Source: Vector Control. Methods for use by individuals and communities.

WHO

MOSQUITOS

Mosquitos are important vectors of several tropical diseases, including malaria,

filariases, and numerous viral diseases, such as dengue, Japanese encephalitis and
yellow fever. In countries with a temperate climate they are more important as
nuisance pests than as vectors.
There are about 3000 species of mosquito, of which about 100 are vectors of
human diseases. Control measures are generally directed against only one or a few
of the most important species and can be aimed at the adults or the larvae.

Life cycle
Mosquitos have four distinct stages in their life cycle: egg, larva, pupa and adult
(Fig. 1.2). The females usually mate only once but produce eggs at intervals
throughout their life. In order to be able to do so most female mosquitos require a
blood-meal (Fig. 1.3). Males do not suck blood but feed on plant juices. The
digestion of a blood-meal and the simultaneous development of eggs takes 2 - 3
days in the tropics but longer in temperate zones. The gravid females search for
suitable places to deposit their eggs, after which another blood-meal is taken and
another batch of eggs is laid. This process is repeated until the mosquito dies.

Fig. 1.2. The life cycle of the mosquito (© WHO).

Fig. 1.3. Freshly blood-fed mosquitos have a dilated abdomen.

Depending on the species, a female lays between 30 and 300 eggs at a time. Many
species lay their eggs directly on the surface of water, either singly (Anopheles) or
stuck together in floating rafts (e.g. Culex). In the tropics, the eggs usually hatch
within 2 - 3 days. Some species (e.g. Aedes) lay their eggs just above the water
line or on wet mud; these eggs hatch only when flooded with water. If left dry they
can remain viable for many weeks.
Once hatched, the larvae do not grow continuously but in four different stages
(instars). The first instar measures about 1.5 mm in length, the fourth about 8 - 10
mm. Although they have no legs, they have a well developed head and body
covered with hairs, and swim with sweeping movements of the body. They feed on
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yeasts, bacteria and small aquatic organisms. Most mosquito larvae have a siphon
located at the tip of the abdomen through which air is taken in and come to the
water surface to breathe; they dive to the bottom for short periods in order to feed
or escape danger. Anopheles larvae, which feed and breathe horizontally at the
surface, have a rudimentary siphon. Larvae of Mansonia do not need to come to
the surface to breathe, since they can obtain air by inserting the siphon into a
water plant, to which they remain attached for most of the time.
In warm climates, the larval period lasts about 4 - 7 days, or longer if there is a
shortage of food. The fully grown larva then changes into a comma-shaped pupa,
which does not feed and spends most of its time at the water surface. If disturbed
it dives swiftly to the bottom. When mature, the pupal skin splits at one end and a
fully developed adult mosquito emerges. In the tropics the pupal period lasts 1 - 3
days. The entire period from egg to adult takes about 7 - 13 days under good
conditions.

Biting behaviour
Female mosquitos feed on animals and humans. Most species show a preference for
certain animals or for humans. They are attracted by the body odours, carbon
dioxide and heat emitted from the animal or person. Some species prefer biting at
certain hours, for example at dusk and dawn or in the middle of the night. Feeding
usually takes place during the night but daytime biting also occurs. Some species
prefer to feed in forests, some outside of houses, others indoors.
Because digestion of the blood-meal and development of the eggs takes several
days, a blood-fed mosquito looks for a safe resting place that is shaded and offers
protection from desiccation. Some species prefer to rest in houses or cattle sheds,
while others prefer to rest outdoors, on vegetation or at other natural sites.
Mosquitos do not usually bite while eggs are developing.
The behaviour of mosquitos determines whether they are important as nuisance
insects or vectors of disease, and governs the selection of control methods. Species
that prefer to feed on animals are usually not very effective in transmitting diseases
from person to person. Those that bite in the early evening may be more difficult to
avoid than species that feed at night. Mosquitos that rest indoors are the easiest to
control.

Distinguishing features of vector mosquitos

Among the mosquitos there are two groups that suck human blood and may
transmit disease.
• The anophelines; the genus Anopheles is best known for its role in
transmitting malaria, but in some areas it can also transmit filariasis.

