LEVEL MEASUREMENTS

DEFINITION:
 Level measurement is used to establish the quantity of the substance with in
a vessel.
 Level instruments senses of variation in liquid levels based on presence or
absence of liquid media at different point in a tank or vessel.
 This could be a solid or liquid substance like oil, chemicals, coal dust, etc.
UNIT: Meter
Why we are using 4-20 mA signal instead of 0-20mA in industries?
 If instrument is faulty, it can be easily identified. If the output is 0 ma it will
be difficult to identify whether it is a faulty signal or a good signal. For error
detection 4ma is good.
 20ma is used as maximum because the human heart can withstand up to 30ma
of current only. For safety reason 20ma chosen as maximum value.

SCALING OF 4-20MA
4ma=0%
8ma=25%
12ma=50%
16ma=75%
20ma=100%
What are the advantages of 4-20ma signal comparing to voltage signal
(1-5v, 0-5v)?
Voltage drop - very long cables have resistance and that will cause a
voltage drop. The voltage drop will affect the reading. Current signal does not have
this problem.
How to calculate percentage signal corresponding to ma signal?
MV-measured value
LRV-low range value
URV-upper range value
SPAN= URV-LRV = 20ma-4ma=16ma
Formula to calculate percentage signal:
𝐌𝐕−𝐋𝐑𝐕
%= *100
𝐔𝐑𝐕−𝐋𝐑𝐕

For eg: In a height of 5m tank the level of liquid is 4m,

If 5m=100% then 4m =80%
Similarly if,
0%=1m
100%=4m,
Then? %=3m
%=2/3*100 = 66.66%
EXERCISE:
1. If 4ma corresponds to 0%, 20ma corresponds to 100%.what is the percentage
for 13ma?
4ma→0%
20ma→100%
13ma→?
SOLUTION:
Since the span is 20ma-4ma=16ma
13ma-4ma=9ma
Therefore,
𝐌𝐕−𝐋𝐑𝐕
%= *100 % = 13-4/20-4*100 = 55.12%
𝐔𝐑𝐕−𝐋𝐑𝐕
2. In using the data in the above problem, find the current for 60%?
SOLUTION:
0%→4ma
100%→20ma
60%→?
Since span is 16ma, 100%→16ma
Therefore, 60*16/100=9.6ma
As we consider URV as 16ma the remaining 4ma will be added to the solution.
Therefore,
60%=9.6ma+4ma
For 60%→12.6ma
3. Transmitter is transmitting the temperature of vessel in the range of
(100-500) deg C to DCS what is the current sends by the transmitter for 300 deg
C?
SOLUTION:
4ma→100 deg C
20ma→500 deg C
? →300 deg C
Since the span is 400 deg C
𝐌𝐕−𝐋𝐑𝐕
%= *100 %
𝐔𝐑𝐕−𝐋𝐑𝐕

= 300-100/500-100*100 = 50%
Since, 50%=300 deg C
? Ma =300 deg C
Here 100%=16ma For 50% → 50*16/100 =8ma
As we consider URV as 16ma the remaining 4ma is get added to the solution.
Therefore, for 300 deg C =8ma+4ma =12ma
4. Using the data in the above problem,
In DCS the lower range i.e. 4ma is configured as 100 DEG C but higher
range i.e. 20ma is configured for 600 DEG C. what is the value of temperature
shown in DCS for 300 DEG C?
SOLUTION:
4ma→100 deg C
20ma→600 deg C
? Deg C shown in DCS for 300 deg C
In general,
Span=500-100=400 deg C
MV-LRV=300-100=200 deg C
𝐌𝐕−𝐋𝐑𝐕
%= *100 %
𝐔𝐑𝐕−𝐋𝐑𝐕

%=200/400*100 = 50%
To find current for 50%
Current=50*16/100+4ma
=8ma+4ma=12ma
12ma for 300 deg C
To find temp in DCS for 300 deg C
12ma →600 deg C (20ma)
→100 deg C (4ma)
Here 16ma→500deg C
8ma =8*500/16+100=250+100 =350 deg C
Therefore, 350 deg C will be shown in DCS for 300 deg C.
TYPES OF LEVEL MEASUREMENTS:
The different types of Level measurements are
 Dip stick Level measurement
 Sight glass Level measurement
 Displacer type of Level measurement
 Differential pressure Level measurement
 Interface level measurement

DIP STICK LEVEL MEASUREMENT:

This is perhaps the earliest and simplest form of level measurement, still in
common use.
o A dip stick is essentially a stick that is calibrated to indicate level.
o The dip stick is lowered vertically into a tank or vessel until it reaches
a reference point.
o The dip stick is then withdrawn and the level is read by determining
where the interface last made contact with the dip stick
o Reading the scale on the dip stick indicates the level measurement.
PRESSURE EQUATION:
P=h*ρ*g
P=FORCE/AREA
P=MASS*ACCELARATION/AREA
P=V*ρ*ACC/AREA
P=AREA*HEIGHT*DENSITY*ACCELARATION/AREA

P=h*ρ*g

Unit of Pressure = kg/cm2

SIGHT GLASS LEVEL MEASUREMENT:
 A Sight glass (also called as gauge glass) is used in the liquid
measurement. It is used for continuous indication of liquid level within
a tank or vessel.
 A Sight glass instrument consists of a graduated tube or toughened glass
which is connected to the interior of the tank at bottom whose water
level is measured.
 As the level in liquid in the tank rises and falls the level in the sight
glass also rises and falls accordingly
 Since, pressure balance is obtained at any points in the fluid which are
at equal distances above or below some reference. If the liquids are
subjected to the some external pressure and have the same specific
gravity, the level will be same in both the vessels.
 When we measure the high pressure sight glass, measurement is made
by reading the position of liquid level on the calibrated scale.
 When the liquid in the tank is under some external pressure, the
pressure can be nullified by connecting the sight glass as indicated
ADVANTAGES:
 Direct reading is possible.
 Special designs are available for use up to 3000 deg C and 650 kg/cm2
 Glassless designs are available in numerous materials for corrosion
resistance.
DISADVANTAGES:
 The main disadvantage is that, it is read where the tank is located which is
not always convenient.
 Since sight glasses are located outside the tanks, the liquid in the sight glass
may freeze in cold weather even though the liquid inside the tank does not,
thus causes error in reading.
 Accuracy and readability depends on cleanliness of glass or fluid.
DISPLACER TYPE OF LEVEL MEASUREMENT:
 The displacer type of level measurement is based on the Archimedes
‘principle, which states that when a body immersed in a liquid the resultant
fluid pressure on the body acts vertically upward through the center of gravity
of the body and is equal to the weight of the fluid that is displaced by the body.

 The upward pressure acting on the area of the body creates a force and is
called BUOYANCY.

 When the weight of an object is heavier than an equal volume of a liquid into
which it is submerged, full immersion results and the body never floats.

 A displacer is heavier than the liquid and does not float whereas the displacer
is lighter than liquid it floats.

 The relative position of the displacer in the water is raised due to the buoyancy
force exerted by the water.

