BASIC MECHANICAL ENGINEERING NOTES

MODULE V
TURBINE EFFICIENCIES
The following efficiencies are generally used.
1. Hydraulic efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of the power produced by the turbine runner
and the power supplied by the water at the turbine inlet.

where Q is the volume flow rate and H is the net or effective head. where Q is the volume flow
rate and H is the net or effective head.
2. Volumetric efficiency : It is possible some water flows out through the clearance between the
runner and casing without passing through the runner. Volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio
between the volume of water flowing through the runner and the total volume of water supplied to
the turbine.

Indicating Q as the volume flow and ΔQ as the volume of water passing out without flowing
through the runner.
3. Mechanical efficiency : The power produced by the runner is always greater than the power
available at the turbine shaft. This is due to mechanical losses at the bearings, windage losses and
other frictional losses.

4. Overall efficiency : This is the ratio of power output at the shaft and power input by the water
at the turbine inlet.

Power Output of the hydraulic turbine

Where
P = electric power in kVA
Q = flow rate in the pipe (m3/s) ρ = density (kg/m3) g = Acceleration of gravity (m/s²)
H = waterfall height (m) η = global efficiency ratio
PUMP Performance
The input power “P” of a pump is the mechanical power in kW or Watt taken by the shaft or
coupling. So the input power of the pump also called Break Horse Power (BHP). Pump input BHP
is the power delivered to the pump shaft and is designated as brake horsepower. so pump input
power also called as pump shaft power
Pump output power is called as Water Horse Power (WHP ) or Hydraulic power and it is useful
work delivered by the pump. and is usually expressed by the formula

Pump Efficiency
The overall efficiency of a pump is defined as

where, Q is the volume flow rate of the fluid through the pump, and P is the shaft power, i.e. the
input power to the shaft. H is the differential head.
Description about working with sketches of: Belt and Chain drives, Gear and Gear trains,
Single plate clutches
BELT DRIVE
A belt is a loop of flexible material used to link two or more rotating shafts mechanically,
most often parallel. Belts may be used as a source of motion, to transmit power efficiently or to
track relative movement. Belts are looped over pulleys and may have a twist between the pulleys,
and the shafts need not be parallel.
In a two pulley system, the belt can either drive the pulleys normally in one direction (the
same if on parallel shafts), or the belt may be crossed, so that the direction of the driven shaft is
reversed (the opposite direction to the driver if on parallel shafts). As a source of motion, a
conveyor belt is one application where the belt is adapted to carry a load continuously between
two points. The belt drive can also be used to change the speed of rotation, either up or down, by
using different sized pulleys.

Open belt drive And Crossed belt drive

In open belt drive arrangement, belt proceeds from top of one pulley to the top of other pulley
without crossing. So the driver shaft and driven shaft rotate in same direction. Contrary to this, in
crossed belt drive, belt proceeds from the top of one pulley to the bottom of other pulley and thus
crosses itself in between two pulleys. Here driving shaft and driven shaft rotate in opposite
directions.
Compound Belt drive: In compound belt drive arrangement, a particular shaft holds two or more
pulleys.

Desirable properties of materials used for belt

High coefficient of friction
High flexibility
Durability
High strength
Materials
 Leather
 Fabric
 Rubber
 Polyester or polyamide
Types of Belt Drive

1. Flat belt

Flat belt has rectangular cross-section where width is

substantially larger than thickness.
In flat belt drive, only one surface of the belt remains in contact
with the pulleys.
Power transmission capacity of flat belt is comparatively lower
due to higher chance of slip.
It is recommended for long distance power and motion
transmission.
.
V-belt has trapezoidal cross-section where larger side width is
2. V Belt
almost same with thickness.
V-belt is made endless. Thus its operation is smooth and quite.
In V-belt drive, two side surfaces of the belt remain in contact with
the pulleys.
V-belt can transmit more power without slip due to increased
friction.
V-belt cannot be utilized for stepped pulley system as shifting from
one pulley to another is infeasible.