• The culicines, which include the following genera:

• Culex: vectors of filariasis and some viral diseases;

• Aedes: vectors of dengue, yellow fever and other viral diseases,

and sometimes of filariasis;

• Mansonia: vectors of brugian filariasis;

• Haemagogus and Sabethes: vectors of yellow fever in the forests of

South and Central America.
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Fig. 1.4. Some of the main characteristics for differentiating Anopheles, Aedes and
Culex mosquitos (© WHO).

Anopheles, Culex and Aedes mosquitos can be distinguished from each other as
shown in Fig. 1.4. The most useful characteristics for distinguishing anophelines
from other mosquitos are:
- the length of the palps is equal to that of the proboscis;

- while at rest they usually keep their mouthparts and abdomen in a

straight line at an angle to the resting surface; the angle varies with
the species and in some cases is almost perpendicular to the surface.
Anopheles culicifacies, a malaria vector in south Asia, is an exception,
keeping its body almost parallel to the surface. As its name suggests,
it looks superficially like a Culex mosquito.
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Anopheles mosquitos
About 380 species of Anopheles (Fig. 1.5) occur around the world. Some 60 species
are sufficiently attracted to humans to act as vectors of malaria. A number of
Anopheles species are also vectors of filariasis and viral diseases.

Life cycle
Larval habitats vary from species to species, but are frequently exposed to sunlight
and commonly found in association with emergent vegetation, such as grass or
mats of floating vegetation or algae. The most preferred breeding sites are pools,
seepages, quiet places in slow-running streams, rice fields, leaf axils of certain
epiphytic plants and puddles of rainwater. Artificial containers, such as pots, tubs,
cisterns and overhead tanks are not usually suitable, except in the case of
Anopheles stephensi in south-west Asia.
The eggs, laid singly on the water surface where they float until hatching, are
elongated, have a pair of lateral floats, and are about 1 mm in length. Hatching
occurs in 2 - 3 days. The larvae float in a horizontal position at the surface, where
they feed on small organic particles. In the tropics the duration of development
from egg to adult is 11 - 13 days.

Behaviour
Anopheles mosquitos are active between sunset and sunrise. Each species has
specific peak biting hours, and there are also variations in their preference for
biting indoors or outdoors.
The anophelines that enter houses to feed often rest indoors for a few hours after
feeding. They may then leave for outdoor sheltered resting sites, among them
vegetation, rodent burrows, cracks and crevices in trees or in the ground, caves
and the undersides of bridges. Alternatively, they may stay indoors for the whole
period needed to digest the blood-meal and produce eggs. Indoor resting is most
common in dry or windy areas where safe outdoor resting sites are scarce. Once
the eggs are fully developed the gravid mosquitos leave their resting sites and try
to find a suitable breeding habitat.
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Fig. 1.5.(a) An Anopheles mosquito in flight (by courtesy of Professor M. Wéry,

Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium);

Fig. 1.5.(b) An Anopheles mosquito at rest (© L. Robertson).

Many Anopheles species feed on both humans and animals. They differ, however, in
the degree to which they prefer one over the other. Some species feed mostly on
animals while others feed almost entirely on humans. The latter species are the
more dangerous as vectors of malaria.

Culex mosquitos
About 550 species of Culex (Fig. 1.6) have been described, most of them from
tropical and subtropical regions. Some species are important as vectors of
 Source: Vector Control. Methods for use by individuals and communities. WHO

bancroftian filariasis and arboviral diseases, such as Japanese encephalitis. In some

areas they are a considerable nuisance

Fig. 1.6. A Culex mosquito..