 Thus the rise in level and the reduction in weight of the displacer are directly
proportional.
FOR EXAMPLE:
LEVEL CALIBRATION METHODS FOR DISPLACER TYPE OF LEVEL
MEASUREMENTS:
(a)DISPLACER DETAILS:
Length of the displacer (L) = 35.6cms
Diameter of the displacer (D) = 4.24cms
Л𝑫𝟐 𝐋 22∗4.24∗4.24∗35.6
Volume of the displacer (V) = =
𝟒 7∗4

=502 Cubic cms.

Displacer Hanger Extension length = 319.8 cms.
(b)SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Specific gravity of oil (ρ1) = 0.911
(c)CALCULATION
Weight of the displacer + Hanger in air (W) = 1600 gms
Loss of weight in 100% oil (W1) = (V*ρ1) = 457.322 gms
Weight of the displacer in 100% oil = W-W1 = 1142.678 gms
𝑾𝟏
Weight of the displacer in 50% oil = W- = 1371.339 gms
𝟐

ADVANTAGES:
 High pressure/temperature capabilities and can be used for interfaces, limited
range.
 Most displacer transmitters use this and has more accuracy.
 It is used for absolute level of measurement.
DISADVANTAGES:
 It is more expensive.
 It can measure only up to limited range of measurement.
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE LEVEL MEASUREMENT:
 A differential pressure measuring device (a D/P CELL) used to measure the
pressure. The differential pressure method can be successfully used to
compensate the error that is created by the pressure above the liquid.
The pressures involved are
HP=P1+P2
LP=P2
D/P Cell output = HP – LP
= (P1+P2)-P2 = P1
 A DP is used to transmit the head pressure that the diaphragm senses due to
the height of the material in the vessel multiplied by a density variable.
  The differential pressure detector is installed at the bottom of the tank whose
level is to be detected. The liquid in the tank creates a pressure which is higher
than the atmospheric pressure.
 In open tanks, the highest level detected by the differential pressure
transmitter usually depends upon the maximum height of fluid above the
transmitter, whereas the lowest level detected is based on the position where
the transmitter has attached to the tank.
 In pressurized tanks, both the high and low pressure ends of the differential
pressure detector are required to be connected.
IMPULSE PIPING DP LEVEL MEASUREMENT:
 The impulse piping or long length of capillary required to span these large
vessels negatively impact the performance of an instrument.
 The impulse piping of DP level measurements depends on the upstream and
low stream pressure i.e. Level at 0% and level at 100%
 In impulse piping configuration the lower side reference leg is filled with
liquid (wet leg) or with dry leg.
 Wet legs are used when the vapor blanket in the tank will condense into liquid
form.
 Dry legs are used when the vapor will not condense.

FOR EXAMPLE:
When level is 0%
If height = 1m (1000mm), density = 1.2
Then, LP = hρ = 1*1.2 = 1000*1.2 =1200mmwc
Since level is 0% the HP is 0
HP = 0
Then,
DP = HP – LP
DP = 0-1200 = -1200mmwc
When level is 100%
If height = 1m (1000mm), density = 1.2
Then LP = hρ = 1000*1.2 = 1200mmwc
Since level is 100%
HP = 1000*1 =1000mmwc
Then,
DP = HP –LP
DP = 1000 -1200 = -200mmwc
Therefore,
LRV = -1200mmwc
URV= -200mmwc
REMOTE SEAL DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE LEVEL MEASUREMENT:
 The DP level measurement of remote seal mount connections consist of a seal
attached to a transmitter through capillary tube and are used in tuned or
balanced systems, high temperature installations and remote transmitter
mounting applications.
 Remote seals increases the number of applications where the pressure
transmitters can be used. However the seals, capillaries and fill fluids must be
chosen and mounted correctly.
 Remote seals make it easier to maintain the fluid between the tap and the
transmitter especially for low pressure side.
 In vacuum systems or closed seal system, rather than an open wet leg, will
maintain a constant height for the low side reference.
 The main applications of remote seal on transmitter are
 It is used for corrosive process fluid.
 Used for viscous process fluid or with solids in suspension.
 The process fluid may freeze, crystallize or solidify.
FOR EXAMPLE:
OPEN TANK-SINGLE SEAL SYSTEM
TRANSMITTER BELOW TAP

Given:
SP = 0.9
Sf = 0.934
d = 1m = 1000mm
Lmax = 5m = 5000mm
Lmin = 0m
The calibrated span set points are:
4mA = LminS+dSf
= (0*0.9) + (1000*0.934)
= 934 mmH2O
20mA = LmaxS+dSf
= (5000*0.9) + (1000*0.934)
= 4500+934
=5434mmH2O
(OR)
20Ma = 4mA + span, Where span = (Lmax – Lmin) SP
= 934 + (5000 – 0)0.9
= 934 +4500
= 5434mmH2O
Calibrate Transmitter: 934mmH2O to 5434mmH2O
OPEN TANK- SINGLE SEAL SYSTEM
TRANSMITTER ABOVE TAP

Given:
SP = 0.9
Sf = 0.934
d = 8m = 8000mm
Lmax = 5m = 5000mm
Lmin = 0m
The calibrated span set points are:
4mA = LminS - dSf
= (0*0.9) – (8000*0.934)
= -7472mmH2O
20mA = LmaxS - dSf
= (5000*0.9) – (8000*0.934)
= 4500 – 7472
= - 2972mmH2O
20mA = 4mA + span, Where span = (Lmax – Lmin) SP
= (-7472) + (5000 – 0)0.9
= -7472 + 4500
= -2972mmH2O
Calibrate Transmitter: -7472mmH2O to -2972mmH2O
CLOSED TANK - TWO SEAL SYSTEM
Given:
SP = 0.9
Sf = 1.1
h = 6m = 6000mm
Lmax = 5m = 5000mm
Lmin = 0m
The calibrated span set points are:
4mA = LminS - hSf
= (0*0.9) – (6000*1.1)
= -6600mmH2O
20mA = LmaxS - hSf
= (5000*0.9) – (6000*1.1)
= 4500 – 6600
= - 2100mmH2O
20mA = 4mA + span, Where span = (Lmax – Lmin) SP
= (-6600) + (5000 – 0)0.9
= -6600 + 4500
= -2100mmH2O
Calibrate Transmitter: -6600mmH2O to -2100mmH2O
ADVANTAGES:
 Extends the capabilities of the pressure transmitter.
 Offers more mounting flexibility.
 Not susceptible to pluggage or freezing, as when using wet legs or impulse
piping.
 Easier to control then wet legs.
DISADVANTAGES:
 May add temperature induced errors. Careful selection is necessary to
minimize these errors.
 Small spans may be difficult to measure when seals are added to the
transmitter.
 Added response time associated with longer capillaries.
INTERFACE LEVEL MEASUREMENT:
 The Differential pressure (DP) transmitters are used to measure the interface
of two fluids that have different specific gravities(S).
 To make an interface level measurement, the overall level must be at or
above the low pressure tap at all times.
 To determine the calibrated range for the transmitter, four assumptions to be
made.
i. At the lower calibrated value 4 mA point, the tank is filled with
the lighter liquid.
ii. At the upper calibrated value, 20 mA point, the tank with the
heavier liquid.
iii. The taps leading to the transmitter are flooded at all times. The
overall level should be equal to or higher than the upper (low
pressure) tap.
iv. There always a reference level seen by the low pressure side.
This can be accomplished with either remote seal system or wet
leg. The reference level must have the constant height and
density.