3. Timing Belt: Timing belts are toothed belts that use their teeth for power transmission, as
opposed to friction. This configuration results in no slippage, and therefore, the driving and
driven shafts remain synchronized. It’s more expensive to manufacture due to complexity
of the belt and pulley shapes.
4. Round belts : Round belts are are generally made of rubber. This type of belt is generally
used for light loads, such as in a sewing machine or a vacuum cleaner.
 Advantages of belt drive
 They are simple.
 They are economical.
 Parallel shafts are not required.
 Noise and vibration are damped out.
 They are lubrication-free. They require only low maintenance.
 They are highly efficient (90–98%, usually 95%). Some misalignment is tolerable.
 They are very economical when shafts are separated by large distances.
Disadvantages of belt drive
 Drive is not positive as the belt slip over the pulleys.
 Occupies relatively more space.
 Speed ration cannot be maintained because of slipping of belt.
 Adjust the tension in the belt is require time to time.
 Life is relatively low.
CHAIN DRIVE
An endless chain running over toothed wheels mounted on the driver and driven
shafts. The smaller wheel is called pinion and the other is called wheel. The
chain consists of plates; pins and bushes made of high-grade steel. There are
hoisting chains and pulling chains apart from the power transmitting chains.
Roller chains and silent/inverted chains are the different types of power
transmitting chains
Advantages of chain drive
• Since the chains are made of metal, therefore they occupy less space in width than a belt or rope
drive.
• It may be used for both long as well as short distances.
• It gives a high transmission efficiency (unto 98 percent).
• It gives less load on the shafts.
• It has the ability to transmit motion to several shafts by one chain only.
• It transmits more power than belts.
• It can be operated under adverse temperature and atmospheric conditions.
Limitations of chain drive
• The production cost of chains is relatively high.
• The chain drive needs accurate mounting and careful maintenance, particularly lubrication and
slack adjustment.
• The chain drive has velocity fluctuations especially when unduly stretched.
Types of chain
1. Roller chain
Large reduction ratio (usually up to 1:7)
Chains can be used with long shaft center distances (normally up to 4m). By changing the number
of links it is possible to freely adjust the shaft center distance.
Easy installation and replacement (easy to cut and connect chains).

2. Inverted tooth drive chains

Inverted tooth drive chain are the optimal solution for requirements exceeding those met by
other chains (e. g. roller chains).

GEAR DRIVES
A gear is a toothed wheel that engages another toothed mechanism to change speed or the direction
of transmitted motion. Gears are generally used for one of four different reasons:
1. To increase or decrease the speed of rotation;
2. To change the amount of force or torque;
3. To move rotational motion to a different axis (i.e. parallel, right angles, rotating, linear etc.);
and
4. To reverse the direction of rotation.
Classification
 Spur
 Helical
 Bevel
 Rack and pinion
 And Worm Gears
SPUR GEARS
Spur gears are used to transmit power between two parallel shafts. The teeth on these gears
are cut straight and are parallel to the shafts to which they are attached.

HELICAL GEARS
Helical gears resemble spur gears, but the teeth are cut at an angle rather than parallel to
the shaft axis like on spur gears. The angle that the helical gear tooth is on is referred to as the
helix angle.

BEVEL GEARS
A bevel gear is shaped like a section of a cone and primarily used to transfer power between
intersecting shafts at right angles. The teeth of a bevel gear may be straight or spiral. Straight gear
is preferred for peripheral speeds up to 1000 feet per minute;

WORM GEARS
 Worm gears are used to transmit power between two shafts that are at right angles to each
other and are non-intersecting. Worm gears are special gears that resemble screws, and can be used
to drive spur gears or helical gears.

Rack and Pinion

A rack and pinion is a type of linear actuator that comprises a circular gear (the pinion) engaging
a linear gear (the rack), which operate to translate rotational motion into linear motion.