Life cycle
Rafts of 100 or more eggs are laid on the water surface. The rafts remain afloat
until hatching occurs 2 - 3 days later. Culex species breed in a large variety of still
waters, ranging from artificial containers and catchment basins of drainage systems
to large bodies of permanent water. The most common species, Culex
quinquefasciatus, a major nuisance and vector of bancroftian filariasis, breeds
especially in water polluted with organic material, such as refuse and excreta or
rotting plants. Examples of such breeding sites are soakaway pits, septic tanks, pit
latrines, blocked drains, canals and abandoned wells. In many developing countries
Culex quinquefasciatus is common in rapidly expanding urban areas where
drainage and sanitation are inadequate.
Culex tritaeniorhynchus, the vector of Japanese encephalitis in Asia, prefers cleaner
water. It is most commonly found in irrigated rice fields and in ditches.

Behaviour
Culex quinquefasciatus is a markedly domestic species. The adult females bite
people and animals throughout the night, indoors and outdoors. During the day
they are inactive and are often found resting in dark corners of rooms, shelters and
culverts. They also rest outdoors on vegetation and in holes in trees in forested
areas.

Aedes mosquitos
Aedes mosquitos occur around the world and there are over 950 species. They can
cause a serious biting nuisance to people and animals, both in the tropics and in
cooler climates. In tropical countries Aedes aegypti (Fig. 1.7) is an important vector
of dengue, dengue haemorrhagic fever, yellow fever and other viral diseases. A
closely related species, Aedes albopictus, can also transmit dengue. In some areas
Aedes species transmit filariasis.
 Source: Vector Control. Methods for use by individuals and communities. WHO

Fig. 1.7.(a) Aedes aegypti in flight (by courtesy of the Natural History Museum,
London) and
 Source: Vector Control. Methods for use by individuals and communities. WHO

Fig. 1.7.(b) Aedes aegypti at rest (© L. Robertson). A. aegypti is easily recognized

by the contrasting black and white rings on its legs and the lyre-shaped pattern of
silver markings on the upper surface of the thorax.

Life cycle
The eggs are laid singly on damp surfaces just above or near the water line in
temporary pools and other habitats where the water level rises and falls. They can
withstand desiccation for many months and hatch only when flooded with water. All
species of Aedes which occur in regions with cold winters survive these periods in
the egg stage. Some species breed in coastal salt marshes and swamps that are
flooded at intervals by unusually high tides or heavy rains, while others have
adapted to agricultural irrigation practices.
Aedes aegypti mainly breeds in the domestic environment: its preferred habitats
are water storage tanks and jars inside and outside houses, and roof gutters, leaf
axils, bamboo stumps and temporary containers such as jars, drums, used car
tyres, tin cans, bottles and plant pots. All these habitats typically contain relatively
clean water.
Aedes albopictus originally occurred only in Asia and Madagascar but recently
invaded North and South America, as well as West Africa, where it may become
important in the transmission of dengue and other viral diseases. Like Aedes
aegypti, it breeds in temporary containers but prefers natural ones in forests, such
as tree holes, leaf axils, ground pools and coconut shells, and breeds more often
outdoors in gardens and less frequently indoors in artificial containers.

Behaviour
Aedes mosquitos bite mainly in the morning or evening. Most species bite and rest
outdoors but in tropical towns Aedes aegypti breeds, feeds and rests in and around
houses.

Mansonia mosquitos
Mansonia mosquitos are mostly found in marshy areas in tropical countries. Some
species are important as vectors of brugian filariasis in south India, Indonesia and
Malaysia.
The body, including the legs and wings, is covered with dark-brown and pale scales,
giving it a rather dusty appearance, as if sprinkled with salt and pepper.
 Source: Vector Control. Methods for use by individuals and communities. WHO

Life cycle
The species that transmit filariasis normally lay their eggs in masses that are glued
to the lower sides of plants hanging or floating near the water surface. Because the
larvae and pupae attach themselves to aquatic plants for the purpose of breathing
they occur only in water bodies containing permanent vegetation, such as swamps,
ponds, grassy ditches and irrigation canals, and may be difficult to find. They can
also occur in deeper water where there is floating vegetation, and are very often
attached to the underwater parts of floating aquatic weeds (Eichhornia, Pistia,
Salvinia) and grasses.

Behaviour
Mansonia species usually bite at night, mostly out of doors, but some species enter
houses. Resting after a blood-meal normally takes place out of doors.