The measured level is composed of two fluids.

L = L1S1 + L2S2
When the tank is filled with the lighter fluid, the transmitter will be at 4Ma (or 0%
of span) and L2 = L
FOR EXAMPLE:
GIVEN:
L1 = L2 = L = 9m = 9000mm
h = 9m = 9000mm
d = 2m = 2000mm
S2= 1.0
Sf = 0.934
SOLUTION:
HP = L2S2 + dSf
LP = dSf +hSf
4mA DP = HP – LP
DP = L2S2 + dSf - dSf - hSf
DP = L2S2 - hSf
DP = (9000*1.0)-(9000*0.934)
= 9000 – 8406
4mA DP = 594mmH2O
When the tank is filled with the heavier fluid, the transmitter will be at 20Ma (or
100% of span) and L1 = L
GIVEN:
L1 = L2 = L = 9m = 9000mm
h = 9m = 9000mm
d = 2m = 2000mm
S1=1.08
Sf = 0.934
SOLUTION:
20mA DP = HP – LP
DP = L1S1 – hSf
DP = (9000*1.08)-(9000*0.934)
= 9720 - 8406
20mA DP = 1314mmH2O

1. The calibrated span is 594mmH2O to 1314mmH2O.

2. When the transmitter reads 594mmH2O, the tank is filled with the lighter fluid.
3. When the transmitter reads 1314mmH2O the tank is filled with the heavier fluid.

ADVANTAGES:
 Low cost
 Simple to install
 No additional components required.

DISADVANTAGES:
 Span must be sufficiently large enough to measure either the distance
between taps or the specific gravity difference must be large.
 Upper tap must be covered at all times.
 Small spans are susceptible to temperature induced errors.
 TRANSMITTER

What is transmitter?
 A transmitter is a device that converts the signal produced by a sensor into a
standardized instrumentation signal such as 3-15 Psi air pressure, 4-20 Ma DC
electric current, fieldbus digital signal etc.

ANALOG TO DIGITAL TO
PROCESS DIGITAL MICRO- ANALOG
SENSOR CONVERTER 4 – 20 Ma
VARIABLE PROCESSOR CONVERTER
(ADC) OUTPUT
(DAC)

OUTPUT
DIGITAL HART
MEMORY
COMMUNICATOR

What is SMART transmitter?

 The smart transmitter is called as HART transmitter called as Highway
Addressable Remote Transducer is a hybrid analog + Digital industrial
automation open protocol.
 A HART transmitter contains both a conventional analogue mA signal and a
digital signal superimposed on top of analogue signal.
 HART standard helps the instruments to digitally communicate with one
another over the same, two wires are used to convey a 4 -20 mA analog input
signal
COMPONENTS OF A TRANSMITTER
FRONT VIEW OF TRANSMITTER:
How the Differential Transmitter works?

 The most common and useful industrial pressure measuring instrument is the
DP transmitter.
 This equipment will sense the difference in pressure between two ports and
produce an output signal with reference to the calibrated pressure gauge.
 It is designed to measure the DP produced by primary element as accurately
as possible.
 It is not affected by any changes in fluid pressure, temperature or other
properties such as ambient temperature.
 The output signal from a DP transmitter is likely to be 4-20 Ma but it also
include digital communication such as HART, Profibus, fieldbus, Modbus,
etc.
 The objective being to provide electrical signal for transmission to a remote
process control element.

0 – 24 VOLTS DIGITAL DP HART

POWER MULTIMETER TRANSMITTER COMMUNICATOR
SUPPLY

PRESSURE HP LP VENTED TO
SOURCE ATMOSPHERE

HP 4-20 MA
PRESSURE DP HART
OUTPUT
SOURCE TRANSMITTER COMMUNICATOR
LP

The basic principles to measure the Differential pressure transmitter include

 Capacitive type pressure sensor
 Piezoresistive type pressure sensor
 Inductive type pressure sensor
 CAPACITIVE TYPE PRESSURE SENSOR:
 This type of sensor is typically used in the thin diaphragm as one plate of
capacitor.
 The change in capacitance may be used to control the frequency of an
oscillator or to vary the coupling of an AC signal through the network.
 A linear change in capacitance with changes in the physical position of the
moving element may be used to provide an electrical indication of the
elements position.
In general, the capacitance is given by
𝑲𝑨
C=
𝒅

Where
K = the dielectric constant
A = the total area of the capacitor surfaces
d = distance between two capacitive surfaces
C = the resultant capacitance
C = ∈𝒐 A/d

LEVEL DIELECTRIC FUNCTION

POWER CAPACITANCE
RODS CHANGE CHANGE OF LIQUID
SUPPLY Z

CHARGE OVERLAPPIN
DEVELOPED G AREA
ON RODS CHANGES
C=q/V

CHANGE IN
CAPACITANCE

OUTPUT IN
PF
In parallel plate capacitor,
C = ∈𝒐 A/d
Where ∈𝒐 is the permittivity of free space (8.85pF/m)
Where e is the relative permittivity also called as dielectric constant of the insulating
material between the two plates.
A is the area of each plate (m2)
Here d is the distance between them (m)
WORKING:
 A capacitive transducer has a static plate and a deflected flexible diaphragm
with a dielectric in between.
 When a force is exerted to the outside of the diaphragm the distance between
the diaphragm and the static plate changes.
 This change produces the capacitance which is measured using an alternating
current bridge or a tank circuit.
ADVANTAGES:
 It produces an accurate frequency response to both static and dynamic
measurements.
DISADVANTAGES:
 An increase or decrease in temperature to a high level will change the
accuracy of the device.
 As the lead is lengthy it can cause errors or distortion in signals.
PIEZORESISTIVE PRESSURE SENSOR:
 It operates based on the resistivity dependence of silicon under stress.
 They can detect pressure between 0.1 and 10000 psi (0.7kpa to 70mpa)
 Similar to a strain gauge it consist of a diaphragm onto which our pairs of
silicon resistors bonded.