Types of Gear Trains

A gear train is a power transmission system made up of two or more gears. The gear to
which the force is first applied is called the driver and the final gear on the train to which the force
is transmitted is called the driven gear. Any gears between the driver and the driven gears are
called the idlers. Conventionally, the smaller gear is the Pinion and the larger one is the Gear.

Simple Gear Train - Simple gear trains have only one gear per shaft. The simple gear train is
used where there is a large distance to be covered between the input shaft and the output shaft.

Compound Gear Train - In a compound gear train at least one of the shafts in the train must hold
two gears. Compound gear trains are used when large changes in speed or power output are needed
and there is only a small space between the input and output shafts.
Planetary Gear Train - A planetary transmission system (or Epicyclic system as it is also known),
consists normally of a centrally pivoted sun gear, a ring gear and several planet gears which rotate
between these. This assembly concept explains the term planetary transmission, as the planet gears
rotate around the sun gear as in the astronomical sense the planets rotate around our sun.

GEAR DRIVES MERITS AND DEMERITS

Merits
 They are positive non-slip drives.
 Most convenient for very small centre distances.
 The velocity ratio will remain constant throughout.
 They can be employed conveniently for low, medium and high power transmission.
 They have very high transmission efficiency
Demerits
 They are not suitable for shafts of very large centre distances.
 They always require some kind of lubrication.
 At very high speeds noise and vibrations will be more.
 They are not economical because of the increased cost of production of precision gears.

Clutch
Clutch is mechanical device which is used to transmit rotating motion or torque from one shaft to
another shaft when required. Clutch provides a temporary connection between input and output
shaft. Clutch lies between the engine and the gear box. In the simplest application, clutches connect
and disconnect two rotating shafts. In these devices, one shaft is typically attached to an engine or
other power unit (driving member) while the other shaft (the driven member)
Purpose
A clutch is designed with the following requirements
• Allow the vehicle to come to a stop while the transmission remains in gear
• Allow the driver to smoothly take off from a dead stop
• Allow the driver to smoothly change gears
• Must be able to transmit power and torque without slipping
SINGLE PLATE CLUTCH
It is a type of friction clutch in which power is transmitted by means of friction between the
contact surface usually called clutch plates. As name suggest a clutch consists of only one clutch
plate with both side friction lining (frictional surface). These surfaces have high Coefficient of
friction. Single plate clutch also called dry clutch because no lubricant is used as coolant.
It has only one clutch plate which is mounted on the splines of the clutch shaft. The flywheel is
mounted on the engine crankshaft and rotates with it. The pressure plate is bolted to the flywheel
through clutch springs. It is free to slide on the clutch shaft when the clutch pedal is operated.
Main Parts
Clutch plate:
In single plate clutch only one clutch plate is used. Clutch plate is main component of clutches. It
is thin disc type metallic plate having both side frictional surfaces.

Pressure plate:

The pressure plate which is generally made up of cast iron. It helps in applying pressure on clutch
plates to maintain the proper contact between the surfaces of flywheel and clutch plate by means
of spring which are attached to it.

W
Working of Single Plate clutch
It is the most common type of clutch used in motor vehicles. Basically, it consists of only
one clutch plate, mounted on the splines of the clutch shaft. The fly wheel is mounted on the engine
crankshaft and rotates with it. The pressure plate is bolted to the flywheel through clutch springs
and is free to slide on the clutch shaft when the clutch pedal is operated. When the clutch is engaged
the clutch plate is gripped between the flywheel and the pressure plate. The friction linings are on
both the sides of the clutch plate. Due to the friction between the flywheel, clutch plate and pressure
plate, the clutch plate revolves with the flywheel. As the clutch plate revolves, the clutch shaft also
revolve.
Clutch shaft is connected to the transmission. Thus the engine power is transmitted to the
crankshaft to the clutch shaft. When the clutch pedal is pressed, the pressure plate moves back
against the force of the springs and the clutch plate becomes free between the flywheel and the
pressure plate. Thus, the flywheel remains rotating as long as the engine is running and the clutch
shaft speed reduces slowly and finally it stops rotating. As soon as the clutch pedal is pressed, the
clutch is said to be disengaged, otherwise it remains engaged due to the spring forces.

