role that their beliefs, cognitions,
affects, and values play in achievement (Pintrich and Schunk, 1996).
• Intrinsic Goal Orientation is having a goal orientation
toward an academic task that indicates the students'
participation in the task is an end all to itself rather than
participation being a means to an end. Also included here is
the degree to which students perceive themselves to be
participating in a task for reasons such as challenge,
curiosity, and mastery (Garcia, McKeachie, Pintrich, &
Smith, 1991).
• Extrinsic Goal Orientation concerns the degree to which
students perceive themselves to be participating in a task
for reasons such as grades, rewards, performance
evaluation of others and competition. Students with high in
extrinsic goal orientation engage in learning tasks as the
means to an end. The main concern here is the students
with high Extrinsic Goal Orientation relate to issues rather
than those directly related to participating in the task itself
(Garcia et al., 1991).
• Task Value refers to students' evaluation of how interesting,
how important, and how useful the task is. High task should
lead to more involvement in learning. Task value refers to
the students' perceptions of the course material in terms of
interest, importance, and utility (Garcia et al., 1991)
• Self-Efficacy for Learning and Performance comprises two
aspects of expectancy: expectancy for success and self-
efficacy. Expectancy for success refers to performance
expectations, and relates specifically to task performance.
Self-efficacy is a self appraisal of one's ability to accomplish
a task and one's confidence in possessing the skills needed
to perform that task (Garcia et al., 1991).
• Test Anxiety has been found to be negatively related to
expectancies as well as to academic performance. Test
anxiety is thought to have two components: a worry, or
cognitive component, and an emotional component. The
worry component refers to students' negative thoughts that
disrupt performance, whereas the emotionality component
refers to affective and physiological arousal aspects of
anxiety. Cognitive component and preoccupation with
performance have been found to be the greatest sources of
performance decrement. Training in the use of effective
learning strategies and test-taking skills should help reduce
the degree of anxiety (Garcia et al., 1991).
These factors identified in the social-cognitive model of motivation
can be narrowed to three motivational constructs: expectancy, value,
and affect. The expectancy construct assesses perceptions of self-
efficacy and control beliefs of learning. The self-efficacy construct
postulated by Bandura in his social learning theory has guided
extensive motivational research. The second construct of expectancy
is a refined construct based on Rotter’s locus of control. Rotter’s locus
of control construct, first presented in 1966, is perhaps one of the
most highly researched concepts in modern psychological study.
The value construct includes intrinsic and extrinsic goal orientation
as well as task value beliefs. Ryan, Connell, and Deci (1985) who
researched the role of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in their
“Cognitive Evaluation Theory” argue that perceptions of autonomy
and competence are fundamental to intrinsic motivation.
Commitment to educational attainment and learning are necessary to
sustain motivation. Commitment to learning is a syndrome of
variables such as belief in the value of learning.
The third motivational construct is affect and can be measured in
terms of test-anxiety. A meta-analysis of 562 studies that related test
anxiety and academic achievement found that test anxiety does cause
poor performance, is negatively related to self-esteem, and is directly
related to students’ fear of negative evaluation (Hembree, 1988).
In a study of academically prepared and underprepared freshmen
orientation students, Howey (1999) found clear motivational
differences between academically prepared and underprepared
community college freshmen orientation students. Specifically,
underprepared students are more extrinsically motivated, see more
value in study strategies offered in the course, have low self-efficacy
beliefs, and suffer more from test anxiety. Academically prepared
students, on the other hand, have more internalized locus of control
beliefs, greater self-efficacy, and are less affected by test anxiety.
Academically prepared students may be better served by emphasizing
goal orientation (major selection) and related career information,
critical thinking, leadership training, or service learning
opportunities. Implications are that due to identified differences in
the motivational constructs of expectancy, value, and affect, college
administrators may want to consider more homogeneous grouping,
based on academic readiness, of freshmen orientation students in
order to better address individual motivational differences.
As discussed previously, early intervention is critical to improving the
success rate and retention of at-risk students. In addition to providing
an opportunity for timely intervention, freshmen orientation course
material and textbooks are typically designed specifically to address
motivation and study strategies. Clearly one venue with high
potential to positively impact student motivation to succeed in college
is through a customized and targeted freshman seminar course.