The Piezoresistive type pressure sensor expressed by gauge factor,

GAUGE FACTOR:
The gauge factor (or) strain factor of a strain gauge is the ratio of relative change in
electrical resistance R, to the mechanical strain ∈.
⧍𝑹/𝑹 ⧍𝑹/𝑹 ⧍𝑹/𝑹
G.F = = = [Where Strain =∈]
∈ 𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑨𝑰𝑵 ⧍𝑳/𝑳

By young’s Modulus
𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑺 𝑭/𝑨
E= = [Where E is the young’s Modulus]
𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑨𝑰𝑵 ∈

Since ∈ = ⧍𝑳/𝑳
Therefore,
𝑭/𝑨 𝑭𝑳
E== =
⧍𝑳/𝑳 𝑨⧍𝑳

WORKING:
 This type of pressure sensor consist of a micro=machined silicon diaphragm
with Piezoresistive strain gauges diffused into it, fused to a silicon or glass
back plate.
 The resistors have a value of approx...3.5kohm.Pressure induced strain
increases the value of radial resistors(r), and decreases the value of the
resistors (t) transverse to the radius.
 The resistors are connected as a Wheatstone bridge, the output of which is
directly proportional to the pressure.
 The Wheatstone bridge a device for detecting small differences in resistance.
 The Wheatstone bridge runs a small amount of current through the sensor.
When the resistance changes, less current passes through the pressure sensor.
Thus detects the change and reports a change in pressure.
ADVANTAGES:
 Low cost sensor fabrication opportunity.
 Mature processing technology.
 Different pressure levels can be achieved according to the application.
INDUCTIVE TYPE PRESSURE SENSOR:
 A simple, arrangement, wherein a change in the inductance of a sensing
element is produced by a pressure change.
 The pressure acting on a movable magnetic core causes an increase in the coil
inductance corresponding to the acting pressure.
 The change in inductance can again be made on the basis of electrical signal,
using an ac bridge.
WORKING:
 The movement of the diaphragm of a pressure sensor can be measured
using a Linear variable Differential Transformer (LVDT).
 The transformer core is connected to the center of the diaphragm. As the
diaphragm moves, the core moves in and out of the transformer thereby
changing the output voltage.
 This can be used to determine the amount of diaphragm displacement and,
hence, the pressure.
ADVANTAGE:
 An advantage of the pressure inductive transducer type over the resistive type
is that no moving contacts are present, thereby providing continuous
resolution of the change, with no extra friction load imposed on the measuring
system.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSMITTER:
ACCURACY:
 Accuracy is defined as degree of closeness with which an instrument reading
approaches the true value.
𝑬𝑹𝑹𝑶𝑹
ACCURACY = ×100
𝑨𝑪𝑻𝑼𝑨𝑳

FOR EXAMPLE:
In a shop, we are measuring the weight in a weighing machine,
If we are measuring the weight of rice is 1 Kg
Actual rice = 1 kg = 1000gm
Measured using the Load cell = 1100gm Therefore,
Error = -Actual + Measured
= -1000 + 1100
= +100 gm

𝑬𝑹𝑹𝑶𝑹
Accuracy = ×100
𝑨𝑪𝑻𝑼𝑨𝑳
+100
= × 100
1000

= + 10%
Consider a D.P Transmitter of range 10000 mmH2O
Actual pressure = 5000mmH2O
Measured pressure by the transmitter = 5100 mmH2O
Error = -Actual + Measured
= -5000 + 5100
= +100mmH2O
𝑬𝑹𝑹𝑶𝑹
Accuracy = ×100
𝑨𝑪𝑻𝑼𝑨𝑳
+100
= × 100
10000

= +1%
RANGEABILITY:
 Range ability is usually defined as the ratio of maximum and minimum flow
the transmitter ca measure.
 There are two definitions of maximum flow, which are commonly used in
specifying the range ability of a flow meter.
For example:
 A temperature measuring instrument the input range may be 100 – 500 degC
and the output range may be 4 – 20 Ma.
LONG TERM STABILITY:
 The ability of an instrument to retain its performance throughout its specified
storage life and operating life is called stability

 The stability testing is a method to check the quality and how the system or
software behaves in different parameters such as temperature, voltage,
pressure, etc.
For example:
 In petrochemical industries, the stability deals with the degree to which the
sensor characteristics remains constant over time. Changes in stability due to
components aging, decrease in sensitivity and change in signal to noise ratio.
AMBIANT TEMPERATURE EFFECT:
 It is defined as the air temperature of an environment (or) object. It is the
temperature refers to the surrounding.
For example:
 If the ambient temperature is typically 70 degF/22 degC but then rises to
90 degF/32 degC when equipment is running, then 90 degF/32 degC is the
maximum ambient temperature.

 Solid state thermoelectric air conditioners are ideal for high ambient
environments. The standard thermoelectric air conditioners are designed to
operate in ambient temperature up to 140F/60C.High ambient models are
available for extreme environments up to 170F/77C.
 TEMPERATURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

THERMOCOUPLE:
 A Thermocouple is an electrical device consisting of two dissimilar electrical
conductors forming electrical junctions at differing temperatures.
 A thermocouple produces a temperature –dependent voltage as a result of the
thermoelectric effect, and this voltage can be interpreted to measure
temperature.
MEASURING TEMPERATURE REFERENCE
THERMOCOUPLE VOLTMETER
END REFERENCE END

HART
COMMUNICATOR

MV SIGNAL 4-20 MA SIGNAL

MEASURING THERMOCOUPLE TEMPERATURE
OUTPUT
END TRANSMITTER

PRINCIPLES:
SEEBECK EFFECT:
The seebeck effect is a phenomenon in which a temperature difference between two
dissimilar electrical conductors or semiconductors produces a voltage difference
between two substances.
𝑉𝑎𝑏
∝=
∆𝑇

Where V = Voltage across the load

I = Electrical current
R = Resistance of generator
∝ = 𝑆𝑒𝑒𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
PELTIER EFFECT:
The peltier effect is the phenomenon that a potential difference applied across a
thermocouple causes a temperature difference between the junctions of the different
materials in the thermocouple. This effect is the opposite of the seebeck effect.
𝒅∈𝑨𝑩 Л𝑨𝑩
= Where,
𝒅𝑻 𝑻

∈ 𝐴𝐵 Is the thermocouple EMF generated at the junctions?

THOMSON EFFECT:
The Thomson effect is the evolution or absorption of heat when electric current
passes through a circuit composed of a single material that has a temperature
difference along its length.
THERMPCOUPLE TYPES BASED ON IEC STANDARD:
The different types of thermocouple are
 J –Type thermocouple
 K-Type thermocouple
 T-Type thermocouple
 N-Type thermocouple
 E-Type thermocouple
 B,R,S-Type thermocouple
Here the most common types of thermocouple are J-Type, K-Type and T-Type
thermocouple. According to the IEC standards the material, color coding and the
temperature ranges are explained in brief.
J-TYPE THERMPCOUPLE: [MOST COMMON]
 This thermocouple consists of a material Iron for positive lead and a
Constantan (copper-nickel) for negative lead and it is most commonly used
thermocouple type.
 Based on the IEC standard the J-type thermocouple color coding is Black for
positive lead and White for negative lead.
 The temperature range for J type thermocouple is -210 to 1200 deg C
 It is used in vacuum, reducing, oxidizing and inert atmospheres.
K-TYPE THERMOCOUPLE: [MOST COMMON REAL HOT]
 This thermocouple consists of a material Chromel (Nickel-chromium) for
positive lead and Alumel (Nickel-aluminum) for negative lead and it is most
commonly used in real hot areas.
 Based on the IEC standard the K type thermocouple color coding is Green for
positive lead and White for negative lead.
 The temperature range for K type thermocouple is -270 to 1372 deg C.
 It is recommended for oxidizing or inert atmospheres. This is fairly accurate
and stable at high temperatures.