Advantages:
 The working of the single plate clutch is smooth i.e. the engagement and disengagement is
very smooth in operation.
 Less slip occurs in it.
 Power losses are very less.
 Less heat generates because only single plate is used.
 Single plate clutches have quick operation and respond fast.
 No requirement of coolant because less is generated therefore they are called dry clutches.
Disadvantages:
 It has less torque transmitting capacity
 It has bigger in size even for transmitting less torque.
 It requires high maintenance because they are dry clutches and it is necessary to prevent
them from moisture or any leakage of lubricant/oil in machinery.

MODULE VI
[SYLLABUS: Manufacturing Process: Basic description of the manufacturing processes – Sand
Casting, Forging, Rolling, Extrusion and their applications. Metal Joining Processes: List types
of welding, Description with sketches of Arc Welding, Soldering and Brazing and their
applications. Basic Machining operations: Turning, Drilling, Milling and Grinding. Description
about working with block diagram of: Lathe, Drilling machine, Milling machine, CNC Machine.
Principle of CAD/CAM, Rapid and Additive manufacturing.]
Manufacturing Process
There are four basic manufacturing processes for producing desired shape of a product. These are
casting, machining, joining (welding, mechanical fasteners, epoxy, etc.), and deformation
processes.
takes shape and solidifies in a
mould. It’s the primary manufacturing process.
and precision but tend to waste
material in the generation of removed portions.
simpler components and have
a wide domain of applications.
which is their ability to flow
plastically in the solid state without deterioration of their properties. With the application of
suitable pressures, the material is moved to obtain the desired shape with almost no wastage
A. Sand Casting
Casting is one of the oldest manufacturing process. It is the first step in making most of the
products for which it’s called basic manufacturing processIt is a manufacturing process in which
molten metal is poured in a mould or cavity and allowed to solidify. Molten metal on solidification
gets the shape of the mould. Mould has the shape of the product to be made.
The process cycle for sand casting consists of six main stages, which are explained
below.
1. Mold-making - The first step in the sand casting process is to create the mold for the
casting. In an expendable mold process, this step must be performed for each casting. A
sand mold is formed by packing sand into each half of the mold. The sand is packed around
the pattern, which is a replica of the external shape of the casting. When the pattern is
removed, the cavity that will form the casting remains.
2. Clamping - Once the mold has been made, it must be prepared for the molten metal to be
poured. The surface of the mold cavity is first lubricated to facilitate the removal of the
casting.
3. Pouring - The molten metal is maintained at a set temperature in a furnace. After the mold
has been clamped, the molten metal can be ladled from its holding container in the furnace
and poured into the mold.
4. Cooling - The molten metal that is poured into the mold will begin to cool and solidify
once it enters the cavity. When the entire cavity is filled and the molten metal solidifies,
the final shape of the casting is formed.
5. Removal - After the predetermined solidification time has passed, the sand mold can
simply be broken, and the casting removed. This step, sometimes called shakeout, is
typically performed by a vibrating machine that shakes the sand and casting out of the
flask.
6. Trimming - During cooling, the material from the channels in the mold solidifies attached
to the part. This excess material must be trimmed from the casting either manually via
cutting or sawing, or using a trimming press.
Steps to be followed for a casting operation:
a) Making mould cavity
b) Liquefy or melt the material by properly heating it in a suitable furnace.
c) Liquid or molten metal is poured into a prepared mould cavity
d) Allowed to solidify
e) Product is taken out of the mould cavity, trimmed and made to shape
 Fig. Sand casting Processes

Steps involved in Sand casting (Sand casting process)