Warm and fuzzy relations, however, may not be enough to create
significant changes of behavior in the unmotivated student.
Unfortunately, a detailed explanation of specific techniques for
changing behavior is an article or perhaps a course all by itself. We
know that major and career exploration is helpful for students who
lack goal orientation.
There is another approach that may be helpful in working with
students with other motivational factors; a technique relevant to self-
regulated learning and as a problem solving approach. This technique
specifically is to get the advisee more involved in the process of
coming up with their own strategies for addressing a problem. For
example, rather than focusing on how unfair or boring a particular
instructor may be, students should be asked to generate their own
ideas on what they could do to improve the situation. If students can’t
come up with any ideas on their own, advisors can ask them to pick
what might work best from a list of suggestions generated by the
advisor. Follow-up meetings to refine strategies will be needed.
Conclusion
In summary, advisors may find it helpful when working with
unmotivated students to approach the problem from a motivational
constructs framework. The identification of motivational issues
based on the constructs of expectancy (self-efficacy and locus of
control beliefs), value (goal orientation or task value concerns), or
affect (test anxiety), may be helpful in developing specific strategies
toward greater success in college.
Authored by:
Steven C. Howey
Coordinator of Advising, Counseling, and Career Development
(Retired)
Hutchinson Community College (KS)
References
Blanc, R. A., Debuhr, L. E., & Martin, D. C. (1983). Breaking the
attrition cycle: the effects of supplemental instruction on
undergraduate performance and attrition. Journal of Higher
Education, 54 (1), 80-90.
Garcia, T., McKeachie, W. J., Pintrich, P. R., & Smith, D. A. (1991). A
manual for the use of the Motivated Strategies for Learning
Questionnaire (Tech. Rep. No. 91-B-004). Ann Arbor, MI : The
University of Michigan, School of Education.
Habley, Wes. (2003). NACADA Summer Institute, quoting 'Academic
Advising: Critical Link in Student Retention.' (1981). NASPA Journal,
28(4): 45-50.
Hembree, R. (1988). Correlates, causes, effects, and treatment of test
anxiety. Review of Educational Research, 58, 47-77.
Howey, S. C. (1999). The relationship between motivation and
academic success of community college freshmen orientation students.
Doctoral Dissertation. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED
465391).
Noel, L. (1985). Increasing student retention: New challenges and
potential. In L. Noel, R. Levitz, & Associates (Eds.), Increasing student
retention (pp. 1-27). San Francisco : Jossey-Bass.
Pintrich, P.R. (1988a). A process-oriented view of student motivation
and cognition. In J. Stark and L. Mets (Eds.), Improving teaching and
learning through research: New directions for institutional research
(Vol. 57, pp. 65-79).
Pintrich, P.R. (1988b). Student learning and college teaching. In R. E.
Young and K. E. Eble (Eds), College teaching and learning: Preparing
for new commitments. New directions for teaching and learning ( Vol.
33, pp. 71-86). San Francisco : Jossey-Bass.
Pintrich, P. R. (1989). The dynamic interplay of student motivation
and cognition in the college classroom. In C. Ames and M. Maehr
(Eds.) Advances in motivation and achievement: Motivation enhancing
environments (Vol. 6, pp. 117-160).Greenwich , CT : JAI Press.
Pintrich, P. R., & Schunk, D. H. (1996). Motivation in
education.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Pintrich P., Smith D., Garcia T., McKeachie W. (1991). A Manual for
the Use of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire.
Technical Report 91-B-004. The Regents of The University of
Michigan.
Ryan, R. M., Connell, J. P., & Deci, E. L. (1985). A motivational
analysis of self-determination and self-regulation in education. In C.
Ames & R. Ames (Eds.), Research on motivation in education: Vol. 2.
The classroom milieu (pp. 13-51). Orlando , FL : Academic Press.
Howey, S.C. (2008). Factors in student motivation. Retrieved from
the NACADA Clearinghouse of Academic Advising Resources Web site:
http://www.nacada.ksu.edu/Resources/Clearinghouse/View-
Articles/Motivation.aspx
Additional Resources