T-TYPE THERMOCOUPLE: [MOST COMMON REAL COLD]

 This thermocouple consists of a material Copper for positive lead and
Constantan (Copper- Nickel) for negative lead and it is most commonly
used in real hot areas.
 Based on the IEC standard the K type thermocouple color coding is Brown
for positive lead and White for negative lead.
 The temperature range for K type thermocouple is -270 to 400 deg C.
 It is recommended for oxidizing or inert atmospheres. It maintains good
resistance to corrosion in most atmospheres and high stability at sub-zero
temperatures.
MEASUREMENT OF VOLTAGE USING MULTIMETER:
The measurement of voltage using multimeter are measured simply by placing the
digital multimeter across the two points where the voltage is to be measured.
1. If there are different sockets on the DMM for different ranges, eg: current,
resistance, etc., insert the probes into the correct sockets on the meter. Usually
a meter will be provided with two leads, one black, and the other red.the black
one is taken as negative one and connected to the “common” socket. The red
one is taken as positive one.
2. Turn the meter on.
3. Set the meter range to accommodate the larger expected value.
4. First probe the low voltage point often this may be ground and there may be
a clip on the black or ground probe that can be connected o ground point.
5. Probe the higher voltage point with the probe on the red lead. Note the reading.
 6. Either make the next reading or if finished remove the probes and turn the
meter off.
HOW TO FIND THE ROOM TEMPERATURE USING A
THERMOCOUPLE:
 First we initially note the normal temperature of the room.
 Then find the MV reading by using a multimeter initially.
 Now using the measured voltage to temperature conversion table we will note
the temperature value of the measured voltage using thermocouple which is
called the cold junction temperature.
 Now the found cold junction temperature is added with the initial room
temperature to find the final room temperature using the thermocouple.
WHAT IS COLD JUNCTION COMPENSATION?
 The simplest case occurs when the cold junction is at 0 deg C, also known
as an ice-bath reference.
 The output voltage of the thermocouple must also be compensated to
account for the voltage created by the nonzero cold-junction temperature.
This process is known as cold-junction compensation.
CONVERTING MEASURED VOLTAGE TO TEMPERATURE USING
THERMOCOUPLE CHART:
 The voltage generated by thermocouples is very small. They are in the order
of millivolts. In the application of thermocouples to measure temperature, it
is often required to convert the millivolt signals of thermocouple to
temperature values.
 To aid this conversion, several millivolt voltages for the different types of
thermocouples are tabulated against standard temperatures.
 Thermocouple reference table are based on the reference junction of 0 deg C.
If the reference junction is not at 0 deg C, correction factor must be applied
The steps involved are:
 Select the correct reference table for the thermocouple type in use.eg. J, S, T
etc.
 Locate the millivolt reading in the body of the table, and read from the margins
the temperature value.
CONVERTION TABLE FOR MEASURED VOLTAGE TO
TEMPERATURE
HEALTHINESS OF THERMOCOUPLE:
 To check the healthiness of the thermocouple select the ohms or resistance
option on your multimeter.
 Place one test lead on the side of the thermocouple and the other to the end
that screws into the gas valve.
 If the thermocouple has proper continuity a small resistance reading should
be visible on the multimeter.

WHAT ARE THE CHECKS TO PERFORM THE HEALTHINESS OF

THERMOCOUPLE
There are two steps to check the healthiness of thermocouple.
 The first is to check for a short on the terminals and the second, to make sure
that voltages tracks with the temperature.

 The first test can be performed with any quality multimeter, put the meter in
ohms or continuity mode, on a good thermocouple, you should see a low
resistance reading.

 If you see more than a few ohms, you probably have a faulty thermocouple.
If the reading at room temperature is close to 110Ὠ.

 The second test requires a meter that can measure down to tenths of millivolts
(0.0001V).

 A meter that can measure hundredths of millivolts (0.0001V) makes it even

easier to do this check, because the added resolution shows very small
temperature changes.
RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR [RTD]
 A Resistance temperature detector (RTD) is a device with a significant
temperature coefficient (that is, its resistance varies with temperature).
 It is used as a temperature measurement device, usually by passing a low-level
current through it and measuring the voltage drop.
TEMPERATURE VOLTAGE
WHEATSTONE DIFFERENCE
RTD
CHANGE BRIDGE AMPLIFIER RESISTANCE

HART
COMMUNICATOR

TEMPERATURE OHMS TEMPERATURE 4-20 MA SIGNAL

RTD
CHANGE TRANSMITTER OUTPUT

WHAT IS Pt100 MEANS?

Pt100 is a resistance temperature detector, made of material Platinum (=Pt_) and its
resistance value at 0 deg C temperature is 100 ohm (=_100).Hence the name is
Pt100.
MEASUREMENT OF RTD RESISTANCE:
2 WIRE RTD MEASUREMENT:
 The 2 wire RTDs are the least accurate of the three circuit types as there is no
way of calculating or eliminating the lead wire resistance between the detector
and the reading.
 This creates uncertainty in the reading, so these sensors are often only used
with short lead wires where accuracy is not of great importance.
 2 wire Pt1000s can be used to reduce sensitivity and uncertainty but still don’t
provide a true accurate reading.
FOR BALANCED BRIDGE:
R1+R3 = R2+A+B+RTD
R3 = A+B+RTD
FOR UNBALANCED BRIDGE:

𝑅3(𝑉𝑠−2𝑉𝑜)
A+B+RTD =
𝑉𝑠+2𝑉𝑜

𝑹𝟑 𝑽𝒔
Vo = Vs ( )-
𝑹𝟑+𝑨+𝑩+𝑹𝑻𝑫 𝟐

3-WIRE RTD MEASUREMENT:

 The 3-wire RTD’s are the most commonly used RTD sensors. In order to
minimize the effects of the lead resistances, a three wire configuration can be
used.
 In three wire circuit two constant current sources are used, in order to
compensate for the disadvantages described above for the two wire circuit.
 Similar to the two wire circuit the current source is used to measure the
temperature dependent resistance including the lead and terminal contact
resistances.
 Assuming all three lead wires are the same the third lead wire calculates the
average lead wire resistance throughout the circuit and removes it from the
sensor measurement.
 However in circuits with long lead wires where there are long distances
between the detector and the reading, significant savings can be made by using
a 3 wire construction.