The following sand casting process step by step carried out in foundries:

 The suitable flask or molding box selected and space allow ramming the sand.
 The drag is placed on molding board with upside down. Now the pattern lower part is
placed on the board inside the flask. The space is left for cutting.
  Now sand is filled in the flask and cover the pattern. Then sand firmly packed by means
of hammers. The ramming is properly and the excess sand is leveled off with straight
strike off bar.
 The vent holes or vent rod are made in drag to full depth of flask because of gases (or) air
removed during pouring and solidification process.
 Then the cope half of pattern is placed over the drag by using locating pins. The cope
flask is placed on drag. The sprue pin is provided for sprue passage, it located at a small
distance from the pattern. The riser pin also located on the pattern.
 The cope is filled with sand and proper ramming force applied.
 The ramming, filling, venting same as preform.
 The excess sand is cut off from mold surface. The riser pin and sprue
 Molding box is opened, then pattern removed from cope and drag. The dry sand core is
mounted in position.
 Now molten metal is poured through riser into mold cavity. After pouring and
solidification the part removed with require pattern shape.
Advantages of casting process:
Molten material can flow into very small sections so that intricate shapes can be made by this
process.

Limitations:-

Application: Cylindrical bocks, wheels, housings, pipes, bells, pistons, piston rings, machine tool
beds etc

Forging Process
Forging is a manufacturing process involving the shaping of metal using localized
compressive forces. The blows are delivered with a hammer or a die. Forging is often classified
according to the temperature at which it is performed: cold forging, warm forging, or hot forging.
Hot forging – forging at high temperature
Cold forging- forging at room temperature
Forged product has better mechanical properties than a cast one.
Components produced by forging
•Nails
•Bolts
•Spanners
•Crane hooks
•Axles
•Crankshafts
•Connecting rods
According to arrangement of Die:
a) Open die forging
b) Closed / Impression die forging
a) Open Die Forging
•Work piece is upset, compressed or forged between two flat dies
•Used for simple shapes and low production volumes

b) Closed/Impression Die Forging

•Work piece takes the shape of the die cavity while being forged between two shaped dies
•Used for forging complicated shapes
•Process is usually carried out at elevated temperatures
According to the Forging equipment:
A. Hand forging
B. Drop forging
C. Press forging
A. HAND FORGING
•Traditional forging operation carried out by blacksmith in a section of workshop called smithy
•Hand tools are used for forging (eg. Hammer, chisel…etc)
•Not suitable for mass production
Smith forging is traditional method of metal forming. It is open die forging method in which the
work piece is placed on a stationary anvil and a hammer strikes and deform the work piece. The
force is applied either by manually or power hammers.
Hand forging operations
a)Upsetting b)Drawing down(necking down) c)Setting down d)Bending e)Welding f)Cutting
g)Swaging h)Drifting i)Fullering j)Edging
B. DROP FORGING
•Force for shaping the component is applied in a series of blow by using drop hammers
•Open die or closed dies are used for this purpose
Drop forging is done in closed impression dies. An automatic hammer applied the force in series
of blow by dropping action. In this type, a sudden applied force is used.

C. PRESS FORGING
•Process is similar to drop forging but for the method of application of force
•In this case the force is applied by a continuous squeezing operation by means of a hydraulic press
•Mass production technique
Advantages and Disadvantages:
Advantages:
 Forging gives comparatively tougher product compare to casting.
 The fatigue strength and creep resistance of forge product is higher.
 Forge product has higher mechanical properties.
 Low cost operation.
 This process does not required special skill operator.
 Variety of shapes can be formed by this process.

Disadvantages:
 Higher initial cost for big forging presses.
 Secondary finishing process required in hot forging.
 It cannot produce complex shapes.
 Size is limited due to size of press.
 Brittle metal cannot be forged.