3-WIRERTD
Expressed as
R1+R3+A+C = R2+B+RTD+C
R3 = RTD + (B-A)

4-WIRE RTD MEASUREMENT:

 The 4 wire RTDs are used in applications where close accuracy is paramount.
 In a 4-wire RTD the actual resistance in each of the lead wires can be
measured and eliminated leaving the exact resistance of the detector.
 The 4 wire circuit works by using the two lead wires to power the circuit while
the 3rd and 4th wires read the resistance in each lead wire compensating for
any differences in lead wire resistance.
SWITCH IN POSITION “A”
R1+R3a+A+C = R2+B+RTD+C
R3a +A= B+RTD
R3a = RTD + (B-A)
SWITCH IN POSITION “B”
R1+R3b+B+D = R2+A+RTD+D
R3b = RTD + (A-B)
FROM 1&2
𝑹𝟑𝒂+𝑹𝟑𝒃
RTD =
𝟐

WHY WE ARE USING 3-WIRE RTD MORE WHEN COMPARED TO

2-WIRE AND 4-WIRE RTD?
 The 3-wire RTDs is more accurate than a basic, 2-wire RTDs and it is good
fit for most industrial applications.so we are using 3-wire RTDs than 2 wire
RTD.
 The 4-wire RTDs are slightly more expensive than 3-wire RTDs, but they are
extremely accurate and repeatable.
WHAT IS THERMOWELL?
 The thermo wells are the tubular fittings used to protect temperature sensors
installed in industrial processes.
 A thermo well consists of a tube closed at one and mounted in the process
stream.
CONVERTING MEASURED RESISTANCE TO TEMPERATURE USING
RTD CHART:
An RTD resistance can be converted into temperature using standard tables that
gives the values of temperatures for any given resistance value of the RTD.
CONVERTION TABLE FOR RESISTANCE TO TEMPERATURE USING
RTD:
HOW TO MEASURE THE ROOM TEMPERATURE USING THE RTD
MEASUREMENT:
 First we initially measure the room temperature.
 Then find the resistance using the multimeter initially
 Now by using the RTD measurement find the resistance value in ohms and
then by using the measured resistance to temperature conversion table we will
find the room temperature using RTD.
 The temperature range of RTD is -240 deg C to 649 deg C.
HEALTHINESS OF RTD:
 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTDs) work by measuring the resistivity
of the metal the detector is constructed from at various temperatures.
 Metals have different resistivities, and the metal with higher resistivities work
best in RTDs.
 Set your multimeter in resistance mode. Check the readings across the
terminals of the RTD. At room temperature the reading should be around 110
ohms. The reading may vary depending on the metal in the RTD.
WHAT ARE THE CHECKS TO PERFORM THE HEALTHINESS OF
RTD?
 Isolate the sensor from the process. Fully immerse the sensor into a precision
temperature source such as dry-well or bath capable of covering the required
temperature range.
 For best accuracy, also fully immerse a temperature standard into a drywell or
bath for comparison.
 To check the calibration of the RTD separately from the control system
temperature indicator, disconnect the RTD from the electronics.
 Connect the RTD to a precision instrument capable of measuring resistance.
Adjust the temperature of the bath or dry-well to each of the test points.
 At each test point record the readings of the temperature standard and RTD.
 If measuring the RTD separate from its measurement electronics, compare the
measured resistances to the expected resistance from the applicable
temperature table.
 CONTROL VALVES
 A control valve is a valve used to control fluid flow by varying the size of the
flow passage as directed by a signal from a controller.

 Control valve regulates the flow of liquid (or) gas by opening (or) closing the
internal passages. This enables direct control of flow rate and consequential
control of process quantities such as pressure, temperature and liquid level.
AIR TO OPEN VALVE: (FAIL CLOSE)
These are normally held closed by the spring and require air pressure (a control
signal) to open them. They open progressively as the air pressure increases.
AIR TO CLOSE VALVE: (FAIL OPEN)
These are normally held open by the spring and require air pressure to move them
towards the closed position.
1. What is control valve? Why it is called variable orifice? Classify various types
of control valve?
CONTROL VALVE:
A Control valve is a valve used to control fluid flow by varying the size of the flow
passage as directed by a signal from the controller.
CONTROL VALVE CALLED AS VARIABLE ORIFICE:
The variable orifice valve is similar to the control valve as VOV creates discharge
air by automatically reducing the orifice area and low compressor speed(less air less
area) (Cold) for hot climate. The VOV opens for larger orifice area and high pressure
(more air, more area)(hot).Thus in control valve as we give air the valve will open
and valve will be close as AIR TO OPEN & AIR TO CLOSE valve.so it is called
VARIABLE ORIFICE.
Assume at extreme cases like,
 Full open – low – velocity high
 Full close – high – velocity zero.
VARIOUS TYPES OF CONTROL VALVE:
There are two basic types of control valve. They are
 Rotatory motion valve like ball, butterfly or eccentric valves.
 Linear motion valves having globe, gate, diaphragm or pinch type valves.
2. What are the various characteristics of a control valve? Draw the graphs?
Explain the characteristics using % opening (Vs) % flow rate table?
FLOW CHARACTERISTICS;
The relationship between the control valve capacity and valve stem travel.
VARIOUS CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTROL VALVE:
The various characteristics of the control valve are
 Linear
 Equal percentage
 Quick opening
 Square root
 Modified parabolic
 Hyperbolic
GRAPH:

These curves are based on constant pressure drop across the valve and are called
inherent flow characteristics.
CHARACTERISTICS IN DETAIL:
LINEAR CHARACTERISTICS:
 The flow capacity increases linearly with the valve travel.
For example: 50% flow = 50% valve lift or travel.
 It is directly proportional.
F (l) =l
dy/dx = m (1)
EQUAL PERCENTAGE:
The flow capacity increases exponentially with valve travel. Equal
increment of valve travel produce equal percentage changes in the existing CV.
F (l) = Rl-1
dy/dx = y dy/y =dx
Y=ex+c
QUICK OPENING:
 The larger changes in flow for very small changes in lift.
 It is used for larger flow needs.
For example: 40% valve lift = 90% flow rate

F (l) = √𝒍
 It is similar to the square root and hyperbolic characteristics.

MODIFIED PARABOLIC:
 The midway between linear and equal percentage.
 It provides fine throttling and low flow capacity (equal %) and linear at high
flow capacity.
2. What is overall CV of control valve when connected in series?

In general, when connected in series

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
(𝑪𝑽𝒕) √(𝑪𝑽𝟏) √(𝑪𝑽𝟐)
Here,
CVt = Total flow coefficient
CV1 = flow coefficient 1
CV2 =flow coefficient 2
Then,
CVt = 10+20 = 30
CV1= 10
CV2 =2
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
√𝟑𝟎 √𝟏𝟎 √𝟐𝟎
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝟏 𝟓
=
𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝟒𝟎𝟎

Overall CV = 7.5
4. What is overall CV when connected in parallel?

In general, when connected in parallel

CVt =CV1 + CV2
CVt = 10+20
CVt = 30
5. What is the definition of CV? Why it is so important?
DEFINITION:
 CV is the capacity of the valve to deliver flow with and available differential
pressure across the valve.
 CV by definition is the number of gallons per minute (GPM) a valve will flow
with a 1 psi pressure drop across the valve.
𝑮𝑷𝑴
CV =
√∆𝑷

WHY IT IS SO IMPORTANT:
The CV (flow coefficient) of a valve is much more important because, each valve
specification of a CV value, the flow with differential pressure that is less than
specified considered as oversized and if flow with differential pressure that is greater
than specified considered as undersized.so for, each valve the range of flow to be
sent depends only on CV of the valve.so it is more important.
 OVERSIZED: Cause hunting, poor control &premature actuator wear due to
excessive cycling.
 UNDERSIZED: May not be able to provide enough flow to meet the
specification.
6. What is an Actuator? What are the various types of actuator? What are the
various parts in actuator?
DEFINITION:
The actuator is the mechanism for opening and closing a valve. The actuator accepts
the signal from the control system and in response, moves the valve fully open (or)
fully close (depending on whether ON/OFF (or) continuous control action is used).
TYPES OF ACTUATOR:
The various types of the actuator are,
 Manual
 Pneumatic
 Hydraulic
 Electric
VARIOUS PARTS OF ACTUATOR:
The various parts of the actuator are,
 Rain cap
 Eye bolt
 Diaphragm
 Spring
 Actuator stem
 Diaphragm case
 Scale plate
 Stem connector
 Yoke
7. What is valve body? What are various parts of valve body? Which part do
you feel is very important?
DEFINITION:
A valve body is a device that regulates directs (or) controls the flow of fluid
(gases, solid, liquid) by opening &closing or partially obstructing various
passageways.
VARIOUS PARTS IN VALVE BODY:
 Bonnet
 Stud bolt &nut
 Packing flange
 Packing follower
 Gland packing
 Valve plug
 Gasket
 Guide ring
 Guide bushing
 seat ring
 Seal ring
IMPORTANT PART IN VALVE BODY:
 Valve bonnet
 Valve trim (disk .seat, stem, plug)
 Cage, seat ring, seal ring
 Body gasket (or) bonnet gasket
 Seat gasket
8. What is Lapping? Why do you do machining of seat and plug?
DEFINITION:
Lapping is a machining process in which two surfaces are rubbed together with an
abrasive between them, by hand movement or using a machine.
MACHINING OF SEAT AND PLUG:
We are doing the machining of seat and plug to arrest the leakage. If it is not possible
with lapping we will go for machining.
9. What is leakage in a valve? Which class has more leakage? How do we check
whether the valve is leaking (or) not?
LEAKAGE IN A VALVE:
 The valve leakage refers to f through a valve which is set in OFF state.
 The valve leakage depends on what valve is controlling.
MORE LEAKAGE CLASS:
Among the certain classes of leakage the CLASS 2 has more leakage when tested
(0.5% with 50 Psi)
HOW TO CHECK VALVE IS LEAKING OR NOT:
 The valve leakage is tested, using either a hydrostatic test (i.e.) liquid or
pneumatic test (i.e.) gas.
 Zero leakage is rare if ever possible, so the standards define the maximum
allowable leakage under specified testing conditions.
𝑲𝑮
ANSI B 16 104 (AIR) → ∆𝑷 → 𝟑𝟓 𝑰𝑵𝑳𝑬𝑻 → 𝑹𝑶𝑻𝑨𝑴𝑬𝑻𝑬𝑹
𝑪𝑴𝟐
10. What is shell test? At what pressure rating you do shell test?
DEFINITION:
 The shell test (body test) is used to check whether there is leakage in valve is
there or not.
 The valve is mounted on the test bench and shall be partially open .the valve
body is subjected to hydrostatic test.
 The result is satisfactory when there is no leak observed from valve body,
packing gland etc. no leakage is acceptable. The pressure shall not be dropped
during the test.
PRESSURE RATING DURING SHELL TEST:
Based on the certain standards API standard generally, shell test not less than 1.5
times the 38 deg C (100 deg F) pressure rating, rounded off to the next higher 1 bar
(25 psi) increment.
At 300#
Room temperature = pressure 1
100-200 = pressure 2
200-300 = pressure 3
11. What is gland test?
 In the hydrostatic test comprises of shell test and gland test.
 The gland test is nothing but leakage in the actuator parts except the valve
body.
 In the AIR TO CLOSE control valve for checking the gland leak, the flange
is fitted on both side of the body and remove the air supply. By supplying the
water at the pressure of 20kg to 30 kg when it is 150 rating and 52kg for
300rating.
 In the AIR TO OPEN control valve the flange is fitted on both side of the
body with air supply and certain kg of pressure of water supply depends on
the control valve. By supplying air and 52 kg of pressure of water the leakage
will be checked by the process.
12. What is seal ring, seat ring, and cage in valve body?
SEAL RING: (IN PLUG)
 Valve seals have an impact and main functions of valves, which are to control
flow and prevent leakage. Valve seal prevent to escape liquid (or) gaseous
media.
 Seals, sealing rings, O-rings (or) gaskets are required between the bonnet and
valve body.
 Certain valves have a seal material between the plug and seat (or) seat and
body.
SEAT RING: (IN CAGE VALVES)
 The valve seat is a surface inside the body of a valve that comes in contact
with disk, which is a movable component that restricts and allows flow
through the valve.
 The valve seat ring creates a shutoff surface held in place by pressure, a seat
ring may also be threaded and screwed into valve body.
 The seat ring is a crucial part for maintaining the strength of the seal within
the valve.
CAGE:
 The cage in control valve provides exceptional stability to the plug even at
very high differential pressure which eliminated vibration that could
otherwise damage the valve.
 The cage is used because to eliminate the cavitation and flashing.
 This cage will change the control valve characteristics.
13. What is vapour pressure? What is cavitation and flashing? Which is more
harmful phenomenon? How to eliminate cavitation and flashing?
VAPOUR PRESSURE:
The vapour pressure is defined as pressure exerted by a vapour in thermodynamic
equilibrium with its (solid (or) liquid) phases at a given temperature in closed
system.
CAVITATION:
 If the fluid (or) liquid pressure falls below the liquid vapour pressure, the
bubbles will form and start to explode (broken).
 These leads to cavitation which causes more sound and damages to the control
valve.
FLASHING:
This is same as cavitation as the liquid pressure is lower than the liquid vapour
pressure the bubbles will form but it will not explode.