METAL FORMING PROCESS

ROLLING
Rolling is a fabricating process in which the metal, plastic, paper, glass, etc. is passed through a
pair (or pairs) of rolls.
Work is subjected to high compressive stresses
Rolling helps to improve various physical properties such as strength , toughness, ductility,
shock resistance

Two types
•Hot rolling
•Cold rolling
Types of rolling Process
HOT ROLLING
•Rolling a metal above its recrystallization temperature
•Grains are elongated in the direction of rolling
•Friction is high
•Heavy reduction in area
•Surface finish is not good
Roll radius is generally larger
COLD ROLLING
•Rolling a metal below its recrystallization temperature
•Worked at room temperature
•Less friction
•Heavy reduction area cannot be obtained
•Roll radius is smaller

Types of rolling mills

a) Two high mill
b)Three high mill
c) Four high mill
d) Cluster mill
e)Tandem mill
a. Two High Mill
 Two rolls
 Lower roll will be fixed
 Upper roll can be moved to adjust the space between the
rolls
 Both the rolls rotate at the same speed but in opposite
directions
b. Three High Mill

 Three rolls positioned one over another

 Upper and lower rolls rotate in the same direction
 Middle roll rotates in the opposite direction
 Middle roll is fixed
 Upper and lower rolls are moved to adjust the roll gap

c. Four High Mill

 Four rolls
 Two rolls are working rolls and the other two are
back up rolls
 Back up rolls preventing the deflection of the
working rolls

d. Cluster Mill

 Used for rolling very thin sheet or foils

 It consists of a Pair of working rolls of very small
diameter, supported by a number of back up rolls
on either side

EXTRUSION PROCESS
Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile. A material is pushed
through a die of the desired cross-section. The two main advantages of this process over other
manufacturing processes are its ability to create very complex cross-sections, and to work
materials that are brittle, because the material only encounters compressive and shear stresses. It
also forms parts with an excellent surface finish
 Process of forcing a metal enclosed in a container to flow through the opening of a die.
 Metal is subjected to plastic deformation
 Metal undergoes reduction and elongation during extrusion
 Used for manufacture rods, tubes, circular, rectangular, hexagonal and other shapes both
in hollow and solid form.
Types of Extrusion
a) Direct Extrusion
b) Indirect Extrusion
c) Cold Extrusion/ Impact Extrusion
a) Direct Extrusion
Direct extrusion, also known as forward extrusion, is the most common extrusion process. It works
by placing the billet in a heavy walled container. The billet is pushed through the die by a ram or
screw. There is a reusable dummy block between the ram and the billet to keep them separated.
The major disadvantage of this process is that the force required to extrude the billet is greater than
that needed in the indirect extrusion process.

b) Indirect Extrusion
 Also called backward extrusion
 Flow of metal through the die is in the opposite direction as the movement of ram
 Hot billet (work piece) is used
 Ram used is hollow
 Billet remains stationary while die is pushed into the billet by the hollow ram
 Less force is required as compared to direct extrusion

According to the working temperature

Hot Extrusion: If the extrusion process takes place above recrystallization temperature which is
about 50-60% of its melting temperature, the process is known as hot extrusion.
Advantages:
 Low force required compare to cold working.
  Easy to work in hot form.
 The product is free from stain hardening.
Disadvantages:
 Low surface finish due to scale formation on extruded part.
 Increase die wear.
 High maintenance required.
Cold Extrusion:
If the extrusion process takes place below crystallization temperature or room temperature,
the process is known as cold extrusion. Aluminum cans, cylinder, collapsible tubes etc. are
example of this process.
Advantages:
 High mechanical properties.
 High surface finish
 No oxidation at metal surface.
Disadvantages:
 High force required.
 Product is accomplished with strain hardening

.
Application:
 Extrusion is widely used in production of tubes and hollow pipes.
 Aluminum extrusion is used in structure work in many industries.
 This process is used to produce frames, doors, window etc. in automotive industries.
 Extrusion is widely used to produce plastic objects.