WHICH IS MORE HARMFUL PHENOMENON:

The CAVITATION is more harmful phenomenon when compared to flashing as
the bubbles will start to explode and more noise and more damage to control valve.
ELIMINATE CAVITATION AND FLASHING:
 Put the valve in high pressure area. This will increase the differential pressure
between the fluid pressure and vapour pressure making it less the fluid
pressure will fall low enough for flashing to occur.
 Introduce a non-condensable gas into the flow stream. For processes than can
tolerate a gas, this can prevent violent collapse of bubbles that causes
corrosion leads to cavitation.
14. What is ON/OFF valve, butterfly valve and eccentric V-plug valve?
ON/OFF VALVE:
 An ON-OFF valve is a fluid equivalent of an electrical switch, a device that
either allows flow (or) prevent flow.
 These valves are often used for routing process fluid to different locations,
starting and stopping batch processes and engaging automated safety
(shutdown) functions.
BUTTERFLY VALVES:
A butterfly valve is a valve that isolates (or) regulates the flow of a fluid. The closing
mechanism is a disk that rotates.
ECCENTRIC V-PLUG VALVE:
 Eccentric V-plug valves can be used for wide range of flow control and
isolation application including clean and dirty water.
 The eccentric V-plug valve can be used to isolate and regulate any of these
services bi-directionally.
POSITIONER:
A valve positioner is a device used to increase or decrease the air load pressure
driving the actuator until the valves stem reaches a POSITION balanced to the output
signal from the process variable instrument controller.
TYPES OF POSITIONER:
 Mechanical positioner
 Digital positioner
 Electromagnetic positioner
PARTS OF POSITIONER:
 Cam
 Cam roller
 Zero adjustment
 Span
 Scale
 Manifold
 Rubber gasket
PRESSURE GAUGE
BOURDON TUBE PRESSURE GAUGE:
 A bourdon tube pressure gauges are used for the measurement of relative
pressures from 0.6 to 7,000 bar. They are classified as mechanical pressure
measuring instruments, and thus operate without any electrical power.
 Bourdon tubes are known for its high range of differential pressure
measurement in the range of almost 100,000 psi (700 Mpa). It is an elastic
type pressure transducer.
CONSTRUCTION:
 The basic idea behind the device is that, cross-sectional tubing when deformed
in any way will tend to regain its circular form under the action of pressure.
 The bourdon pressure gauges used today have a slight elliptical cross-section
and the tube is generally bent into a C-shape or arc length of about 27 degrees.
  As seen in the above figure, the pressure input is given to a socket which is
soldered to the tube at the base. The other end of the device is sealed with a
tip.
 The tip is connected to the segmental lever through an adjustable length link.
The segmental lever is suitably pivoted and the spindle holds the pointer.
 A hair spring is sometimes used to fasten the spindle of the frame of the
instrument to provide necessary tension for proper meshing of gear teeth and
thereby freeing the system.
 The mechanical construction has to be highly accurate in case of bourdon tube
gauge.
 If we consider a cross section of the tube, its outer edge will have the larger
surface than the inner portion. The tube walls will have a thickness between
0.01 and 0.05 inches.
WORKING:
 As the fluid pressure enters the bourdon tube, it tries to reform and because of
a free tip available, this action causes the tip to travel in free space and the
tube unwinds.
 The simultaneous actions of bending and tension due to the internal pressure
make a non-linear movement of the tip. This travel is suitable and amplified
for the measurement of the internal pressure.
 But the main requirement of the device is that whenever the same pressure is
applied, movement of the tip should be same and on withdrawal of the
pressure tip should return to the initial point.
 Other than C-type, bourdon gauges can also be constructed in the form of a
helix or a spiral. This types are varied for specific uses and space
accommodations for better linearity and larger sensitivity.

HART COMMUNICATOR:
How to calibrate a Rosemount transmitter with a HART communicator?
STEPS INVOLVED IN CALIBRATION:
 Connect the transmitter (Rosemount) to a power supply.
 Connect the HART communicator.
 Make sure that transmitter is working by checking the display of the
transmitter.
 Now we can calibrate the transmitter with following procedures.

PID CONTROLLER
 Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Control is the most common control
algorithm used in industry and has been universally accepted in industrial
control.
 As the name suggests, PID algorithm consists of three basic coefficients;
Proportional, Integral and Derivative which are varied to get optimal
response.
PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER:
 A Proportional controller gives an output that is directly proportional to the
error. Error is the difference between set-point and measured variable. Thus,
if error increases, an increase in the controller output is expected.
 The error in PID controller is defined as Set-point – process value. If the
controller output increases when the measurement value rises, it is a direct-
acting controller, and if controller output decreases when the measurement
rises, it is a reverse –acting controller

A (t)= Kp e (t)
DIRECT ACTING CONTROLLER:
 A Large error generates a large control output, and a small error generates a
small control output.
 If a positive error increases the control output, the controller is said to be direct
acting.
FOR EXAMPLE: While controlling the level of a tank with an outflow valve, if
the level increases the valve would need to be opened more, if level decreases the
valve would need to be closed.
REVERSE ACTING CONTROLLER:
  If the positive error decreases control output, the controller is said to be
reverse acting.
FOR EXAMPLE:
Consider again level control of a tank but with an inflow valve, if the level increases
the valve would need to be closed and if level decreases then the valve would be
opened further.
ADVANTAGES:
 Proportional controller helps in reducing the steady state error, thus makes
the system more stable.
 Slow response of the over damped system can be made faster with the help
of these controllers.
DISADVANTAGES:
 Due to presence of these controllers we get some offsets in the system.
 Proportional controllers also increases the maximum overshoot of the system.
PROPORTIONAL BAND:
 In a purely proportional controller (P controller) the manipulating variable
(controller output Y) is proportional to the control deviation within the
proportional band (Xp).
 The gain of the controller can be matched to the process by altering the
proportional band.
 If a narrow proportional band is chosen, a small deviation is sufficient to
achieve a 100% output, i.e. the gain increases as the proportional band (Xp)
is reduced.
 If the proportional band is set to zero, the controller action is ineffective.
INTEGRAL CONTROLLER:
 The integral control in the PID controller is a control loop feedback
mechanism widely used in industrial control systems and a variety of other
applications requiring continuously modulated control.
 Integral measures the area between the error values and the time axis. If the
error doesn’t return to zero, the area of the error gets larger and larger.
 It will maintain the records of each and every settings and also maintain the
steady state response.
𝒕
A (t)= Ki∫𝟎 𝒆(𝒕)𝒅𝒕
Where Ki is integral constant also known as controller Gain.
ADVANTAGES:
 Due to their unique ability they can return the controlled variable back to the
exact set point following a disturbance that’s why these are known as reset
controllers.

DISADVANTAGES:
 It tends to make the system unstable because it responds slowly towards the
produced error.
INTEGRAL GAIN:
  The integral gain controls how much of the control output is generated due
to the accumulated position error or velocity error while in position control
or velocity control.
INTEGRAL WINDUP (or) RESET WINDUP:
 Integral windup also known as integrator windup or reset windup, refers to
the situation in a PID feedback controller where a large change in set-point
occurs(say a positive change) and the integral terms accumulates a significant
error during the rise (windup), thus overshooting and continuing to increase
as this accumulated error is unwound.

DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER:
 The derivative is defined as the Slope of a curve. We never use derivative
controllers alone. It should be used in combinations with other modes of
controllers because of few disadvantages.
 In the derivative controller the output is directly proportional to the derivative
of the error signal
𝒅𝒆(𝒕)
A (t)= Kd
𝒅𝒕

Where Kd is the proportional constant also known as controller gain.

ADVANTAGES:
The major advantage of derivative controller is that it improves the transient
response of the system.
DISADVANTAGES:
 It never improves the steady state response. It can be used only in the slow
process for eg: Temperature process.
 It produces saturation effects and also amplifies the noise signals produced in
the system.

PID GRAPH: